341:, the MFDP’s lawyer, initially refused this deal, he eventually urged the MFDP to accept it. However, the MFDP delegates refused. They believed that the national party, by accepting the official all-white Mississippi delegation, had validated a process in which blacks had been denied their constitutional right for many decades to vote and participate in the political process. They believed that, because the MFDP had conducted their delegate selection process according to the party's own national rules, they should be seated as the official Mississippi delegation, not just a token two as at-large delegates. Many civil rights activists were deeply offended by the convention's outcome. As leader (and later Representative)
304:(MFDP) claimed the seats for delegates for Mississippi, on the grounds that the official Mississippi delegation had been elected in violation of the party's rules, as it excluded blacks from voting. Blacks were still systematically excluded by discriminatory provisions from registering and voting in the primaries, and participating in the precinct and county caucuses and the state convention. Nevertheless, the MFDP delegates had all been elected in strict compliance with party rules.
365:, authorizing the federal government to oversee voter registration and other political practices and enforce rights in states with a history of under-representation of minority voters. Work began to register African Americans across the South, and they began to be elected to office again after decades of exclusion. By this time, nearly 6.5 million African Americans had left the South in the
334:, worked out a compromise: two of the 68 MFDP delegates chosen by Johnson would be made at-large delegates and the remainder would be non-voting guests of the convention. The regular Mississippi delegation was required to pledge to support the national party ticket; and the Democratic Party committed to accepting in the future only those delegations chosen by non-discriminatory methods.
85:(1900). Since winning the Democratic primary in the South at the time almost always meant winning the general election, barring black and other minority voters meant they were in essence disenfranchised. Southern states also passed laws and constitutions with provisions to raise barriers to voter registration, completing disenfranchisement from 1890 to 1908 in all states of the former
131:. These generally survived legal challenges as they applied to all potential voters, but in practice they were administered in a discriminatory manner by white officials. Although the proportion of Southern blacks registered to vote steadily increased from less than 3% in 1940 to 29% in 1960 and over 40% in 1964, gains were minimal in Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana outside
189:
they gave white members of the
Democratic Party control of the decision-making process within the party and the state. Because the Democratic Party dominated the political systems of all the Southern states after Reconstruction, its state and local primary elections usually determined which candidate would ultimately win office in the general election.
185:
controlling all seats allocated to their states, establishing seniority, and gaining critical chairmanships of important committees, which extended their power. Black citizens excluded from voting were also shut out of running for local offices, serving on juries, or in other civil offices, and were forced into second-class status.
263:
applied directly only to the Texas law, following this ruling, most southern states ended their selectively inclusive white primaries. Activists gained the voter registration of tens of thousands of
African Americans after the end of white primaries, but many were still excluded from voting as states
168:
and
Republicans in the 1890s, when Democrats regained control of state legislatures (often on campaigns based on white supremacy), they systematically adopted electoral rules in new constitutions or specific laws to disenfranchise black voters by making voter registration and voting more difficult. A
230:
Following the ruling, Texas amended the statute to allow the
Democratic Party's state executive committee to set voting qualifications for its primaries. The new law provided that every political party would henceforth "in its own way determine who shall be qualified to vote or otherwise participate
188:
To strengthen the exclusion of minorities from the political system, Texas, Georgia and some other states established white primaries, a "selectively inclusive" system that permitted only whites to vote in the primaries. By legally considering the general election as the only state-held election,
184:
The
Democratic Party achieved a dramatic drop in black voting across the South, with related weakening of the Republican Party in the region. White Democrats were successful in establishing and maintaining a one-party system in most southern states. They thus developed great power in Congress,
288:
African
Americans continued to work to have their constitutional rights as citizens enforced. During the civil rights era of the 1960s, voter registration drives were held in southern states in efforts to work within the system. In some cases activists were assaulted or murdered, and African
123:, because it allowed the state Democratic Party to racially discriminate. After the case, most Southern states ended their selectively inclusive white primaries. They retained other techniques of disenfranchisement, particularly in terms of barriers to voter registration, such as
181:, which provided exemptions to men who had ancestors who have voted or resided in certain areas as of a date that excluded blacks. Application of these measures was done in such a discriminatory way that not even educated, middle-class blacks managed to stay on the voter rolls.
208:
In 1923 Texas enacted the
Statute of Texas, which provided that "in no event shall a negro be eligible to participate in a Democratic party primary election held in the State of Texas". The law was challenged by Dr. L. A. Nixon, a black member of the Democratic Party, in
100:, in 1927, 1932, and 1935, heard three Texas cases related to white primaries. In the 1927 and 1932 cases, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the plaintiff, saying that state laws establishing a white primary violated the
279:
predicted that there would be a surge of voting from black people, and vowed to help combat it. His threats of violence discouraged about half of eligible black citizens from voting, allowing him to easily win reelection.
272:(administered subjectively by white registrars) to keep African Americans from voting. The end of the white primary caused alarm in white politicians. In his 1946 senate reelection campaign, Mississippi politician and
246:(1935), where the Supreme Court held that this basis for a white primary was constitutional, on the grounds that the political party was a private entity. Another challenge to the Texas white primaries was
110:(1935), the Supreme Court ruled that this practice was constitutional, as it was administered by the Democratic Party, which legally was a private institution, not a state institution.
349:
We had played by the rules, done everything we were supposed to do, had played the game exactly as required, had arrived at the doorstep and found the door slammed in our face.
157:
started to use white primaries in the late 19th century, as part of efforts to suppress black voting and weaken the
Republican Party in the South. In an effort to maintain
1046:
357:
43 of the 53 members of the
Alabama delegation ... refused to pledge their support for the national ticket of Johnson and Hubert Humphrey and were denied seating.
198:
946:
205:(ACLU) also participated in such cases. The ACLU filed suit based on the state's having passed discriminatory legislation in violation of Constitutional amendments.
393:
297:
1051:
220:
101:
668:
614:
224:
1066:
586:
1056:
148:
240:
The
Democratic Party of Texas state convention then adopted a rule banning black voting in primary elections. This revised scheme was upheld in
369:
to escape its oppression and seek work opportunities in the North, Midwest and West, changing the demographics of numerous cities and regions.
1061:
104:. Later in 1927 Texas changed its law in response, delegating authority to political parties to establish their own rules for primaries. In
892:
201:(NAACP) filed numerous lawsuits in efforts to overturn discriminatory electoral and voter registration practices by Southern states. The
219:
in Texas on the basis of the law and sued for damages under federal civil rights laws. The Court found in his favor on the basis of the
119:, the Supreme Court ruled 8–1 against the Texas white primary system. In that case, the Court ruled that the 1923 Texas state law was
935:
832:
689:
635:
177:, all administered by white officials. The Democrats sometimes protected illiterate or poor white voters by such devices as
301:
120:
293:
366:
97:
877:
Anders, Evan (January 1981). "Boss Rule and Constituent Interests: South Texas Politics During the Progressive Era".
799:
50:
557:
Beyerlein, Kraig and Andrews, Kenneth T.; ‘Black Voting during the Civil Rights Movement: A Micro-Level Analysis’;
154:
46:
96:
passed a law in 1923 that prevented black voters from participating in any Democratic Party primary election. The
17:
731:
513:
492:
472:
439:
353:
Many white delegates from Mississippi and Alabama refused to sign any pledge, and left the convention. In all,
314:
was concerned that, while the regular Democrats of Mississippi would probably vote for conservative Republican
308:
202:
165:
594:
86:
1022:
318:
anyway, rejecting them at that time would cost Johnson the South in the presidential election. Eventually,
256:. In that case the Supreme Court ruled that white primaries as established by Texas were unconstitutional.
307:
The party's liberal leaders supported an even division of the seats between the two delegations. However,
951:
362:
136:
383:
265:
170:
124:
902:
Beth, L. P. (October 1958). "The White Primary and the Judicial Function in the United States".
161:, Democratic activists had often used violence and fraud at elections to suppress black voting.
572:
408:
289:
Americans made little progress against white determination to exclude most blacks from voting.
38:
45:
voters were permitted to participate. Statewide white primaries were established by the state
672:
618:
237:(1932). The Supreme Court again found in his favor on the basis of the Fourteenth Amendment.
82:
763:
746:
8:
338:
178:
1010:
980:
907:
882:
867:
621:
248:
242:
115:
106:
675:
957:
931:
795:
788:
768:
509:
488:
468:
435:
388:
311:
276:
93:
300:
were entitled to be present and to vote. At the national convention, the integrated
999:
991:
969:
859:
758:
529:
398:
216:
211:
34:
697:
647:
941:
858:, Vol. 25, No. 2: Legal Restrictions on the Negro in Politics. pp. 153–160.
854:
Alilunas, Leo (April 1940). "A Review of Negro Suffrage Policies Prior to 1915".
319:
315:
233:
158:
323:
269:
174:
128:
54:
570:
See Subcommittee No. 5; Committee on the Judiciary. House of Representatives;
223:, which guarantees "equal protection under the law", while not discussing his
1040:
772:
331:
994:(Jan. 1945). "The Negro's Struggle for Participation in Primary Elections".
273:
42:
394:
History of the United States Democratic Party § Civil Rights Movement
403:
327:
62:
925:
911:
886:
1014:
984:
342:
960:(Summer 1957). "The Rise and Collapse of the 'White Democratic Primary
837:
74:
1003:
973:
871:
863:
745:
Parker, Christopher Sebastian; Towler, Christopher C. (2019-05-11).
450:
Farris, Charles D.; ‘The Re-Enfranchisement of Negroes in Florida’;
296:
was controversial because of the dispute as to which delegates from
142:
378:
164:
Following the temporary loss of power to the biracial coalition of
132:
78:
430:
Walton, Hanes (Jr); Puckett, Sherman and Deskins Donald R. (Jr);
66:
58:
27:
Discriminatory elections once held in the Southern United States
968:, Vol. 26, No. 3: "The Negro Voter in the South". pp. 249–254.
919:
Black Victory: The Rise and Fall of the White Primary in Texas
465:
Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888-1908
70:
485:
Caste and Class: The Black Experience in Arkansas, 1880-1920
199:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
173:, residency requirements, record-keeping requirements and
848:
192:
508:. Athens: The University of Georgia Press. p. 149.
215:(1927). Nixon was denied a ballot in a Democratic Party
283:
947:
Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986
532:
v. Condon. Disfranchisement of the Negro in Texas’,
897:
Reconstruction to Reform: Texas Politics, 1876–1906
1047:History of racial segregation in the United States
787:
732:"Marshall appointed special counsel to the NAAPC"
633:
143:Establishment and significance of white primaries
1038:
930:. Boca Raton, Fl.: Florida Atlantic University.
747:"Race and Authoritarianism in American Politics"
264:used other discriminatory practices, including
231:in such political party". Nixon sued again, in
149:Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
561:, volume 87, No. 1 (September 2008), pp. 65-93
454:; volume 39, no. 4 (October 1954), pp. 259-283
1052:History of voting rights in the United States
744:
1067:Democratic backsliding in the United States
1029:. Vol. 2, No. 4. pp. 115-118. Via the
820:Flawed Giant: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1960–1973
326:and black civil rights leaders, including
762:
694:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution
644:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution
426:
424:
197:Beginning in the early 20th century, the
899:. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
536:, volume 41, No. 8, (June 1932), p. 1212
503:
169:number of devices were used, including
14:
1057:Primary elections in the United States
1039:
849:General references and further reading
421:
193:Texas cases and Supreme Court decision
785:
764:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519
687:
135:, and southern parts of Georgia. The
1062:White supremacy in the United States
833:"The 'Southern Strategy', fulfilled"
831:Kornacki, Steve (February 3, 2011).
690:"Nixon v. Condon 286 U.S. 73 (1932)"
302:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
1031:Encyclopaedia of Trotskyism On-Line
294:1964 Democratic National Convention
284:1964 Democratic National Convention
24:
751:Annual Review of Political Science
361:The next year Congress passed the
25:
1078:
879:Southwestern Historical Quarterly
906:. Vol. 29, No. 4. pp. 366–377.
825:
808:
779:
738:
724:
712:
681:
662:
627:
608:
579:
432:The African American Electorate
966:The Journal of Negro Education
564:
551:
539:
522:
506:The Creation of Modern Georgia
497:
477:
457:
444:
203:American Civil Liberties Union
139:was intended to address this.
13:
1:
998:. Vol. 30, No. 1. pp. 54–61.
996:The Journal of Negro History
917:Hine, Darlene Clark (1979).
856:The Journal of Negro History
452:The Journal of Negro History
414:
7:
1023:"Dictatorship in the South"
1021:Parker, Albert (May 1941).
818:(1999) pp. 325–26; Dallek,
372:
10:
1083:
688:Karst, Kenneth L. (1986).
634:Karst, Kenneth L. (1986).
504:Bartley, Numan V. (1990).
146:
952:University of Texas Press
924:Kennedy, Stetson (1990).
591:(1944) - White Primaries"
363:Voting Rights Act of 1965
252:(1944), which overturned
155:Democratic party chapters
137:Voting Rights Act of 1965
881:84, No. 3. pp. 269–292.
794:. Simon & Schuster.
384:Civil Rights Act of 1964
227:claim to the franchise.
904:The Political Quarterly
921:. Millwood, N.Y.: KTO.
573:1965 Voting Rights Act
409:Tantamount to election
359:
351:
39:Southern United States
790:Walking With the Wind
355:
347:
113:In 1944, however, in
1027:Fourth International
786:Lewis, John (1998).
721:, 295 U.S. 45 (1935)
640:273 U.S. 536 (1927)"
534:The Yale Law Journal
483:Gordon, Fon Louise;
221:Fourteenth Amendment
102:Fourteenth Amendment
548:321 U.S. 649 (1944)
546:Smith v. Allwright,
225:Fifteenth Amendment
179:grandfather clauses
958:Marshall, Thurgood
719:Grovey v. Townsend
589:Smith v. Allwright
587:"Texas Politics -
261:Smith v. Allwright
254:Grovey v. Townsend
249:Smith v. Allwright
243:Grovey v. Townsend
116:Smith v. Allwright
107:Grovey v. Townsend
51:state legislatures
992:Overacker, Louise
936:978-0-8130-0987-2
814:Unger and Unger,
463:Perman, Michael;
389:Voting Rights Act
312:Lyndon B. Johnson
94:Texas Legislature
35:primary elections
16:(Redirected from
1074:
963:
842:
829:
823:
812:
806:
805:
793:
783:
777:
776:
766:
742:
736:
735:
728:
722:
716:
710:
709:
707:
705:
700:on June 10, 2014
696:. Archived from
685:
679:
666:
660:
659:
657:
655:
650:on June 10, 2014
646:. Archived from
638:Nixon v. Herndon
631:
625:
612:
606:
605:
603:
602:
593:. Archived from
583:
577:
576:, pp. 4, 139-201
568:
562:
555:
549:
543:
537:
526:
520:
519:
501:
495:
481:
475:
461:
455:
448:
442:
428:
399:Fannie Lou Hamer
217:primary election
212:Nixon v. Herndon
121:unconstitutional
47:Democratic Party
21:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1037:
1036:
1004:10.2307/2715269
974:10.2307/2293407
961:
942:David Montejano
864:10.2307/2714599
851:
846:
845:
830:
826:
822:(1998), p. 164;
813:
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802:
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780:
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725:
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713:
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609:
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584:
580:
569:
565:
556:
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544:
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523:
516:
502:
498:
482:
478:
462:
458:
449:
445:
429:
422:
417:
375:
367:Great Migration
320:Hubert Humphrey
316:Barry Goldwater
286:
234:Nixon v. Condon
195:
159:white supremacy
151:
145:
31:White primaries
28:
23:
22:
18:White primaries
15:
12:
11:
5:
1080:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1035:
1034:
1008:
1007:
978:
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955:
950:. Austin, TX:
939:
927:Jim Crow Guide
922:
915:
900:
890:
875:
850:
847:
844:
843:
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807:
800:
778:
757:(1): 503–519.
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443:
419:
418:
416:
413:
412:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
374:
371:
324:Walter Reuther
285:
282:
277:Theodore Bilbo
270:literacy tests
194:
191:
175:literacy tests
147:Main article:
144:
141:
129:literacy tests
55:South Carolina
41:in which only
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1079:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
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801:9780684810652
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760:
756:
752:
748:
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733:
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699:
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691:
684:
677:
674:
670:
665:
649:
645:
641:
639:
630:
623:
620:
616:
611:
597:on 2013-05-14
596:
592:
590:
582:
575:
574:
567:
560:
559:Social Forces
554:
547:
542:
535:
531:
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511:
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346:
344:
340:
335:
333:
332:Bayard Rustin
329:
325:
321:
317:
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150:
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126:
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118:
117:
111:
109:
108:
103:
99:
98:Supreme Court
95:
90:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
69:(also 1902),
68:
64:
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52:
48:
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1009:
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896:
878:
855:
836:
827:
819:
815:
810:
789:
781:
754:
750:
740:
726:
718:
714:
702:. Retrieved
698:the original
693:
683:
664:
652:. Retrieved
648:the original
643:
637:
629:
610:
599:. Retrieved
595:the original
588:
581:
571:
566:
558:
553:
545:
541:
533:
524:
505:
499:
487:, pp. 51-52
484:
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81:(1906), and
49:units or by
37:held in the
30:
29:
893:Barr, Alwyn
816:LBJ; a Life
678: (1932)
624: (1927)
404:Solid South
339:Joseph Rauh
328:Roy Wilkins
298:Mississippi
87:Confederacy
63:Mississippi
1041:Categories
601:2011-07-05
515:0820311839
493:0820331309
473:0807860255
440:0872895084
343:John Lewis
266:poll taxes
171:poll taxes
125:poll taxes
773:1094-2939
467:, p. 297
434:; p. 347
415:Citations
337:Although
309:President
166:Populists
153:Southern
75:Louisiana
944:(1987).
912:30238688
895:(1971).
887:30238688
704:June 25,
654:June 25,
379:Suffrage
373:See also
274:Klansman
133:Acadiana
79:Arkansas
73:(1905),
61:(1902),
57:(1896),
1033:(ETOL).
1015:2715269
985:2293407
259:Though
83:Georgia
67:Alabama
59:Florida
1013:
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934:
910:
885:
870:
798:
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512:
491:
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438:
345:said,
1011:JSTOR
981:JSTOR
908:JSTOR
883:JSTOR
868:JSTOR
838:Salon
671:
617:
530:Nixon
71:Texas
43:white
33:were
932:ISBN
872:2714
796:ISBN
769:ISSN
706:2013
673:U.S.
656:2013
619:U.S.
510:ISBN
489:ISBN
469:ISBN
436:ISBN
330:and
292:The
268:and
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