101:
43:
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body of experts that produced a 41-volume study of immigration. The
Commission recommended a literacy test and the possibility of annual quotas. Presidents Cleveland and Taft vetoed literacy tests in 1897 and 1913. President Wilson did the same in 1915 and 1917, but the test was passed over Wilson's
268:
When introduced in the 1890s, the literacy test was a device to restrict the total number of immigrants while not offending the large element of ethnic voters. The "old" immigration (British, Dutch, Irish, German, Scandinavian) had fallen off and was replaced by a "new" immigration from Italy,
140:
in the
Southern United States. Literacy tests were typically administered by white clerks who could pass or fail a person at their discretion based on race. Illiterate whites were often permitted to vote without taking these literacy tests because of
294:, worked aggressively to defeat a proposed literacy test for immigrants. A product of the western frontier, Cannon felt that moral probity was the only acceptable test for the quality of an immigrant. He worked with Secretary of State
224:. The Act prohibited jurisdictions from administering literacy tests, among other measures, to citizens who attained a sixth-grade education in an American school in which the predominant language was Spanish, such as schools in
1008:
160:
From the 1890s to the 1960s, many state governments administered literacy tests to prospective voters, to test their literacy in order to vote. The first state to establish literacy tests in the United States was
Connecticut.
188:", the latter's testimony of which was often asked only of white people. Some locales administered separate literacy tests, with a more simplified literacy tests being administered to whites who had registered to vote.
249:
As originally enacted, the Voting Rights Act also suspended the use of literacy tests in all jurisdictions in which less than 50% of voting-age residents were registered as of
November 1, 1964, or had voted in the
179:
The first formal voter literacy tests were introduced in 1890. At first, whites were generally exempted from the literacy test if they meet alternate requirements that in practice excluded blacks, such as a
269:
Russia and other points in
Southern and eastern Europe. The "old" immigrants were voters and strongly approved of restricting the "new" immigrants. The 1896 Republican platform called for a literacy test.
246:
could enforce
Fourteenth Amendment rights—such as the right to vote—by prohibiting conduct it deemed to interfere with such rights, even if that conduct may not be independently unconstitutional.
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stated that literacy tests used as a qualification for voting in federal elections be administered wholly in writing and only to persons who had completed at least six years of formal education.
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260:(1970), but just for federal elections. The Court was deeply divided in this case, and a majority of justices did not agree on a rationale for the holding.
254:. Congress amended the Act in 1970 and expanded the ban on literacy tests to the entire country. The Supreme Court then upheld the ban as constitutional in
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took the lead in promoting literacy tests that would exclude illiterate immigrants, primarily
Eastern Europe and countries that had national waters in the
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1020:
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152:, and South Africa adopted literacy tests either to exclude certain racialized groups from voting or to prevent them from immigrating to the country.
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879:
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State legislatures employed literacy tests as part of the voter registration process starting in the late 19th century. Literacy tests, along with
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114:" writing on wall, "Eddikashun qualifukashun. The Blak man orter be eddikated afore he kin vote with us Wites, signed Mr. Solid South."
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Corporate industry however, needed workers for its mines and factories and opposed any restrictions on immigration. In 1906, the
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This article is about citizenship and voting eligibility tests in the United States. For the standardized test in
Ontario, see
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skills: their ability to read and write. Literacy tests have been administered by various governments, particularly to
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769:
715:
87:
168:, residency and property restrictions, and extra-legal activities (violence and intimidation) were all used to deny
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291:
651:
Gratton, Brian (2011). "Demography and
Immigration Restriction in American History". In Goldstone, Jack A. (ed.).
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213:. Southern states abandoned the literacy test only when forced to do so by federal legislation in the 1960s. The
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Zeidel, Robert F. (1995). "Hayseed
Immigration Policy: 'Uncle Joe' Cannon and the Immigration Question".
593:
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1209:
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653:
Political Demography: How Population Changes Are Reshaping International Security and National Politics
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559:"The 1982 Amendments to the Voting Rights Act: A Statutory Analysis of the Revised Bailout Provisions"
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Lane, A. T. (1984). "American Trade Unions, Mass Immigration and the Literacy Test: 1900–1917".
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706:(1994). "The political economy of immigration restriction in the United States, 1890 to 1921".
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The Men and Women We Want: Gender, Race, and the Progressive Era Literacy Test Debate
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Between the 1850s and 1960s, literacy tests were used as an effective tool for
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2002:
1942:
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372:"How Jim Crow-Era Laws Suppressed the African American Vote for Generations"
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Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
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594:"Intent and Its Alternatives: Defending the New Voting Rights Act"
439:"Civil Rights Movement -- Literacy Tests & Voter Applications"
1982:
1977:
1962:
1538:
708:
The regulated economy: A historical approach to political economy
238:
that literacy tests did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment, in
1462:
351:"Literacy Tests and the Right To Vote - ConnecticutHistory.org"
1846:
52:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
201:
held that literacy tests were not necessarily violations of
1473:
220:
To curtail the use of literacy tests, Congress enacted the
1016:
Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
845:
392:
Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective
104:
Editorial cartoon from the January 18, 1879, issue of
110:
criticizing the use of literacy tests. It shows "Mr.
395:. Australian National University. pp. 209–230.
1021:
Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act
148:Other countries, notably Australia, as part of its
27:
Examination of a person's ability to read and write
2019:History of racial segregation in the United States
805:Are You "Qualified" to Vote? Alabama literacy test
474:Lassiter v. Northampton County Board of Elections
194:Lassiter v. Northampton County Board of Elections
2000:
982:U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division
811:Naturalization literacy test still in use today
234:(1966). Although the Court had earlier held in
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2009:History of voting rights in the United States
1489:
1296:Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era
831:
321:Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
228:. The Supreme Court upheld this provision in
50:The examples and perspective in this article
1393:Democratic backsliding in the United States
1031:Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act
1496:
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838:
824:
556:
710:. U. of Chicago Press. pp. 223–258.
88:Learn how and when to remove this message
2024:History of African-American civil rights
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1628:National Council of Teachers of English
1038:National Voter Registration Act of 1993
994:Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
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14:
2001:
1275:United States Virgin Islands residents
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425:"Literacy Tests and the Right to Vote"
32:Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test
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868:House Electors Qualifications Clause
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1618:International Literacy Association
1565:List of countries by literacy rate
1265:Northern Mariana Islands residents
847:Voting rights in the United States
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455:Voting Rights Act of 1965 § 4(e);
25:
2045:
1026:Federal Voting Assistance Program
798:
498:Buss, William G. (January 1998).
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1433:Ranked-choice voting in the U.S.
1350:Women's poll tax repeal movement
793:. University of Rochester Press.
563:Washington University Law Review
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977:U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
895:Privileges or Immunities Clause
807:~ Civil Rights Movement Archive
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557:Williamson, Richard A. (1984).
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463:(formerly 42 U.S.C. § 1973b(e))
2014:Elections in the United States
1795:Occupational Safety and Health
1255:District of Columbia residents
1185:Multiple non-transferable vote
1108:Voter registration in the U.S.
1053:Election Assistance Commission
873:Congressional Elections Clause
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1438:National Voting Rights Museum
1048:Help America Vote Act of 2002
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1301:Timeline of women's suffrage
655:. Oup USA. pp. 159–75.
274:American Federation of Labor
7:
1355:History of direct democracy
1345:Selma to Montgomery marches
1088:Initiatives and referendums
733:Illinois Historical Journal
314:
64:, discuss the issue on the
10:
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1623:International Literacy Day
1175:First-past-the-post voting
945:U.S. Department of Justice
764:. Greenwood. p. 156.
592:Tok ji, Daniel P. (2006).
252:1964 presidential election
145:written into legislation.
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789:Petit, Jeanne D. (2010).
690:10.1080/00236568408584739
222:Voting Rights Act of 1965
155:
1633:No Child Left Behind Act
1250:American Samoa residents
989:Civil Rights Act of 1960
972:Civil Rights Act of 1957
758:Bischoff, Henry (2002).
641: (1970), pp. 188–121
569:(1): 5–9. Archived from
547: (1966), pp. 652–656
521:(Subscription required.)
215:Civil Rights Act of 1964
955:Enforcement Act of 1870
890:Equal Protection Clause
389:Lake, Marilyn. (2006).
203:Equal Protection Clause
1807:Information literacies
960:Second Enforcement Act
355:connecticuthistory.org
150:White Australia policy
115:
1973:Post-literate society
1933:Children's literature
1812:Information and media
1534:Functional illiteracy
1413:Elections in the U.S.
1270:Puerto Rico residents
1009:covered jurisdictions
573:on September 21, 2013
304:Dillingham Commission
103:
533:Katzenbach v. Morgan
288:Joseph Gurney Cannon
242:the Court held that
231:Katzenbach v. Morgan
207:Fourteenth Amendment
186:good moral character
122:assesses a person's
70:create a new article
62:improve this article
1938:Composition studies
1654:Ruth Johnson Colvin
1519:Adolescent literacy
211:Fifteenth Amendment
184:, or a finding of "
143:grandfather clauses
1458:Voter registration
1334:Give Us the Ballot
1230:Transgender people
1134:Grandfather clause
1098:Provisional ballot
761:Immigration Issues
627:Oregon v. Mitchell
601:Alabama Law Review
427:. 2 November 2020.
357:. 2 November 2020.
300:Theodore Roosevelt
257:Oregon v. Mitchell
199:U.S. Supreme Court
182:grandfather clause
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1996:
1995:
1958:Media consumption
1524:Emergent literacy
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1418:Electoral College
1240:African Americans
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1190:One man, one vote
1159:Voter suppression
662:978-0-19-994596-2
402:978-1-920942-45-8
290:, a conservative
278:Mediterranean Sea
174:African Americans
138:African Americans
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72:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
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1398:Disfranchisement
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1376:Campaign finance
1321:U.S. suffragists
1316:Silent Sentinels
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1611:Institutions
1586:New Zealand
1408:Election law
1326:Publications
1235:Young adults
1149:Voter caging
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1802:Information
1688:Other types
1381:Citizenship
1122:Vote denial
684:(1): 5–25.
488: (1959)
308:blue ribbon
264:Immigration
226:Puerto Rico
209:nor of the
112:Solid South
2003:Categories
1877:Scientific
1750:Ecological
1649:Marie Clay
1225:Foreigners
1064:State laws
1004:amendments
856:provisions
577:August 29,
514:January 7,
411:1135556055
337:References
296:Elihu Root
292:Republican
166:poll taxes
128:immigrants
1923:Aliteracy
1872:Religious
1770:Financial
1760:Emotional
1755:Electracy
1558:Locations
863:Article I
510:: 405–406
78:June 2020
66:talk page
2029:Literacy
1948:Dyslexia
1857:Physical
1837:Numeracy
1745:Diaspora
1730:Cultural
1725:Critical
1715:Computer
1512:Learning
1505:Literacy
1453:Suffrage
1403:Election
1291:Timeline
1203:By group
1144:Poll tax
745:40192956
611:July 29,
326:Freedmen
315:See also
244:Congress
236:Lassiter
170:suffrage
124:literacy
60:You may
1983:Writing
1978:Reading
1963:Orality
1916:Related
1832:Musical
1740:Digital
1705:Braille
1597:Romania
1590:Tokelau
1539:Phonics
1364:Related
1284:History
376:HISTORY
205:of the
1902:Visual
1882:Social
1867:Racial
1842:Object
1785:Health
1710:Carbon
1642:People
1570:Canada
1463:Voting
1220:Felons
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240:Morgan
156:Voting
1852:Power
1847:Oracy
1822:Media
1817:Legal
1780:Graph
1765:Faith
1580:Bihar
1575:India
1215:Women
741:JSTOR
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766:ISBN
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613:2015
579:2013
542:U.S.
516:2014
483:U.S.
407:OCLC
397:ISBN
272:The
1907:Web
1210:Men
686:doi
639:112
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