Welding - Knowledge

744: 2041:

intermolecular diffusion, joining them as one. Then the plastic is cooled through the glass transition, allowing the weld to solidify. A filler rod may often be used for certain types of joints. The main differences between welding glass and plastic are the types of heating methods, the much lower melting temperatures, and the fact that plastics will burn if overheated. Many different methods have been devised for heating plastic to a weldable temperature without burning it. Ovens or electric heating tools can be used to melt the plastic. Ultrasonic, laser, or friction heating are other methods. Resistive metals may be implanted in the plastic, which respond to induction heating. Some plastics will begin to burn at temperatures lower than their glass transition, so welding can be performed by blowing a heated, inert gas onto the plastic, melting it while, at the same time, shielding it from oxygen.

867:

they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.

578: 535: 1786:

devices both hold the material and perform the weld and at first, spot welding was its most common application, but robotic arc welding increases in popularity as technology advances. Other key areas of research and development include the welding of dissimilar materials (such as steel and aluminum, for example) and new welding processes, such as friction stir, magnetic pulse, conductive heat seam, and laser-hybrid welding. Furthermore, progress is desired in making more specialized methods like laser beam welding practical for more applications, such as in the aerospace and automotive industries. Researchers also hope to better understand the often unpredictable properties of welds, especially microstructure,

970:, are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high production applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high energy density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of the weld area. Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The primary disadvantages are their very high equipment costs (though these are decreasing) and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area include 1778:, to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam welding and electron beam welding. Because of their high cost, they are only used in high production operations. Similarly, because automation and robots increase equipment costs, they are only implemented when high production is necessary. Labor cost depends on the deposition rate (the rate of welding), the hourly wage, and the total operation time, including time spent fitting, welding, and handling the part. The cost of materials includes the cost of the base and filler material, and the cost of shielding gases. Finally, energy cost depends on arc time and welding power demand. 876:

shallow welds. Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current, as well as alternating current. However, with direct current, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossings, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a

834:(SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels. Other arc welding processes include 824:, aircraft and naval applications. A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and it is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium, and automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is 991: 1560:(such as space). In open-air applications, such as construction and outdoors repair, shielded metal arc welding is the most common process. Processes that employ inert gases to protect the weld cannot be readily used in such situations, because unpredictable atmospheric movements can result in a faulty weld. Shielded metal arc welding is also often used in underwater welding in the construction and repair of ships, offshore platforms, and pipelines, but others, such as flux cored arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding, are also common. Welding in space is also possible—it was first attempted in 1969 by 1009:, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure. The equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input. When welding metals, the vibrations are introduced horizontally, and the materials are not melted; with plastics, which should have similar melting temperatures, vertically. Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminum or copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process. 1697: 1617: 1828: 1101:). Other variations exist as well—for example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the two pieces of material each tapering to a single center point at one-half their height. Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also fairly common—instead of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V preparation joints, they are curved, forming the shape of a U. Lap joints are also commonly more than two pieces thick—depending on the process used and the thickness of the material, many pieces can be welded together in a lap joint geometry. 2005:, by contrast, form long molecular chains, which are often coiled or intertwined, forming an amorphous structure without any long-range, crystalline order. Some thermoplastics may be fully amorphous, while others have a partially crystalline/partially amorphous structure. Both amorphous and semicrystalline thermoplastics have a glass transition, above which welding can occur, but semicrystallines also have a specific melting point which is above the glass transition. Above this melting point, the viscous liquid will become a free-flowing liquid (see 1820: 1387: 1109: 907: 1705: 1136: 1586: 519: 1074: 1626: 2059:. When placed in contact with the plastic, the solvent will begin to soften it, bringing the surface into a thick, liquid solution. When two melted surfaces are pressed together, the molecules in the solution mix, joining them as one. Because the solvent can permeate the plastic, the solvent evaporates out through the surface of the plastic, causing the weld to drop out of solution and solidify. A common use for solvent welding is for joining PVC ( 760: 1548: 43: 366: 1016:, involves the joining of materials by pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, including bonding aluminum to carbon steel in ship hulls and stainless steel or titanium to carbon steel in petrochemical pressure vessels. 1236:

processes like oxyacetylene welding have an unconcentrated heat input and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like laser beam welding give a highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with the individual processes varying somewhat in heat input. To calculate the heat input for arc welding procedures, the following formula can be used:

922:, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive industry—ordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds made by 1782:

welding speed. Mechanization and automation are often implemented to reduce labor costs, but this frequently increases the cost of equipment and creates additional setup time. Material costs tend to increase when special properties are necessary, and energy costs normally do not amount to more than several percent of the total welding cost.

1708: 1527:

while below this range the material becomes brittle. Within the range, the materials behavior is unpredictable. The reduction in fracture toughness is accompanied by a change in the fracture appearance. When above the transition, the fracture is primarily due to micro-void coalescence, which results in the fracture appearing

1707: 1712: 1711: 1706: 1713: 795:(GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. Since the electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater for GMAW than for SMAW. 1366:= welding speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the welding process used, with shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8. Methods of alleviating the stresses and brittleness created in the HAZ include 2443: 1151:

For example, the factor of welding position influences weld quality, that welding codes & specifications may require testing—both welding procedures and welders—using specified welding positions: 1G (flat), 2G (horizontal), 3G (vertical), 4G (overhead), 5G (horizontal fixed pipe), or 6G (inclined

657:

to produce a welding flame temperature of about 3100 °C (5600 °F). The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar process,

1781:

For manual welding methods, labor costs generally make up the vast majority of the total cost. As a result, many cost-saving measures are focused on minimizing operation time. To do this, welding procedures with high deposition rates can be selected, and weld parameters can be fine-tuned to increase

1676:

with dark UV-filtering face plates are worn to prevent this exposure. Since the 2000s, some helmets have included a face plate which instantly darkens upon exposure to the intense UV light. To protect bystanders, the welding area is often surrounded with translucent welding curtains. These curtains,

1526:

A reduction in fracture toughness may also be attributed to the embrittlement effect of impurities, or for body-centred cubic metals, from a reduction in temperature. Metals and in particular steels have a transitional temperature range where above this range the metal has acceptable notch-ductility

1104:

Many welding processes require the use of a particular joint design; for example, resistance spot welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam welding are most frequently performed on lap joints. Other welding methods, like shielded metal arc welding, are extremely versatile and can weld virtually

875:

will have a greater heat concentration, and as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode affects weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, the base metal will be hotter, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more

1797:

industry comes at a risk to the integrity of the connection. Without proper fusion to the base materials provided by sufficient arc time on the weld, a project inspector cannot ensure the effective diameter of the puddle weld therefore he or she cannot guarantee the published load capacities unless

1757:

welding fumes, for example, even at low levels (<0.2 mg/m), may lead to neurological problems or to damage to the lungs, liver, kidneys, or central nervous system. Nano particles can become trapped in the alveolar macrophages of the lungs and induce pulmonary fibrosis. The use of compressed

1620:

A stick welding booth equipped with local exhaust system (LEV) that removes the toxic fumes, gases, vapours and dusts before they can mix with the room air. Besides toxic emissions, the booth also helps protect bystanders from UV light. With a well-ventilated booth, personal protective equipment is

866:

power supplies. In arc welding, the length of the arc is directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related to the current. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because

649:

The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, also known as oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes, but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair

1897:

for joining the halves of glass molds, making items such as bottles and jars. Welding glass is accomplished by heating the glass through the glass transition, turning it into a thick, formable, liquid mass. Heating is usually done with a gas or oxy-gas torch, or a furnace, because the temperatures

1456:

Covalent bonding takes place when one of the constituent atoms loses one or more electrons, with the other atom gaining the electrons, resulting in an electron cloud that is shared by the molecule as a whole. In both ionic and covalent bonding the location of the ions and electrons are constrained

1377:

One major defect concerning the HAZ would be cracking at the toes , due to the rapid expansion (heating) and contraction (cooling) the material may not have the ability to withstand the stress and could cause cracking, one method the control these stress would be to control the heating and cooling

617:

Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of electron beam welding, making deep and narrow welding possible through the concentrated heat source. Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam welding debuted several decades later, and has proved to be especially

1978:

is a plastic in which a chemical reaction sets the molecular bonds after first forming the plastic, and then the bonds cannot be broken again without degrading the plastic. Thermosets cannot be melted, therefore, once a thermoset has set it is impossible to weld it. Examples of thermosets include

937:

relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long continuous welds. In the past, this process was used in the manufacture of beverage

601:

materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal arc welding was developed during the 1950s, using a flux-coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in which the self-shielded

526:

World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding, with the various military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding processes would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing a ship, the "Fullagar" with an entirely welded hull. Arc welding was

1935:

has very high thermal expansion. When welding different glasses to each other, it is usually important to closely match their coefficients of thermal expansion, to ensure that cracking does not occur. Also, some glasses will simply not mix with others, so welding between certain types may not be

1568:

mission, when they performed experiments to test shielded metal arc welding, plasma arc welding, and electron beam welding in a depressurized environment. Further testing of these methods was done in the following decades, and today researchers continue to develop methods for using other welding

1538:

Fracture toughness is measured using a notched and pre-cracked rectangular specimen, of which the dimensions are specified in standards, for example ASTM E23. There are other means of estimating or measuring fracture toughness by the following: The Charpy impact test per ASTM A370; The crack-tip

510:

was developed. At first, oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular welding methods due to its portability and relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out of favor for industrial applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as advances in metal coverings

1911:

relative ease. However, when welding a tube to another tube, a combination of blowing and suction, and pressing and pulling is used to ensure a good seal, to shape the glass, and to keep the surface tension from closing the tube in on itself. Sometimes a filler rod may be used, but usually not.

1785:

In recent years, in order to minimize labor costs in high production manufacturing, industrial welding has become increasingly more automated, most notably with the use of robots in resistance spot welding (especially in the automotive industry) and in arc welding. In robot welding, mechanized

1467:

can be classified as a type of covalent bonding for which the constituent atoms are of the same type and do not combine with one another to form a chemical bond. Atoms will lose an electron(s) forming an array of positive ions. These electrons are shared by the lattice which makes the electron

1910:

torch must be used. Sometimes a tube may be attached to the glass, allowing it to be blown into various shapes, such as bulbs, bottles, or tubes. When two pieces of liquid glass are pressed together, they will usually weld very readily. Welding a handle onto a pitcher can usually be done with

1235:

of the base material plays a large role—if the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely, a low diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat injected by the welding process plays an important role as well, as

451:

created the continuous electric arc, and subsequently published "News of Galvanic-Voltaic Experiments" in 1803, in which he described experiments carried out in 1802. Of great importance in this work was the description of a stable arc discharge and the indication of its possible use for many

2040:

Welding thermoplastic with heat is very similar to welding glass. The plastic first must be cleaned and then heated through the glass transition, turning the weld-interface into a thick, viscous liquid. Two heated interfaces can then be pressed together, allowing the molecules to mix through

1939:

Glass can also be welded to metals and ceramics, although with metals the process is usually more adhesion to the surface of the metal rather than a commingling of the two materials. However, certain glasses will typically bond only to certain metals. For example, lead glass bonds readily to

751:

The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive equipment, making it well suited to shop jobs and field work. An operator can become reasonably proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve mastery with experience. Weld times are rather slow, since the

1710: 1116:

After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. The weld itself is called the fusion zone—more specifically, it is where the filler metal was laid during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal used, and its

812:

electrode, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high-quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds.

1121:, the area that had its microstructure and properties altered by the weld. These properties depend on the base material's behavior when subjected to heat. The metal in this area is often weaker than both the base material and the fusion zone, and is also where residual stresses are found. 870:

The type of current used plays an important role in arc welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively charged

1806:

members. Regional agencies are responsible for ensuring the proper installation of puddle welding on steel construction sites. Currently there is no standard or weld procedure which can ensure the published holding capacity of any unwitnessed connection, but this is under review by the

728:(SMAW); it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod, which is made of filler material (typical steel) and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from 1930:

There are many types of glass, and it is most common to weld using the same types. Different glasses often have different rates of thermal expansion, which can cause them to crack upon cooling when they contract differently. For instance, quartz has very low thermal expansion, while

802:(FCAW), uses similar equipment but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes and/or slag, but it permits even higher welding speed and greater metal penetration. 752:

consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though special electrodes have made possible the welding of

181:

followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century, as world wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual methods like

1105:

any type of joint. Some processes can also be used to make multipass welds, in which one weld is allowed to cool, and then another weld is performed on top of it. This allows for the welding of thick sections arranged in a single-V preparation joint, for example.

1867:-like consistency, so welding can usually take place by simply pressing two melted surfaces together. The two liquids will generally mix and join at first contact. Upon cooling through the glass transition, the welded piece will solidify as one solid piece of 1139:

The blue area results from oxidation at a corresponding temperature of 600 °F (316 °C). This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent the HAZ width. The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base

917:

is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick. Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include

1514:

Ductility is an important factor in ensuring the integrity of structures by enabling them to sustain local stress concentrations without fracture. In addition, structures are required to be of an acceptable strength, which is related to a material's

546:

became a subject receiving much attention, as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems, and the solutions that developed included the use of

1655:

and protective long-sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames. Synthetic clothing such as polyester should not be worn since it may burn, causing injury. Additionally, the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called

1337: 898:

Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1,000–100,000

1230:

properties of the alloy. The effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimental—depending on the materials used and the heat input of the welding process used, the HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The

1956:, which bonds to both tungsten and quartz. However, care must be taken to ensure that all materials have similar coefficients of thermal expansion to prevent cracking both when the object cools and when it is heated again. Special 567:. This in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II. In 1930, the first all-welded merchant vessel, 1914:

Because glass is very brittle in its solid state, it is often prone to cracking upon heating and cooling, especially if the heating and cooling are uneven. This is because the brittleness of glass does not allow for uneven

630:(TWI, UK) and found high-quality applications all over the world. All of these four new processes continue to be quite expensive due to the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their applications. 1709: 1555:

While many welding applications are done in controlled environments such as factories and repair shops, some welding processes are commonly used in a wide variety of conditions, such as open air, underwater, and

1758:

gases and flames in many, welding processes poses an explosion and fire risk. Some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air, and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.

1531:. When the temperatures falls the fracture will show signs of cleavage facets. These two appearances are visible by the naked eye. Brittle fracture in steel plates may appear as chevron markings under the 2953: 1766:

As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a crucial role in manufacturing decisions. Many different variables affect the total cost, including equipment cost, labor cost, material cost, and

1633:

Welding can be dangerous and unhealthy if the proper precautions are not taken. However, using new technology and proper protection greatly reduces risks of injury and death associated with welding.

1394:

The durability and life of dynamically loaded, welded steel structures is determined in many cases by the welds, in particular the weld transitions. Through selective treatment of the transitions by

1097:

Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint, edge joint, and T-joint (a variant of this last is the

2079:. Solvent welding is especially effective on plastics like PVC which burn at or below their glass transition, but may be ineffective on plastics like Teflon or polyethylene that are resistant to 1163:

methods are commonly used to verify that welds are free of defects, have acceptable levels of residual stresses and distortion, and have acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Types of

2920:

AWS A3.0:2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering, Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying, American Welding Society (2001), p. 117.

903:) is passed through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and the equipment cost can be high. 1468:

cluster mobile, as the electrons are free to move as well as the ions. For this, it gives metals their relatively high thermal and electrical conductivity as well as being characteristically

1960:

are often used for this purpose, ensuring that the coefficients of expansion match, and sometimes thin, metallic coatings may be applied to a metal to create a good bond with the glass.

527:

first applied to aircraft during the war as well, as some German airplane fuselages were constructed using the process. Also noteworthy is the first welded road bridge in the world, the

111:) that cools to form a joint that can be stronger than the base material. Welding also requires a form of shield to protect the filler metals or melted metals from being contaminated or 1569:

processes in space, such as laser beam welding, resistance welding, and friction welding. Advances in these areas may be useful for future endeavours similar to the construction of the

1685:

glass used in helmets. Depending on the type of material, welding varieties, and other factors, welding can produce over 100 dB(A) of noise. Long term or continuous exposure to higher

1112:

The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material.

1187: 850:. ESW is a highly productive, single-pass welding process for thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical position. 2441:, Nikołaj Benardos & Stanisław Olszewski, "Process of and apparatus for working metals by the direct application of the electric current", issued 1887-05-17 3603: 1226:

The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a ring surrounding the weld in which the temperature of the welding process, combined with the stresses of uneven heating and cooling, alters the

1425:

Crystalline solids cohesion is obtained by a metallic or chemical bond that is formed between the constituent atoms. Chemical bonds can be grouped into two types consisting of

542:

During the 1920s, significant advances were made in welding technology, including the introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed continuously.

515:) were made. Flux covering the electrode primarily shields the base material from impurities, but also stabilizes the arc and can add alloying components to the weld metal. 1242: 858:

To supply the electrical power necessary for arc welding processes, a variety of different power supplies can be used. The most common welding power supplies are constant

1418:

Most solids used are engineering materials consisting of crystalline solids in which the atoms or ions are arranged in a repetitive geometric pattern which is known as a

307:" (they shall weld together their swords into plowshares), suggesting this particular use of the word probably became popular in English sometime between these periods. 1422:. The only exception is material that is made from glass which is a combination of a supercooled liquid and polymers which are aggregates of large organic molecules. 589:, which soon became popular in shipbuilding and construction. Submerged arc welding was invented the same year and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a Russian, 1144:

Many distinct factors influence the strength of welds and the material around them, including the welding method, the amount and concentration of energy input, the

4015: 1445:. The bonding in the static position is when the ions occupy an equilibrium position where the resulting force between them is zero. When the ions are exerted in 3620: 1167:

include cracks, distortion, gas inclusions (porosity), non-metallic inclusions, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, lamellar tearing, and undercutting.

1005:(the earliest welding process discovered), some modern welding methods do not involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular, 1636:

Since many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns and fire is significant; this is why it is classified as a

452:

applications, one being melting metals. In 1808, Davy, who was unaware of Petrov's work, rediscovered the continuous electric arc. In 1881–82 inventors

3700: 743: 2573: 3414: 1902:

becomes a weldable liquid at around 1,600 °F (870 °C), and can be welded with a simple propane torch. On the other hand, quartz glass (

222:

is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality.

1847:) into this range, it will generally become softer and more pliable. When it crosses through the range, above the glass-melting temperature (T 3662: 3421:, Proceedings of the 19th International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Missouri University of Science and Technology. 1798:

they witness the actual installation. This method of puddle welding is common in the United States and Canada for attaching steel sheets to

597:, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non- 4008: 3098: 700:

to create and maintain an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use either

264:), meaning 'to heat' (to the maximum temperature possible); 'to bring to a boil'. The modern word was probably derived from the past-tense 107:

In addition to melting the base metal in welding, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the

155: 2186:

by John R. Clark Hall, Herbert T. Merritt, Herbert Dean Meritt, Medieval Academy of America -- Cambridge University Press 1960 Page 289

2632: 464:

using carbon electrodes. The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 1800s by a Russian,

1919:. Glass that has been welded will usually need to be cooled very slowly and evenly through the glass transition, in a process called 476:, which gave a more stable arc. In 1905, Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed using a three-phase electric arc for welding. 1851:), it will become a very thick, sluggish, viscous liquid, slowly decreasing in viscosity as temperature increases. Typically, this 1148:

of the base material, filler material, and flux material, the design of the joint, and the interactions between all these factors.

3188:"Safety and Health Injury Prevention Sheets (SHIPS) | Process: Hot Work - Welding, Cutting and Brazing - Hazard: Burns and Shocks" 1741:

of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. This is because smaller particles have the ability to cross the

585:

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. In 1930, Kyle Taylor was responsible for the release of

4219: 4001: 1539:

opening displacement (CTOD) test per BS 7448–1; The J integral test per ASTM E1820; The Pellini drop-weight test per ASTM E208.

4229: 3693: 2668: 2362: 2156: 1906:) must be heated to over 3,000 °F (1,650 °C), but quickly loses its viscosity and formability if overheated, so an 1190:, how to judge the skill of the person performing the weld, and how to ensure the quality of a welding job. Methods such as 740:) gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. 602:

wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same year,

4194: 3617: 559:

as welding atmospheres. During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals like

4271: 3686: 3655: 3574: 3555: 3529: 3510: 3439: 3395: 3150: 3006: 2925: 2292: 1952:

electrodes are often used in lighting but will not bond to quartz glass, so the tungsten is often wetted with molten

138:. While often an industrial process, welding may be performed in many different environments, including in open air, 534: 349:, so the word may have entered English from the Swedish iron trade, or may have been imported with the thousands of 2438: 1681:

plastic film, shield people outside the welding area from the UV light of the electric arc, but cannot replace the

1449:

force, the inter-ionic spacing increases creating an electrostatic attractive force, while a repulsing force under

4281: 2112: 2064: 1403: 1898:

for melting glass are often quite high. This temperature may vary, depending on the type of glass. For example,

577: 1885:

Glass welding is a common practice during glassblowing. It is used very often in the construction of lighting,

1484: 1215: 3187: 1645: 1371: 606:

was invented by Robert Gage. Electroslag welding was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its cousin,

4125: 3838: 3648: 1211: 644: 403:"was the man who single-handedly invented iron welding". Forge welding was used in the construction of the 1835:

Glasses and certain types of plastics are commonly welded materials. Unlike metals, which have a specific

1831:

A bowl made from cast-glass. The two halves are joined together by the weld seam, running down the middle.

1186:, managers, and property owners in proper welding technique, design of welds, how to judge the quality of 440:

craftsmen were skilled in the process, and the industry continued to grow during the following centuries.

3783: 2577: 1570: 1407: 1395: 448: 186:, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as 178: 447:

discovered the short-pulse electrical arc and presented his results in 1801. In 1802, Russian scientist

3760: 3411: 1771: 1690: 1028: 725: 671: 653:

The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion of acetylene in

373:

The history of joining metals goes back several millennia. The earliest examples of this come from the

183: 3634: 1332:{\displaystyle Q=\left({\frac {V\times I\times 60}{S\times 1000}}\right)\times {\mathit {Efficiency}}} 974:, which uses principles from both laser beam welding and arc welding for even better weld properties, 4234: 3775: 2340: 2107: 3256: 808:(GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that uses a non-consumable 303:" (they shall beat together their swords into plowshares). In the 1590 version this was changed to " 4055: 3750: 1974:

Plastics are generally divided into two categories, which are "thermosets" and "thermoplastics." A

1808: 1519:. In general, as the yield strength of a material increases, there is a corresponding reduction in 1207: 1203: 805: 675: 594: 1893:, scientific equipment, and the manufacture of dishes and other glassware. It is also used during 4199: 4189: 4184: 4140: 3977: 3725: 2898: 2006: 1742: 1441:

electron separates from one atom and becomes attached to another atom to form oppositely charged

975: 835: 486:

was also developed during the final decades of the 19th century, with the first patents going to

357:, as more than half of the most common English words in everyday use are Scandinavian in origin. 990: 4224: 4214: 3833: 3740: 2080: 1160: 1130: 1048: 1032: 799: 683: 619: 211: 195: 17: 2998: 2954:"NZ Fabricators begin to use Friction Stir Welding to produce aluminium components and panels" 2658: 1597: 1573:, which could rely on welding for joining in space the parts that were manufactured on Earth. 1367: 480:

welding was invented by C. J. Holslag in 1919, but did not become popular for another decade.

457: 4204: 4130: 3818: 3813: 3788: 3765: 3745: 2102: 1171: 1024: 967: 831: 792: 687: 679: 627: 623: 427: 395: 215: 207: 191: 187: 127: 2986: 2520: 1596: with: welding fume extractor/extraction and health risks from welding. You can help by 118:

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame (chemical), an

4244: 4239: 3884: 3828: 3210:

Andrews, Graham. “Welding with Safety .” Practical Arc Welding , Flairnet, 2016, pp. 54–54.

2636: 2307: 2117: 1924: 1770:

cost. Depending on the process, equipment cost can vary, from inexpensive for methods like

995: 971: 919: 697: 404: 3232: 1616: 820:

and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in

8: 4209: 4120: 3793: 3629: 1696: 1535:. These arrow-like ridges on the crack surface point towards the origin of the fracture. 1434: 1232: 1156: 839: 705: 691: 477: 199: 54: 3452: 3297: 2892: 2545: 2311: 1827: 426:, in which blacksmiths pounded heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, 3910: 3848: 3823: 3798: 3755: 3730: 3340: 3323: 3139: 2724: 2387: 2323: 2060: 1953: 1722: 1717:

A video describing research on welding helmets and their ability to limit fume exposure

1678: 1520: 1496: 1480: 1476: 1199: 1118: 1044: 1006: 963: 947: 893: 859: 843: 607: 603: 590: 483: 461: 203: 139: 2412: 3952: 3947: 3570: 3551: 3525: 3506: 3435: 3391: 3345: 3146: 3002: 2987: 2921: 2728: 2716: 2664: 2391: 2152: 2092: 2026: 1988: 1920: 1916: 1446: 1419: 1191: 1052: 1040: 1013: 611: 512: 465: 432: 86: 77:(of thermoplastics) using chemicals to melt materials being bonded without heat, and 3295: 2971: 2383: 2363:"Historical essay on the 200 years of the development of natural sciences in Russia" 2327: 289:. It was first recorded in English in 1590. A fourteenth century translation of the 4276: 4266: 4080: 4050: 3808: 3709: 3539: 3335: 2706: 2379: 2315: 2270: 2122: 1840: 1819: 1803: 1753:, can be dangerous to welders lacking proper ventilation and training. Exposure to 1492: 1464: 1020: 923: 847: 816:

GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to

491: 453: 400: 174: 131: 2395: 938:

cans, but now its uses are more limited. Other resistance welding methods include

884:, making rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the problem. 4155: 4045: 3993: 3920: 3624: 3598: 3418: 2499: 2370: 2050: 1969: 1932: 1868: 1856: 1787: 1775: 1682: 1386: 1179: 1098: 817: 528: 495: 290: 74: 3608: 2293:"Tracking down the origin of arc plasma science-II. early continuous discharges" 2256:

Lincoln Electric, The Procedure Handbook Of Arc Welding 14th ed., page 1.1-1

100:, which do not melt the base metal (parent metal) and instead require flowing a 4135: 4115: 3915: 3879: 2076: 2010: 1852: 1767: 1725:. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce 1673: 1629:

Arc welding with a welding helmet, gloves, and other protective clothing (1942)

1516: 1457:

relative to each other, thereby resulting in the bond being characteristically

1227: 1164: 825: 733: 701: 568: 507: 473: 282: 235: 218:

in the latter half of the century. Today, as the science continues to advance,

151: 70: 2711: 2694: 1108: 4260: 4070: 3894: 3889: 3853: 3803: 3735: 3593: 2994: 2720: 2660:

Innovations in Materials Manufacturing, Fabrication, and Environmental Safety

2127: 2018: 2002: 1894: 1860: 1836: 1794: 1475:

Three of the most commonly used crystal lattice structures in metals are the

1438: 1068: 1002: 979: 951: 943: 906: 543: 506:, but its use was not practical in welding until about 1900, when a suitable 487: 423: 294: 219: 162: 62: 31: 2319: 472:(1890). Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released a coated metal electrode in 92:

Metal welding is distinct from lower temperature bonding techniques such as

4165: 4105: 4028: 4024: 3874: 3843: 3671: 3349: 3324:"The significance of nano particles in particle-induced pulmonary fibrosis" 2552:. pp. 132–144 – via Grace's Guide to British Industrial History. 2014: 1996: 1903: 1880: 1750: 1399: 1056: 1036: 939: 934: 927: 914: 716:, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well. 586: 469: 444: 146:. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to avoid 119: 101: 82: 3432:

Challenging Glass: Conference on Architectural and Structural Applications

2695:"Analyzing the Failure of Welded Steel Components in Construction Systems" 1843:. When heating the solid material past the glass-transition temperature (T 1135: 712:. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi- 154:, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to 4150: 4110: 4075: 4060: 4040: 3925: 3717: 3177:

ANSI/AWS Z49.1: "Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes" (2005)

3099:"How Expansion and Contraction of Metals Affect Aviation Welding Process" 2022: 1907: 1450: 1195: 1145: 877: 667: 503: 437: 419: 412: 386: 346: 326: 170: 143: 1793:

The trend of accelerating the speed at which welds are performed in the

1585: 169:

had used for millennia to join iron and steel by heating and hammering.

3972: 3967: 3502: 2034: 1945: 1899: 1532: 1426: 374: 354: 265: 166: 135: 2223:. Trans. R. Waterfield. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Book One, 25. 1625: 4095: 3962: 3957: 3869: 3547: 2972:

Industrialisation of Electromagnetic Pulse Technology (EMPT) in India

1992: 1975: 1890: 1886: 1799: 1754: 1734: 1660:

or flash burns in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the

1500: 1347: 1183: 1073: 881: 753: 713: 709: 564: 560: 499: 390: 112: 108: 97: 3470:

By David A. Grewell, A. Benatar, Joon Bu Park – Hanser Gardener 2003

759: 610:, in 1961. In 1953, the Soviet scientist N. F. Kazakov proposed the 518: 4160: 4065: 3412:

Strength of Arc Spot Welds Made in Single and Multiple Steel Sheets

3296:

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2022-05-04).

2437: 2097: 2068: 1984: 1949: 1738: 1637: 1547: 1430: 809: 548: 378: 177:

were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and

1381: 593:

eventually implemented the first underwater electric arc welding.

4090: 4085: 3942: 2072: 2056: 1686: 1657: 1649: 1565: 1469: 1458: 1175: 863: 821: 598: 365: 93: 66: 460:(Polish) created the first electric arc welding method known as 335:, meaning 'to boil', which could refer to joining metals, as in 317: 311: 298: 272: 259: 249: 243: 161:

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was

42: 4145: 3640: 3612: 2030: 1941: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1641: 1561: 1557: 1508: 1504: 1410:, etc. the durability of many designs increases significantly. 1390:

Example: High Frequency Impact Treatment for lifetime extension

1117:

compatibility with the base materials. It is surrounded by the

900: 654: 581:

Portable welder being used for Sydney stormwater infrastructure

556: 490:

in 1885, who produced further advances over the next 15 years.

382: 350: 342: 286: 281:

for this purpose being common in the Germanic languages of the

3390:. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. pp. 995–1005. 4100: 1980: 1957: 1864: 1746: 1730: 1726: 1652: 1528: 1488: 872: 763:

Diagram of arc and weld area, in shielded metal arc welding:

729: 552: 408: 123: 58: 494:

was invented in 1893, and around that time another process,

305:...thei shullen welle togidere her swerdes in-to scharris... 1442: 1355: 147: 353:

settlements that arrived in England before and during the

3321: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1218:

can help with detection and analysis of certain defects.

658:

generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals.

3410:

Gregory L. Snow and W. Samuel Easterling (October 2008)

1839:, glasses and plastics have a melting range, called the 1700:

A chamber designed to contain welding fumes for analysis

538:

Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket, US Army 1918

436:, which includes descriptions of the forging operation. 81:

processes which bond without melting, such as pressure,

2198:

by Hensleigh Wedgwood -- Trubner & Co. 1878Page 723

300:...thei shul bete togidere their swerdes into shares... 2543: 2500:"Lesson 3: Covered Electrodes for Welding Mild Steels" 2210:

by Elly van Gelderen -- John Benjamins Publishing 2006

2055:

Many thermoplastics can also be welded using chemical

1823:

The welding together of two tubes made from lead glass

2174:

by Walter William Skeat -- Oxford Press 1898 Page 702

1245: 2275:. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co. pp. 20, 24, 94. 3482:

By Plastics Design Library – PDL 1997 Page 137, 146

3145:(6th ed.). Abington, Cambridge: Abington Pub. 69:the parts together and allow them to cool, causing 4023: 3138: 2172:An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language 2151:. The Goodheart-Wilcox Company, Inc. p. 422. 1331: 3385: 3379: 1721:Welders are often exposed to dangerous gases and 4258: 3538: 3519: 2146: 2075:and polystyrene plastics in the construction of 1923:, to relieve any internal stresses created by a 3480:Handbook of Plastics Joining: A Practical Guide 2546:"Cammellaird-Fullagar Diesel Engine - (No. II)" 1382:Lifetime extension with after treatment methods 756:, stainless steel, aluminum, and other metals. 724:One of the most common types of arc welding is 202:. Developments continued with the invention of 3520:Kalpakjian, Serope; Schmid, Steven R. (2001). 3430:Freek Bos, Christian Louter, Fred Veer (2008) 4009: 3694: 3656: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3192:Occupational Safety and Health Administration 2890: 2413:"Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography" 1453:force between the atomic nuclei is dominant. 1378:rate, such as pre-heating and post- heating 853: 622:(MPW) has been industrially used since 1967. 336: 330: 3304:. US Department of Health and Human Services 3132: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3044: 3042: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2656: 1814: 1790:, and a weld's tendency to crack or deform. 1019:Other solid-state welding processes include 930:, can be used to spot weld stainless steel. 3279: 3277: 3257:"Do you know how loud is too loud? | NIDCD" 1745:. Fumes and gases, such as carbon dioxide, 411:, India about 310 AD and weighing 5.4 30:"Welded" redirects here. For the play, see 4016: 4002: 3701: 3687: 3663: 3649: 3496: 3356: 3283: 3233:"Welding: Health risks from welding - HSE" 3219: 3165: 3033: 3021: 2831: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2760: 2756: 2754: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2699:Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention 2618: 2597: 2544:Cammell, Laird and Co. (6 February 1920). 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2468: 2456: 2232: 310:The Old English word for welding iron was 3497:Cary, Howard B; Helzer, Scott C. (2005). 3468:Plastics and Composites: Welding Handbook 3339: 3136: 3115: 3087:By Todd Bridigum - Motorbook 2008 Page 37 3039: 2975:38th Anniversary Issue of PURCHASE India. 2930: 2864: 2710: 2635:. University of Cambridge. Archived from 2525:The Home for A History of Thermal Joining 2290: 2286: 2284: 2282: 2264: 2262: 2147:C. Brown, Walter; K. Brown, Ryan (2011). 1729:containing particles of various types of 1170:The metalworking industry has instituted 618:useful in high-speed, automated welding. 65:, primarily by using high temperature to 27:Fabrication process for joining materials 3602:) is being considered for deletion. See 3522:Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 3274: 2149:Print Reading for Industry, 10th edition 1826: 1818: 1703: 1695: 1624: 1615: 1546: 1385: 1134: 1107: 1072: 989: 905: 758: 742: 719: 626:was invented in 1991 by Wayne Thomas at 576: 533: 517: 364: 345:was a large exporter of iron during the 78: 41: 3096: 2784: 2751: 2735: 2630: 2474: 2360: 2243: 2241: 1859:compared to metals, becoming a sticky, 1511:have the face-centred cubic structure. 1491:has a body-centred cubic structure and 708:(AC), and consumable or non-consumable 14: 4259: 3454:A handbook of Laboratory Glass-Blowing 2897:. American Technical society. p. 2766: 2692: 2279: 2268: 2259: 2013:). Examples of thermoplastics include 1155:To test the quality of a weld, either 985: 957: 828:, an efficient steel cutting process. 57:process that joins materials, usually 3997: 3682: 3644: 3564: 3544:The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding 3450: 2984: 2405: 1542: 1221: 887: 73:. Common alternative methods include 3322:James D Byrne; John A Baugh (2008). 2963: 2576:. WeldingHistory.org. Archived from 2571: 2492: 2238: 1580: 962:Energy beam welding methods, namely 2572:Sapp, Mark E. (February 22, 2008). 2521:"Welding Timeline, Years 1900–1950" 2300:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 1761: 1737:in question tends to influence the 24: 3457:. London: G. Routledge & Sons. 2946: 2044: 1963: 1433:. To form an ionic bond, either a 1297: 25: 4293: 3606:to help reach a consensus. › 3585: 3066:Kalpakjian and Schmid, pp. 821–22 3057:Lincoln Electric, pp. 6.1-5–6.1–6 2208:A History of the English Language 2196:A Dictionary of English Etymology 3670: 2693:Thomas, Daniel J. (2018-04-01). 2633:"Diffusion Bonding of Materials" 2184:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 1874: 1584: 1576: 3761:Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW) 3751:Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW) 3569:. New York, NY: CRC Press LLC. 3473: 3461: 3444: 3424: 3404: 3370: 3315: 3289: 3249: 3225: 3213: 3204: 3180: 3171: 3159: 3097:Welding, Knisley (2022-09-15). 3090: 3078: 3069: 3060: 3051: 3027: 3015: 2978: 2914: 2905: 2884: 2855: 2846: 2837: 2825: 2816: 2807: 2798: 2775: 2686: 2677: 2650: 2624: 2612: 2603: 2591: 2565: 2556: 2537: 2513: 2462: 2450: 2431: 2419:. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2008 2384:10.1070/PU1999v042n12ABEH000750 2361:Lazarev, P.P. (December 1999), 2354: 2334: 2113:Welding Procedure Specification 2065:acrylonitrile butadiene styrene 2029:(PVC), and fluoroplastics like 1404:High-frequency impact treatment 1188:welding procedure specification 926:. A specialized process called 732:and contamination by producing 369:The iron pillar of Delhi, India 3746:Gas metal (Microwire/MIG/GMAW) 2250: 2226: 2213: 2201: 2189: 2177: 2165: 2140: 1216:industrial computed tomography 994:Solid-state welding processes 880:pattern instead of the normal 661: 638: 389:. The ancient Greek historian 13: 1: 3591: 2997:: Industrial Press. pp. 2969:Stephan Kallee et al. (2010) 2952:Stephan Kallee (August 2006) 2843:Kalpakjian and Schmid, p. 780 2269:Ayrton, Hertha Marks (1902). 2133: 1646:personal protective equipment 1413: 156:intense ultraviolet radiation 3726:Atomic hydrogen (Athydo/AHW) 2958:New Zealand Engineering News 2683:Lincoln Electric, pp. 1.1–10 2574:"Welding Timeline 1900–1950" 1640:process. To prevent injury, 1621:still needed for the welder. 1212:magnetic particle inspection 862:power supplies and constant 645:Oxy-fuel welding and cutting 633: 341:(literally "to boil iron"). 225: 7: 3708: 2086: 1571:International Space Station 1408:Ultrasonic impact treatment 1396:grinding (abrasive cutting) 1077:Common welding joint types: 1062: 498:, became well established. 399:of the 5th century BC that 325:The word is related to the 322:('to bring together hot'). 179:electric resistance welding 10: 4298: 3567:Welding processes handbook 3489: 3451:Bolas, Bernard D. (1921). 3388:Trends in Welding Research 3386:ASM International (2003). 3376:Lincoln Electric, p. 4.5-1 3328:McGill Journal of Medicine 3302:Center for Disease Control 2852:Lincoln Electric, p. 5.4–5 2772:Lincoln Electric, p. 5.4-3 2663:. CRC Press. p. 300. 2609:Lincoln Electric, p. 1.1–6 2562:Lincoln Electric, p. 1.1–5 2247:Lincoln Electric, p. 1.1-1 2048: 1967: 1878: 1772:shielded metal arc welding 1691:noise-induced hearing loss 1128: 1124: 1066: 1029:friction stir spot welding 891: 854:Arc welding power supplies 747:Shielded metal arc welding 726:shielded metal arc welding 672:Shielded metal arc welding 665: 642: 502:was discovered in 1836 by 360: 297:translates Isaiah 2:4 as " 184:shielded metal arc welding 29: 4179: 4036: 3938: 3903: 3862: 3784:Electric resistance (ERW) 3774: 3716: 3678: 3499:Modern Welding Technology 2712:10.1007/s11668-018-0392-x 2341:Great Soviet Encyclopedia 2108:List of welding processes 1815:Glass and plastic welding 468:(1888), and an American, 316:('to bring together') or 104:to solidify their bonds. 4272:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 4220:Machine and metalworking 3604:templates for discussion 3137:Lancaster, J.F. (1999). 1809:American Welding Society 1208:dye penetrant inspection 1204:phased-array ultrasonics 1172:codes and specifications 1051:, hot pressure welding, 1035:, co-extrusion welding, 1012:Another common process, 806:Gas tungsten arc welding 676:Gas tungsten arc welding 595:Gas tungsten arc welding 277:), with the addition of 248:; plural/present tense: 4230:Measuring and alignment 4141:Rotary transfer machine 3298:"Welding and Manganese" 3024:, pp. 19, 103, 206 2320:10.1109/TPS.2003.815477 2007:rheological weldability 1948:, but not to aluminum. 1749:, and fumes containing 836:atomic hydrogen welding 331: 318: 312: 299: 273: 260: 250: 244: 4282:Mechanical engineering 4126:Oxy-fuel cutting torch 3501:. Upper Saddle River, 3284:Cary & Helzer 2005 3220:Cary & Helzer 2005 3166:Cary & Helzer 2005 3034:Cary & Helzer 2005 3022:Cary & Helzer 2005 2891:John Jernberg (1919). 2832:Cary & Helzer 2005 2761:Cary & Helzer 2005 2619:Cary & Helzer 2005 2598:Cary & Helzer 2005 2469:Cary & Helzer 2005 2457:Cary & Helzer 2005 2233:Cary & Helzer 2005 2081:chemical decomposition 1855:will have very little 1832: 1824: 1718: 1701: 1630: 1622: 1564:cosmonauts during the 1552: 1485:close-packed hexagonal 1391: 1333: 1161:nondestructive testing 1141: 1131:Weld quality assurance 1113: 1094: 1049:high frequency welding 1033:magnetic pulse welding 998: 911: 800:flux-cored arc welding 789: 748: 696:These processes use a 684:Flux-cored arc welding 620:Magnetic pulse welding 582: 539: 523: 370: 337: 212:magnetic pulse welding 196:flux-cored arc welding 47: 46:Overhead stick welding 3978:Tools and terminology 3505:: Pearson Education. 3434:. JOS Press. p. 194. 3141:Metallurgy of welding 2657:Mel Schwartz (2011). 2631:Kazakov, N.F (1985). 2103:List of welding codes 1830: 1822: 1716: 1699: 1648:in the form of heavy 1628: 1619: 1550: 1389: 1334: 1138: 1111: 1076: 1025:friction stir welding 993: 968:electron beam welding 909: 832:Submerged arc welding 793:Gas metal arc welding 762: 746: 720:Arc welding processes 688:Submerged arc welding 680:Gas metal arc welding 628:The Welding Institute 624:Friction stir welding 580: 537: 521: 428:Vannoccio Biringuccio 368: 216:friction stir welding 208:electron beam welding 192:submerged arc welding 188:gas metal arc welding 45: 4195:Cutting and abrasive 3565:Weman, Klas (2003). 3550:: Lincoln Electric. 3222:, pp. 42, 49–51 2985:Hicks, John (1999). 2118:Welder certification 1925:temperature gradient 1243: 996:classification chart 972:laser-hybrid welding 920:efficient energy use 698:welding power supply 422:brought advances in 405:Iron pillar of Delhi 234:is derived from the 3814:Friction stir (FSW) 3789:Electron-beam (EBW) 3635:Welding Ventilation 3618:Pipes Joint Welding 2989:Welded Joint Design 2378:(1247): 1351–1361, 2312:2003ITPS...31.1060A 1743:blood–brain barrier 1362:= current (A), and 1233:thermal diffusivity 986:Solid-state welding 958:Energy beam welding 933:Like spot welding, 840:electroslag welding 798:A related process, 706:alternating current 692:Electroslag welding 478:Alternating current 458:Stanisław Olszewski 200:electroslag welding 79:solid-state welding 3911:Heat-affected zone 3839:Oxyacetylene (OAW) 3623:2023-06-23 at the 3417:2014-06-11 at the 3168:, pp. 677–683 3036:, pp. 401–404 2834:, pp. 246–249 2291:A. Anders (2003). 2061:polyvinyl chloride 1954:borosilicate glass 1869:amorphous material 1833: 1825: 1733:. The size of the 1723:particulate matter 1719: 1702: 1679:polyvinyl chloride 1631: 1623: 1553: 1551:Underwater welding 1543:Unusual conditions 1521:fracture toughness 1497:non-ferrous metals 1481:face-centred cubic 1477:body-centred cubic 1392: 1329: 1222:Heat-affected zone 1200:ultrasonic testing 1142: 1119:heat-affected zone 1114: 1095: 1045:exothermic welding 1007:ultrasonic welding 999: 964:laser beam welding 948:projection welding 912: 894:Resistance welding 888:Resistance welding 844:electrogas welding 790: 749: 608:electrogas welding 604:plasma arc welding 591:Konstantin Khrenov 583: 540: 531:in Poland (1928). 524: 522:Bridge of Maurzyce 484:Resistance welding 462:carbon arc welding 371: 204:laser beam welding 48: 4254: 4253: 3991: 3990: 3934: 3933: 3794:Electroslag (ESW) 3741:Flux-cored (FCAW) 3524:. Prentice Hall. 3367:Weman, pp. 184–89 3261:www.nidcd.nih.gov 2911:Weman, pp. 95–101 2670:978-1-4200-8215-9 2580:on August 3, 2008 2158:978-1-63126-051-3 2093:Aluminium joining 2071:, or for welding 2027:polyvinylchloride 1989:vulcanized rubber 1917:thermal expansion 1788:residual stresses 1714: 1664:and can burn the 1614: 1613: 1420:lattice structure 1286: 1192:visual inspection 1081:Square butt joint 1053:induction welding 1041:diffusion bonding 1014:explosion welding 924:industrial robots 612:diffusion bonding 466:Nikolai Slavyanov 433:De la pirotechnia 87:diffusion bonding 16:(Redirected from 4289: 4081:Grinding machine 4051:Ball-peen hammer 4018: 4011: 4004: 3995: 3994: 3824:Laser beam (LBW) 3731:Electrogas (EGW) 3703: 3696: 3689: 3680: 3679: 3665: 3658: 3651: 3642: 3641: 3580: 3561: 3540:Lincoln Electric 3535: 3516: 3483: 3477: 3471: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3448: 3442: 3428: 3422: 3408: 3402: 3401: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3368: 3365: 3354: 3353: 3343: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3310: 3309: 3293: 3287: 3286:, pp. 52–62 3281: 3272: 3271: 3269: 3268: 3253: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3243: 3229: 3223: 3217: 3211: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3198: 3184: 3178: 3175: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3156: 3144: 3134: 3113: 3112: 3110: 3109: 3094: 3088: 3082: 3076: 3073: 3067: 3064: 3058: 3055: 3049: 3048:Weman, pp. 60–62 3046: 3037: 3031: 3025: 3019: 3013: 3012: 2992: 2982: 2976: 2967: 2961: 2950: 2944: 2943:Weman, pp. 89–90 2941: 2928: 2918: 2912: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2888: 2882: 2881:Weman, pp. 80–84 2879: 2862: 2859: 2853: 2850: 2844: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2823: 2822:Weman, pp. 93–94 2820: 2814: 2811: 2805: 2804:Weman, pp. 37–38 2802: 2796: 2793: 2782: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2764: 2758: 2749: 2746: 2733: 2732: 2714: 2690: 2684: 2681: 2675: 2674: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2645: 2644: 2628: 2622: 2616: 2610: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2585: 2569: 2563: 2560: 2554: 2553: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2496: 2490: 2487: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2446: 2442: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2417:Encyclopedia.com 2409: 2403: 2402: 2400: 2394:, archived from 2367: 2358: 2352: 2345:"Дуговой разряд" 2338: 2332: 2331: 2297: 2288: 2277: 2276: 2272:The Electric Arc 2266: 2257: 2254: 2248: 2245: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2217: 2211: 2205: 2199: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2144: 2123:Welded sculpture 1841:glass transition 1804:structural steel 1762:Costs and trends 1715: 1609: 1606: 1588: 1581: 1493:austenitic steel 1465:Metallic bonding 1368:stress relieving 1338: 1336: 1335: 1330: 1328: 1327: 1291: 1287: 1285: 1274: 1257: 1021:friction welding 848:stud arc welding 574:, was launched. 492:Thermite welding 454:Nikolai Benardos 445:Sir Humphry Davy 401:Glaucus of Chios 340: 334: 321: 315: 302: 293:into English by 276: 263: 253: 247: 175:oxy-fuel welding 122:(electrical), a 21: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4291: 4290: 4288: 4287: 4286: 4257: 4256: 4255: 4250: 4249: 4175: 4156:Thread restorer 4046:Automatic lathe 4032: 4022: 3992: 3987: 3930: 3921:Residual stress 3899: 3858: 3776:Other processes 3770: 3766:Submerged (SAW) 3712: 3707: 3674: 3669: 3630:Welding Process 3625:Wayback Machine 3607: 3588: 3583: 3577: 3558: 3532: 3513: 3492: 3487: 3486: 3478: 3474: 3466: 3462: 3449: 3445: 3429: 3425: 3419:Wayback Machine 3409: 3405: 3398: 3384: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3366: 3357: 3320: 3316: 3307: 3305: 3294: 3290: 3282: 3275: 3266: 3264: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3241: 3239: 3231: 3230: 3226: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3205: 3196: 3194: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3172: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3135: 3116: 3107: 3105: 3103:Knisley Welding 3095: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3052: 3047: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3020: 3016: 3009: 2983: 2979: 2968: 2964: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2931: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2889: 2885: 2880: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2785: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2759: 2752: 2747: 2736: 2691: 2687: 2682: 2678: 2671: 2655: 2651: 2642: 2640: 2629: 2625: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2596: 2592: 2583: 2581: 2570: 2566: 2561: 2557: 2542: 2538: 2529: 2527: 2519: 2518: 2514: 2504: 2502: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2475: 2467: 2463: 2455: 2451: 2444: 2436: 2432: 2422: 2420: 2411: 2410: 2406: 2398: 2371:Physics-Uspekhi 2365: 2359: 2355: 2339: 2335: 2295: 2289: 2280: 2267: 2260: 2255: 2251: 2246: 2239: 2231: 2227: 2218: 2214: 2206: 2202: 2194: 2190: 2182: 2178: 2170: 2166: 2159: 2145: 2141: 2136: 2089: 2067:) pipes during 2053: 2051:Solvent welding 2047: 2045:Solvent welding 1972: 1970:Plastic welding 1966: 1964:Plastic welding 1933:soda-lime glass 1883: 1877: 1857:surface tension 1850: 1846: 1817: 1776:oxyfuel welding 1764: 1704: 1674:welding helmets 1610: 1604: 1601: 1594:needs expansion 1579: 1545: 1416: 1384: 1296: 1295: 1275: 1258: 1256: 1252: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1224: 1180:weld inspectors 1165:welding defects 1133: 1127: 1099:cruciform joint 1093: 1071: 1065: 988: 960: 896: 890: 856: 818:stainless steel 788: 785:Solidified Slag 739: 722: 694: 666:Main articles: 664: 647: 641: 636: 529:Maurzyce Bridge 496:oxyfuel welding 363: 291:Christian Bible 228: 75:solvent welding 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4295: 4285: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4252: 4251: 4248: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4185:Types of tools 4181: 4180: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4116:Milling cutter 4113: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4037: 4034: 4033: 4021: 4020: 4013: 4006: 3998: 3989: 3988: 3986: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3939: 3936: 3935: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3916:Photokeratitis 3913: 3907: 3905: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3859: 3857: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3834:Magnetic pulse 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3780: 3778: 3772: 3771: 3769: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3722: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3706: 3705: 3698: 3691: 3683: 3676: 3675: 3668: 3667: 3660: 3653: 3645: 3639: 3638: 3632: 3627: 3615: 3587: 3586:External links 3584: 3582: 3581: 3575: 3562: 3556: 3536: 3530: 3517: 3511: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3485: 3484: 3472: 3460: 3443: 3423: 3403: 3396: 3378: 3369: 3355: 3314: 3288: 3273: 3248: 3237:www.hse.gov.uk 3224: 3212: 3203: 3179: 3170: 3158: 3151: 3114: 3089: 3077: 3068: 3059: 3050: 3038: 3026: 3014: 3007: 2977: 2962: 2945: 2929: 2913: 2904: 2883: 2863: 2854: 2845: 2836: 2824: 2815: 2806: 2797: 2783: 2774: 2765: 2750: 2734: 2705:(2): 304–314. 2685: 2676: 2669: 2649: 2623: 2611: 2602: 2590: 2564: 2555: 2536: 2512: 2491: 2473: 2461: 2459:, pp. 5–6 2449: 2430: 2404: 2353: 2333: 2278: 2258: 2249: 2237: 2225: 2212: 2200: 2188: 2176: 2164: 2157: 2138: 2137: 2135: 2132: 2131: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2100: 2095: 2088: 2085: 2049:Main article: 2046: 2043: 2011:thermoplastics 2003:Thermoplastics 1968:Main article: 1965: 1962: 1879:Main article: 1876: 1873: 1853:viscous liquid 1848: 1844: 1816: 1813: 1795:steel erection 1763: 1760: 1612: 1611: 1591: 1589: 1578: 1575: 1544: 1541: 1517:yield strength 1415: 1412: 1383: 1380: 1346:= heat input ( 1340: 1339: 1326: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1294: 1290: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1255: 1251: 1248: 1228:heat-treatment 1223: 1220: 1129:Main article: 1126: 1123: 1092: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1078: 1067:Main article: 1064: 1061: 987: 984: 976:laser cladding 959: 956: 892:Main article: 889: 886: 855: 852: 826:plasma cutting 787: 786: 783: 780: 777: 774: 771: 768: 764: 737: 734:carbon dioxide 721: 718: 702:direct current 663: 660: 643:Main article: 640: 637: 635: 632: 456:(Russian) and 362: 359: 236:Middle English 227: 224: 152:electric shock 63:thermoplastics 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4294: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4136:Plasma cutter 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4071:English wheel 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4038: 4035: 4030: 4026: 4019: 4014: 4012: 4007: 4005: 4000: 3999: 3996: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3940: 3937: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3908: 3906: 3904:Related terms 3902: 3896: 3895:Shielding gas 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3865: 3861: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3819:Friction stud 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3773: 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3737: 3734: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3704: 3699: 3697: 3692: 3690: 3685: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3666: 3661: 3659: 3654: 3652: 3647: 3646: 3643: 3636: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3622: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3610: 3605: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3589: 3578: 3576:0-8493-1773-8 3572: 3568: 3563: 3559: 3557:99949-25-82-2 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3531:0-201-36131-0 3527: 3523: 3518: 3514: 3512:0-13-113029-3 3508: 3504: 3500: 3495: 3494: 3481: 3476: 3469: 3464: 3456: 3455: 3447: 3441: 3440:1-58603-866-4 3437: 3433: 3427: 3420: 3416: 3413: 3407: 3399: 3397:0-87170-780-2 3393: 3389: 3382: 3373: 3364: 3362: 3360: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3318: 3303: 3299: 3292: 3285: 3280: 3278: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3238: 3234: 3228: 3221: 3216: 3207: 3193: 3189: 3183: 3174: 3167: 3162: 3154: 3152:1-85573-428-1 3148: 3143: 3142: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3104: 3100: 3093: 3086: 3081: 3072: 3063: 3054: 3045: 3043: 3035: 3030: 3023: 3018: 3010: 3008:0-8311-3130-6 3004: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2990: 2981: 2974: 2973: 2966: 2959: 2955: 2949: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2927: 2926:0-87171-624-0 2923: 2917: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2895: 2887: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2858: 2849: 2840: 2833: 2828: 2819: 2810: 2801: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2778: 2769: 2763:, p. 103 2762: 2757: 2755: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2689: 2680: 2672: 2666: 2662: 2661: 2653: 2639:on 2013-09-01 2638: 2634: 2627: 2620: 2615: 2606: 2599: 2594: 2579: 2575: 2568: 2559: 2551: 2547: 2540: 2526: 2522: 2516: 2501: 2495: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2470: 2465: 2458: 2453: 2440: 2434: 2418: 2414: 2408: 2401:on 2011-02-11 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2372: 2364: 2357: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2306:(5): 1060–9. 2305: 2301: 2294: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2274: 2273: 2265: 2263: 2253: 2244: 2242: 2234: 2229: 2222: 2221:The Histories 2216: 2209: 2204: 2197: 2192: 2185: 2180: 2173: 2168: 2160: 2154: 2150: 2143: 2139: 2129: 2128:Welding table 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2090: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2052: 2042: 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2019:polypropylene 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1971: 1961: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1937: 1934: 1928: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1895:glass casting 1892: 1888: 1882: 1875:Glass welding 1872: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1842: 1838: 1837:melting point 1829: 1821: 1812: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1783: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1698: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1675: 1671: 1668:of the eyes. 1667: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1627: 1618: 1608: 1599: 1595: 1592:This section 1590: 1587: 1583: 1582: 1577:Safety issues 1574: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1549: 1540: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1512: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1471: 1466: 1462: 1460: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1421: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1388: 1379: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1292: 1288: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1253: 1249: 1246: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1234: 1229: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1152:fixed pipe). 1149: 1147: 1137: 1132: 1122: 1120: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1100: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1069:Welding joint 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1017: 1015: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1003:forge welding 997: 992: 983: 981: 980:x-ray welding 977: 973: 969: 965: 955: 953: 952:upset welding 949: 945: 944:flash welding 941: 936: 931: 929: 925: 921: 916: 908: 904: 902: 895: 885: 883: 879: 874: 868: 865: 861: 851: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 827: 823: 819: 814: 811: 807: 803: 801: 796: 794: 784: 781: 778: 775: 772: 769: 766: 765: 761: 757: 755: 745: 741: 735: 731: 727: 717: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 659: 656: 651: 646: 631: 629: 625: 621: 615: 613: 609: 605: 600: 596: 592: 588: 579: 575: 573: 572: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 545: 544:Shielding gas 536: 532: 530: 520: 516: 514: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 488:Elihu Thomson 485: 481: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 450: 449:Vasily Petrov 446: 441: 439: 435: 434: 429: 425: 424:forge welding 421: 416: 414: 410: 407:, erected in 406: 402: 398: 397: 396:The Histories 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 367: 358: 356: 352: 348: 344: 339: 333: 328: 323: 320: 314: 308: 306: 301: 296: 295:John Wycliffe 292: 288: 284: 280: 275: 270: 267: 262: 257: 252: 246: 241: 237: 233: 223: 221: 220:robot welding 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 163:forge welding 159: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 128:electron beam 125: 121: 116: 114: 110: 105: 103: 99: 95: 90: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 44: 40: 36: 34: 19: 4170: 4166:Turret lathe 4106:Machine tool 4029:metalworking 3982: 3885:Power supply 3875:Filler metal 3829:Laser-hybrid 3756:Plasma (PAW) 3672:Metalworking 3597: 3566: 3543: 3521: 3498: 3479: 3475: 3467: 3463: 3453: 3446: 3431: 3426: 3406: 3387: 3381: 3372: 3334:(1): 43–50. 3331: 3327: 3317: 3306:. Retrieved 3301: 3291: 3265:. Retrieved 3263:. 2020-09-24 3260: 3251: 3240:. Retrieved 3236: 3227: 3215: 3206: 3195:. Retrieved 3191: 3182: 3173: 3161: 3140: 3106:. Retrieved 3102: 3092: 3084: 3080: 3071: 3062: 3053: 3029: 3017: 2988: 2980: 2970: 2965: 2957: 2948: 2916: 2907: 2893: 2886: 2861:Weman, p. 16 2857: 2848: 2839: 2827: 2818: 2813:Weman, p. 68 2809: 2800: 2795:Weman, p. 31 2781:Weman, p. 53 2777: 2768: 2748:Weman, p. 63 2702: 2698: 2688: 2679: 2659: 2652: 2641:. Retrieved 2637:the original 2626: 2614: 2605: 2593: 2582:. Retrieved 2578:the original 2567: 2558: 2550:The Engineer 2549: 2539: 2528:. Retrieved 2524: 2515: 2503:. Retrieved 2494: 2489:Weman, p. 26 2464: 2452: 2433: 2421:. Retrieved 2416: 2407: 2396:the original 2375: 2369: 2356: 2349:electric arc 2348: 2344: 2336: 2303: 2299: 2271: 2252: 2228: 2220: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2179: 2171: 2167: 2148: 2142: 2054: 2039: 2015:polyethylene 2001: 1997:polyurethane 1973: 1938: 1929: 1913: 1904:fused silica 1884: 1881:Glassblowing 1834: 1792: 1784: 1780: 1765: 1751:heavy metals 1720: 1689:can lead to 1635: 1632: 1602: 1598:adding to it 1593: 1554: 1537: 1525: 1513: 1474: 1463: 1455: 1424: 1417: 1400:shot peening 1393: 1376: 1363: 1359: 1351: 1343: 1341: 1225: 1169: 1154: 1150: 1143: 1115: 1103: 1096: 1084:V butt joint 1057:roll bonding 1037:cold welding 1018: 1011: 1000: 961: 940:butt welding 935:seam welding 932: 928:shot welding 915:Spot welding 913: 897: 869: 857: 830: 815: 804: 797: 791: 767:Coating Flow 750: 723: 695: 652: 648: 616: 587:stud welding 584: 570: 541: 525: 482: 470:C. L. Coffin 442: 431: 417: 394: 372: 324: 319:samodwellung 309: 304: 278: 268: 255: 239: 231: 229: 160: 120:electric arc 117: 106: 102:filler metal 91: 83:cold welding 50: 49: 39: 32: 4245:Woodworking 4151:Tap and die 4111:Metal lathe 4076:Gear shaper 4061:Drill press 4041:Arbor press 3948:Fabrication 3926:Weldability 3718:Arc welding 3592:‹ The 3085:How To Weld 3075:Weman, p. 5 2621:, p. 9 2600:, p. 7 2471:, p. 6 2235:, p. 4 2219:Herodotus. 2023:polystyrene 1908:oxyhydrogen 1487:. Ferritic 1451:compressive 1354:= voltage ( 1196:radiography 1157:destructive 1146:weldability 1023:(including 910:Spot welder 878:square wave 668:Arc welding 662:Arc welding 639:Gas welding 504:Edmund Davy 438:Renaissance 420:Middle Ages 413:metric tons 387:Middle East 347:Middle Ages 327:Old Swedish 171:Arc welding 167:blacksmiths 144:outer space 140:under water 55:fabrication 4261:Categories 3968:Metallurgy 3849:Ultrasonic 3844:Spot (RSW) 3799:Exothermic 3503:New Jersey 3308:2023-02-20 3267:2024-08-15 3242:2024-08-15 3197:2019-10-12 3108:2022-12-22 2643:2011-01-13 2584:2008-04-29 2530:2023-02-20 2439:US 363,320 2343:, Article 2134:References 2063:) or ABS ( 2035:Spectralon 1946:molybdenum 1936:possible. 1900:lead glass 1891:flashtubes 1887:neon signs 1677:made of a 1533:microscope 1414:Metallurgy 782:Weld metal 779:Base metal 773:Shield Gas 710:electrodes 571:Carolinian 511:(known as 430:published 393:states in 355:Viking Age 338:valla järn 266:participle 136:ultrasound 4096:Jig borer 3963:Machining 3958:Jewellery 3870:Electrode 3863:Equipment 3548:Cleveland 2729:139797543 2721:1864-1245 2423:9 October 2399:(Russian) 2392:250892442 2098:Fasteners 1993:polyester 1976:thermoset 1921:annealing 1800:bar joist 1755:manganese 1735:particles 1501:aluminium 1372:tempering 1293:× 1280:× 1269:× 1263:× 1184:engineers 1174:to guide 1087:Lap joint 882:sine wave 754:cast iron 730:oxidation 714:inert gas 634:Processes 565:magnesium 500:Acetylene 443:In 1800, 391:Herodotus 379:Iron Ages 230:The term 226:Etymology 142:, and in 109:weld pool 98:soldering 4200:Forestry 4190:Cleaning 4161:Tool bit 4066:End mill 3973:Smithing 3809:Friction 3637:at CCOHS 3621:Archived 3594:template 3542:(1994). 3415:Archived 3350:18523535 2995:New York 2328:11047670 2087:See also 2069:plumbing 2057:solvents 1985:silicone 1950:Tungsten 1739:toxicity 1687:decibels 1638:hot work 1605:May 2023 1431:covalent 1063:Geometry 810:tungsten 704:(DC) or 614:method. 561:aluminum 549:hydrogen 385:and the 274:wællende 165:, which 132:friction 113:oxidized 4277:Joining 4267:Welding 4225:Masonry 4215:Kitchen 4086:Hacksaw 4025:Machine 3983:Welding 3953:Forming 3943:Casting 3710:Welding 3609:Welding 3596:below ( 3490:Sources 3341:2322933 2894:Forging 2308:Bibcode 2073:styrene 1981:epoxies 1670:Goggles 1666:retinas 1658:arc eye 1650:leather 1642:welders 1566:Soyuz 6 1562:Russian 1558:vacuums 1529:fibrous 1470:ductile 1459:brittle 1447:tension 1439:bonding 1435:valence 1176:welders 1125:Quality 1090:T-joint 864:voltage 860:current 842:(ESW), 822:bicycle 599:ferrous 474:Britain 361:History 256:welling 94:brazing 51:Welding 4235:Mining 4205:Garden 4171:Welder 4146:Shaper 4131:Planer 4056:Broach 3880:Helmet 3613:Curlie 3599:Curlie 3573: 3554: 3528: 3509: 3438: 3394: 3348: 3338: 3149: 3005: 2924: 2727: 2719: 2667: 2505:18 May 2445: 2390: 2347:(eng. 2326: 2155: 2077:models 2031:Teflon 1995:, and 1958:alloys 1942:copper 1768:energy 1731:oxides 1683:filter 1662:cornea 1653:gloves 1509:nickel 1505:copper 1350:/mm), 1342:where 1140:metal. 1055:, and 978:, and 950:, and 846:, and 776:Fusion 690:, and 655:oxygen 650:work. 557:helium 555:, and 383:Europe 375:Bronze 351:Viking 343:Sweden 287:Saxons 283:Angles 269:welled 261:wællen 214:, and 134:, and 85:, and 71:fusion 59:metals 35:(play) 33:Welded 18:Welded 4240:Power 4101:Lathe 4031:tools 3890:Robot 3854:Upset 3804:Forge 3736:Flash 3001:–55. 2725:S2CID 2388:S2CID 2366:(PDF) 2324:S2CID 2296:(PDF) 1865:honey 1861:taffy 1747:ozone 1727:smoke 1644:wear 1499:like 1489:steel 1427:ionic 1214:, or 1001:Like 873:anode 553:argon 508:torch 409:Delhi 332:valla 329:word 313:samod 254:) or 251:wælle 238:verb 148:burns 126:, an 124:laser 53:is a 4210:Hand 4121:Mill 4027:and 3571:ISBN 3552:ISBN 3526:ISBN 3507:ISBN 3436:ISBN 3392:ISBN 3346:PMID 3147:ISBN 3003:ISBN 2922:ISBN 2717:ISSN 2665:ISBN 2507:2017 2425:2014 2153:ISBN 2033:and 2009:for 1802:and 1774:and 1672:and 1507:and 1483:and 1443:ions 1429:and 1370:and 1283:1000 1027:and 966:and 569:M/S 563:and 513:flux 418:The 377:and 285:and 245:wæll 240:well 232:weld 198:and 173:and 96:and 67:melt 4091:Hob 3611:at 3336:PMC 2707:doi 2380:doi 2316:doi 1944:or 1863:to 1693:. 1600:. 1437:or 1358:), 1159:or 1031:), 770:Rod 736:(CO 381:in 89:. 61:or 4263:: 3546:. 3358:^ 3344:. 3332:11 3330:. 3326:. 3300:. 3276:^ 3259:. 3235:. 3190:. 3117:^ 3101:. 3041:^ 2999:52 2993:. 2956:. 2932:^ 2899:26 2866:^ 2786:^ 2753:^ 2737:^ 2723:. 2715:. 2703:18 2701:. 2697:. 2548:. 2523:. 2476:^ 2415:. 2386:, 2376:42 2374:, 2368:, 2322:. 2314:. 2304:31 2302:. 2298:. 2281:^ 2261:^ 2240:^ 2083:. 2037:. 2025:, 2021:, 2017:, 1999:. 1991:, 1987:, 1983:, 1927:. 1889:, 1871:. 1811:. 1523:. 1503:, 1495:, 1479:, 1472:. 1461:. 1406:, 1402:, 1398:, 1374:. 1348:kJ 1272:60 1210:, 1206:, 1202:, 1198:, 1194:, 1182:, 1178:, 1059:. 1047:, 1043:, 1039:, 982:. 954:. 946:, 942:, 838:, 686:, 682:, 678:, 674:, 670:, 551:, 415:. 210:, 206:, 194:, 190:, 158:. 150:, 130:, 115:. 4017:e 4010:t 4003:v 3702:e 3695:t 3688:v 3664:e 3657:t 3650:v 3579:. 3560:. 3534:. 3515:. 3400:. 3352:. 3311:. 3270:. 3245:. 3200:. 3155:. 3111:. 3011:. 2960:. 2901:. 2731:. 2709:: 2673:. 2646:. 2587:. 2533:. 2509:. 2427:. 2382:: 2351:) 2330:. 2318:: 2310:: 2161:. 1849:m 1845:g 1607:) 1603:( 1364:S 1360:I 1356:V 1352:V 1344:Q 1325:y 1322:c 1319:n 1316:e 1313:i 1310:c 1307:i 1304:f 1301:f 1298:E 1289:) 1277:S 1266:I 1260:V 1254:( 1250:= 1247:Q 901:A 738:2 279:d 271:( 258:( 242:( 37:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index