163:
they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance. Under normal arc length conditions, a constant current power supply with a stick electrode operates at about 20 volts.
172:
for example, on thin sheet metal in an attempt to prevent burn-through." "With few exceptions, electrode-positive (reversed polarity) results in deeper penetration. Electrode-negative (straight polarity) results in faster melt-off of the electrode and, therefore, faster deposition rate." Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as alternating current (AC). With direct current however, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a
584:
ground potential and operators may be standing or resting on these surfaces during operating of the electric arc. Welding machines operating off AC power distribution systems must isolate the arc circuit from earth ground to prevent insulation faults in the machine from exposing operators to high voltage. The return clamp of the welding machine is located near to the work area, to reduce the risk of stray current traveling a long way to create heating hazards or electric shock exposure, or to cause damage to sensitive electronic devices. Welding operators are careful to install return clamps so that welding current cannot pass through the bearings of electric motors, conveyor rollers, or other rotating components, which would cause damage to bearings. Welding on electrical buswork connected to
229:. The electrode rod is made of a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered with a flux that gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes have made possible the welding of
289:(SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself and, combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes since the flux hides the arc and no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products. As the arc is not visible, it is typically automated. SAW is only possible in the 1F (flat fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet), and 1G (flat groove) positions.
71:
381:. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the water decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the material, causing its brittleness. Stick electrodes for such materials, with special low-hydrogen coating, are delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New electrodes can be used straight from the can, but when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be dried by baking (usually at 450 to 550 °C or 840 to 1,020 °F) in a drying oven. Flux used has to be kept dry as well.
714:
214:
136:
61:
144:
459:
504:
22:
76:
75:
72:
623:
77:
283:(FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique. FCAW wire is actually a fine metal tube filled with powdered flux materials. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability.
308:, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to
74:
259:), is a semi-automatic or automatic welding process with a continuously fed consumable wire acting as both electrode and filler metal, along with an inert or semi-inert shielding gas flowed around the wire to protect the weld site from contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant
127:(e.g. an inert gas), vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.
752:
During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the 1920 introduction of automatic welding in which electrode wire was continuously fed. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen
583:
While the open-circuit voltage of an arc welding machine may be only a few tens of volts up to about 120 volts, even these low voltages can present a hazard of electric shock for the operators. Locations such as ship's hulls, storage tanks, metal structural steel, or in wet areas are usually at earth
166:
The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In general, the positively
494:
and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks. The use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes also pose an explosion and fire risk; some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials
327:
to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and
162:
power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because
171:
will have a greater heat concentration (around 60%). "Note that for stick welding in general, DC+ polarity is most commonly used. It produces a good bead profile with a higher level of penetration. DC− polarity results in less penetration and a higher electrode melt-off rate. It is sometimes used,
186:
is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes, within a 10-minute period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For example, an 80 A welder with a 60% duty cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes after 6 minutes of continuous welding. Failure to
433:
dissolves in steel at very high temperatures. At some cooling regimes, niobium carbide does not precipitate, and the steel then behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it
543:—are worn to prevent this exposure. In recent years, new helmet models have been produced featuring a face plate which automatically self-darkens electronically. To protect bystanders, transparent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a
434:
difficult to spot and increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a whole to about 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium carbide forms. The cooling rate after this treatment is not important.
263:
alternating current are used as well. With continuously fed filler electrodes, GMAW offers relatively high welding speeds; however the more complicated equipment reduces convenience and versatility in comparison to the SMAW process. Originally developed for welding
73:
466:
Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however, with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with welding can be greatly reduced.
276:
for its quality, versatility and speed. Because of the need to maintain a stable shroud of shielding gas around the weld site, it can be problematic to use the GMAW process in areas of high air movement such as outdoors.
445:
if the electrode composition is sufficiently dissimilar to the materials welded, or the materials are dissimilar themselves. Even between different grades of nickel-based stainless steels, corrosion of
741:
at the beginning of the war. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, and some German airplane fuselages were constructed using this process. In 1919, the
British shipbuilder
596:
Certain welding machines which use a high frequency alternating current component have been found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2 meters of the power unit and 1 meter of the weld site.
419:. Such sensitized steel undergoes corrosion in the areas near the welds where the temperature-time was favorable for forming the carbide. This kind of corrosion is often termed weld decay.
225:(SMAW), which is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or
1439:
695:
proposed the usage of three-phase electric arc for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C. J. Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.
655:
discovered the continuous electric arc in 1802 and subsequently proposed its possible practical applications, including welding. Arc welding was first developed when
781:. This, in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during
820:
process debuted in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds. In that same year,
154:
To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant
706:
were developed during this time as well; but both, especially the latter, faced stiff competition from arc welding especially after metal coverings (known as
911:
1848:
1580:
571:
of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce various gases (most commonly carbon dioxide and
733:
steel plates. The
Americans also became more accepting of the new technology when the process allowed them to repair their ships quickly after a
1524:
660:
100:
to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals, when cool, result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a
1810:
971:
864: – use of mechanized programmable tools, which completely automate a welding process by both performing the weld and handling the part
1446:
245:
and other metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of applications including repair work and construction.
1102:
588:
presents a danger of the low welding voltage being "stepped up" to much higher voltages, so extra grounding cables may be required.
187:
observe duty cycle limitations could damage the welder. Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100% duty cycle.
1120:
1841:
946:
1701:
1683:
1662:
1644:
1472:
1401:
1375:
1198:
Marco, David; Eisinger, George; Hayes, David L. (1992). "Testing of work environments for electromagnetic interference".
773:
as welding atmospheres. During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals such as
679:. The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 19th century by a Russian,
1834:
1803:
1769:
1750:
1732:
710:) for the electrode, to stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities, continued to be developed.
112:") and the base material to melt the metals at the point of contact. Arc welding power supplies can deliver either
540:
332:; automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is
1135:
475:
Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns from heat and
1577:
1986:
1796:
851:
816:
atmosphere as a shielding gas, it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the
507:
Auto darkening welding hood with 90 × 110 mm cartridge and 3.78 × 1.85 in viewing area
2161:
1931:
1716:
652:
1908:
222:
196:
415:
and depleting the crystal edges of chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance in a process called
1923:
1394:
Nature mathematized: historical and philosophical case studies in classical modern natural philosophy
1318:
841:
671:
also invented a carbon arc welding method, patented in 1881, which was successfully used for welding
1534:
1249:
1245:
1159:
1898:
856:
801:
617:
437:
Filler metal (electrode material) improperly chosen for the environmental conditions can make them
297:
180:, eliminating low-voltage time after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.
183:
2125:
1873:
870:
400:
340:
377:
Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminum, and titanium alloys, are susceptible to
2156:
1981:
1888:
875:
817:
378:
368:
280:
204:
668:
664:
1966:
1961:
1936:
1913:
1893:
846:
805:
789:
676:
450:
can be severe, despite that they rarely undergo galvanic corrosion when mechanically joined.
286:
260:
248:
208:
200:
64:
925:
2151:
2032:
1976:
1351:
1278:
1266:
416:
101:
312:
and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in
8:
1941:
1099:
825:
547:
plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.
484:
403:. When subjected to temperatures around 700 °C (1,300 °F) for too long a time,
348:
273:
117:
1355:
1282:
304:(TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that uses a non-consumable electrode made of
2058:
1996:
1971:
1946:
1903:
1878:
1367:
1294:
1223:
1211:
829:
821:
797:
793:
713:
699:
692:
609:
544:
442:
372:
352:
344:
320:
155:
1417:
812:
materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable electrode and a
147:
A diesel powered welding generator (the electric generator is on the left) as used in
2100:
2095:
1765:
1746:
1728:
1697:
1679:
1658:
1640:
1468:
1397:
1371:
1215:
1117:
707:
680:
559:
matter. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce
516:
36:
1363:
1335:"Historical essay on the 200 years of the development of natural sciences in Russia"
1298:
1227:
651:
discovered the short pulsed electric arcs. Independently, a
Russian physicist named
268:
and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically applied to
1956:
1857:
1671:
1359:
1286:
1207:
656:
626:
425:(KLA) is another kind of corrosion affecting welds, impacting steels stabilized by
422:
412:
356:
324:
40:
1782:
1334:
691:
a coated metal electrode which gave a more stable arc. In 1905, Russian scientist
120:(AC) current to the work, while consumable or non-consumable electrodes are used.
2068:
1584:
1529:
1342:
1124:
1106:
1016:
738:
703:
613:
528:
430:
388:
309:
1566:
1267:"Tracking down the origin of arc plasma science-II. early continuous discharges"
2063:
2027:
813:
761:
were the primary problems and the solutions that developed included the use of
688:
532:
333:
113:
328:
is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except
81:
Man welding a metal structure in a newly constructed house in
Bengaluru, India
2145:
2042:
2037:
2001:
1951:
1883:
1785:
video (25:39) from U.S. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
1761:
861:
742:
633:
605:
575:, but others as well) that can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate.
447:
124:
1290:
792:
was invented in 1930 and continues to be popular today. In 1932, a
Russian,
2022:
1991:
1819:
782:
726:
684:
648:
476:
105:
1219:
788:
During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented.
2073:
758:
722:
585:
556:
173:
97:
511:
Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called
213:
2120:
2115:
637:
385:
135:
60:
2110:
2105:
2017:
1742:
778:
717:
A young woman arc welding in a munitions factory in
Australia in 1943
438:
329:
230:
177:
148:
109:
143:
1463:
Houldcroft, P. T. (1973) . "Chapter 3: Flux-Shielded Arc
Welding".
912:"Selecting a Constant Current (CC) DC Welder for Training Purposes"
774:
762:
754:
641:
536:
404:
305:
265:
238:
31:
804:, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941 and
2130:
2090:
809:
734:
512:
488:
458:
426:
313:
159:
89:
659:
presented arc welding of metals using a carbon electrode at the
503:
1788:
1418:"Encyclopedia.com. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography"
770:
622:
567:. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the
524:
520:
480:
408:
392:
242:
234:
55:
Process used to fuse metal by using heat from an electrical arc
766:
730:
572:
568:
564:
560:
491:
396:
269:
168:
93:
1724:
672:
644:, arc welding did not come into practice until much later.
749:, with an entirely welded hull; she was launched in 1921.
926:"Welding Metallurgy: Arc Physics and Weld Pool Behaviour"
272:. Today, GMAW is commonly used in industries such as the
1188:, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1983 ISBN 0750616458, page 531
667:
in 1887. In the same year, French electrical inventor
555:
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and
123:
The welding area is usually protected by some type of
1639:, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education,
828:
was released in 1958 and was followed by its cousin,
866:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
808:
followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-
470:
292:
1197:
1739:Health and Safety in Welding and Allied Processes
2143:
1670:
1652:
1607:
1554:
1051:
991:
535:with dark face plates—much darker than those in
591:
221:One of the most common types of arc welding is
190:
1653:Kalpakjian, Serope; Schmid, Steven R. (2001),
1017:http://www.zena.net/htdocs/FAQ/dutycycle.shtml
661:International Exposition of Electricity, Paris
1842:
1804:
745:started construction of a merchant ship, the
687:. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released in
441:-sensitive as well. There are also issues of
139:Engine driven welder capable of AC/DC welding
914:. Miller Electric Mfg. LLC. 1 December 2007.
1186:Electrical Safety Engineering Third Edition
1849:
1835:
1811:
1797:
1635:Cary, Howard B.; Helzer, Scott C. (2005),
1634:
1619:
1595:
1499:
1487:
1467:. Cambridge University Press. p. 23.
1462:
1385:
1312:"Дуговой разряд" [electric arc],
1172:
1146:
1039:
898:
663:in 1881, which was patented together with
323:, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses
1737:Blunt, Jane and Nigel C. Balchin (2002).
1260:
1258:
563:containing particles of various types of
1655:Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
1601:
1567:Royal Naval & World Events time line
1548:
1505:
1481:
712:
621:
502:
457:
212:
142:
134:
69:
59:
1332:
1100:Drive Off Moisture and Get Better Welds
2144:
1264:
1255:
1252:. D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1902.
336:, an efficient steel cutting process.
1830:
1792:
1691:
1678:, Cleveland, Ohio: Lincoln Electric,
1676:The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding
1511:
1440:"Beginnings of submerged arc welding"
1087:
1075:
1063:
1027:
1003:
1391:
1015:What does welder "duty cycle" mean?
698:Competing welding processes such as
578:
339:Other arc welding processes include
316:, aircraft and marine applications.
15:
1271:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science
847:Gas metal arc ("MIG"/"MAG") welding
796:successfully implemented the first
362:
13:
1710:
1396:. Dordrecht: Reidel. p. 282.
1212:10.1111/j.1540-8159.1992.tb03013.x
904:
857:Tungsten inert gas ("TIG") welding
14:
2173:
1776:
550:
479:is significant. To prevent them,
130:
1818:
1381:from the original on 2011-02-11.
725:, welding started to be used in
471:Heat, fire, and explosion hazard
453:
293:Non-consumable electrode methods
20:
1909:Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW)
1899:Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW)
1613:
1589:
1571:
1560:
1517:
1493:
1456:
1432:
1420:. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2008
1410:
1364:10.1070/PU1999v042n12ABEH000750
1333:Lazarev, P.P. (December 1999),
1326:
1305:
1234:
1191:
1178:
1166:
1152:
1140:
1129:
1111:
1093:
1081:
1069:
1057:
1045:
1033:
972:"AC/DC: Understanding Polarity"
798:underwater electric arc welding
1894:Gas metal (Microwire/MIG/GMAW)
1392:Shea, William R., ed. (1983).
1314:Большая советская энциклопедия
1021:
1009:
997:
985:
964:
939:
918:
892:
176:pattern instead of the normal
1:
947:"DC vs. AC Polarity for SMAW"
881:
729:in Great Britain in place of
498:
92:process that is used to join
1874:Atomic hydrogen (Athydo/AHW)
1578:Case Studies on Shipbuilding
1533:. 1941-12-15. Archived from
592:Interference with pacemakers
191:Consumable electrode methods
158:power supplies and constant
7:
1856:
1160:"Through a Glass, Darkly -"
835:
519:causes inflammation of the
29:It has been suggested that
10:
2178:
1721:Trends in Welding Research
1694:Welding processes handbook
1628:
1200:Pacing Clin Electrophysiol
1184:W. Fordham Cooper (ed).),
603:
599:
366:
223:shielded metal arc welding
217:Shielded metal arc welding
197:Shielded metal arc welding
194:
2086:
2051:
2010:
1932:Electric resistance (ERW)
1922:
1864:
1826:
1637:Modern Welding Technology
1583:February 3, 2009, at the
1319:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
842:List of welding processes
683:(1888), and an American,
495:away from the workplace.
411:in the material, forming
1313:
886:
802:Gas tungsten arc welding
618:Gas tungsten arc welding
462:Welding safety checklist
298:Gas tungsten arc welding
251:(GMAW), commonly called
108:between a metal stick ("
46:Proposed since May 2024.
1696:, New York: CRC Press,
1291:10.1109/TPS.2003.815477
1118:Intergranular Corrosion
1105:March 15, 2006, at the
871:Sensors for arc welding
401:intergranular corrosion
341:atomic hydrogen welding
1620:Cary & Helzer 2005
1596:Cary & Helzer 2005
1500:Cary & Helzer 2005
1488:Cary & Helzer 2005
1173:Cary & Helzer 2005
1147:Cary & Helzer 2005
1040:Cary & Helzer 2005
899:Cary & Helzer 2005
876:Weld quality assurance
818:flux-cored arc welding
718:
675:in the manufacture of
629:
508:
463:
379:hydrogen embrittlement
369:Hydrogen embrittlement
281:Flux-cored arc welding
218:
205:Flux-cored arc welding
151:
140:
82:
67:
2126:Tools and terminology
1727:: ASM International.
1608:Lincoln Electric 1994
1555:Lincoln Electric 1994
1052:Lincoln Electric 1994
992:Lincoln Electric 1994
806:gas metal arc welding
790:Submerged arc welding
716:
625:
506:
487:in the form of heavy
461:
287:Submerged arc welding
249:Gas metal arc welding
216:
209:Submerged arc welding
201:Gas metal arc welding
146:
138:
80:
65:Gas metal arc welding
63:
1764:: Industrial Press.
1756:Hicks, John (1999).
1692:Weman, Klas (2003),
1206:(11 Pt 2): 2016–22.
1175:, pp. 42, 49–51
102:welding power supply
39:into this article. (
1962:Friction stir (FSW)
1937:Electron-beam (EBW)
1783:Arc Flash Awareness
1758:Welded Joint Design
1537:on February 2, 2009
1356:1999PhyU...42.1247L
1350:(1247): 1351–1361,
1283:2003ITPS...31.1060A
1265:Anders, A. (2003).
826:Electroslag welding
753:in the atmosphere.
677:lead–acid batteries
669:Auguste de Méritens
665:Stanisław Olszewski
485:protective clothing
349:electroslag welding
319:A related process,
274:automobile industry
2162:Russian inventions
2059:Heat-affected zone
1987:Oxyacetylene (OAW)
1723:. Materials Park,
1322:] (in Russian)
1136:Galvanic Corrosion
1123:2006-04-21 at the
901:, pp. 246–249
830:electrogas welding
822:plasma arc welding
794:Konstantin Khrenov
719:
700:resistance welding
693:Vladimir Mitkevich
632:While examples of
630:
610:Resistance welding
545:polyvinyl chloride
509:
464:
443:galvanic corrosion
373:Galvanic corrosion
353:electrogas welding
345:carbon arc welding
321:plasma arc welding
302:tungsten/inert-gas
219:
152:
141:
96:to metal by using
83:
68:
2139:
2138:
2082:
2081:
1942:Electroslag (ESW)
1889:Flux-cored (FCAW)
1717:ASM International
1703:978-0-8493-1773-6
1685:978-99949-25-82-7
1664:978-0-201-36131-5
1657:, Prentice-Hall,
1646:978-0-13-113029-6
1474:978-0-521-05341-9
1465:Welding Processes
1403:978-90-277-1402-2
681:Nikolai Slavyanov
579:Electrical safety
523:and can burn the
517:ultraviolet light
78:
53:
52:
48:
2169:
1972:Laser beam (LBW)
1879:Electrogas (EGW)
1851:
1844:
1837:
1828:
1827:
1813:
1806:
1799:
1790:
1789:
1706:
1688:
1672:Lincoln Electric
1667:
1649:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1610:, pp. 1.1–6
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1575:
1569:
1564:
1558:
1557:, pp. 1.1–5
1552:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1542:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1445:. Archived from
1444:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1414:
1408:
1407:
1389:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1339:
1330:
1324:
1323:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1262:
1253:
1242:The Electric Arc
1238:
1232:
1231:
1195:
1189:
1182:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1156:
1150:
1149:, pp. 52–62
1144:
1138:
1133:
1127:
1115:
1109:
1097:
1091:
1090:, pp. 37–38
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
982:
980:
978:
968:
962:
961:
959:
957:
951:Lincoln Electric
943:
937:
936:
930:
922:
916:
915:
908:
902:
896:
867:
852:Oxy-fuel welding
657:Nikolai Benardos
627:Nikolay Benardos
541:oxy-fuel goggles
423:Knifeline attack
413:chromium carbide
389:stainless steels
363:Corrosion issues
357:stud arc welding
79:
44:
24:
23:
16:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2078:
2069:Residual stress
2047:
2006:
1924:Other processes
1918:
1914:Submerged (SAW)
1860:
1855:
1822:
1817:
1779:
1713:
1711:Further reading
1704:
1686:
1665:
1647:
1631:
1626:
1618:
1614:
1606:
1602:
1594:
1590:
1585:Wayback Machine
1576:
1572:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1540:
1538:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1498:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1423:
1421:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1390:
1386:
1378:
1343:Physics-Uspekhi
1337:
1331:
1327:
1315:
1311:
1310:
1306:
1263:
1256:
1240:Hertha Ayrton.
1239:
1235:
1196:
1192:
1183:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1158:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1130:
1125:Wayback Machine
1116:
1112:
1107:Wayback Machine
1098:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1054:, p. 5.4.3
1050:
1046:
1038:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1014:
1010:
1002:
998:
994:, p. 5.4.5
990:
986:
976:
974:
970:
969:
965:
955:
953:
945:
944:
940:
928:
924:
923:
919:
910:
909:
905:
897:
893:
889:
884:
865:
838:
739:New York Harbor
704:oxyfuel welding
636:go back to the
620:
614:Oxyfuel welding
604:Main articles:
602:
594:
581:
553:
529:Welding goggles
501:
473:
456:
431:niobium carbide
375:
367:Main articles:
365:
310:stainless steel
295:
257:metal/inert-gas
211:
195:Main articles:
193:
133:
70:
56:
49:
25:
21:
12:
11:
5:
2175:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2064:Photokeratitis
2061:
2055:
2053:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1982:Magnetic pulse
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1928:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1870:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1854:
1853:
1846:
1839:
1831:
1824:
1823:
1816:
1815:
1808:
1801:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1778:
1777:External links
1775:
1774:
1773:
1754:
1735:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1702:
1689:
1684:
1668:
1663:
1650:
1645:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1624:
1612:
1600:
1588:
1570:
1559:
1547:
1516:
1504:
1492:
1490:, pp. 5–6
1480:
1473:
1455:
1452:on 2016-03-04.
1431:
1409:
1402:
1384:
1325:
1304:
1254:
1233:
1190:
1177:
1165:
1151:
1139:
1128:
1110:
1092:
1080:
1068:
1056:
1044:
1032:
1020:
1008:
996:
984:
963:
938:
917:
903:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
879:
878:
873:
868:
859:
854:
849:
844:
837:
834:
824:was invented.
814:carbon dioxide
737:attack in the
601:
598:
593:
590:
580:
577:
552:
551:Inhaled matter
549:
500:
497:
472:
469:
455:
452:
429:. Niobium and
364:
361:
334:plasma cutting
294:
291:
192:
189:
132:
131:Power supplies
129:
54:
51:
50:
28:
26:
19:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2174:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2157:Electric arcs
2155:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2052:Related terms
2050:
2044:
2043:Shielding gas
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1967:Friction stud
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1847:
1845:
1840:
1838:
1833:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1809:
1807:
1802:
1800:
1795:
1794:
1791:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1771:
1770:0-8311-3130-6
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1751:1-85573-538-5
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1733:0-87170-780-2
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1705:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1687:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1632:
1621:
1616:
1609:
1604:
1597:
1592:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1568:
1563:
1556:
1551:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1520:
1513:
1508:
1501:
1496:
1489:
1484:
1476:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1448:
1441:
1435:
1419:
1413:
1405:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1344:
1336:
1329:
1321:
1320:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1277:(5): 1060–9.
1276:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1187:
1181:
1174:
1169:
1161:
1155:
1148:
1143:
1137:
1132:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1114:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1096:
1089:
1084:
1077:
1072:
1065:
1060:
1053:
1048:
1042:, p. 103
1041:
1036:
1029:
1024:
1018:
1012:
1005:
1000:
993:
988:
973:
967:
952:
948:
942:
934:
927:
921:
913:
907:
900:
895:
891:
877:
874:
872:
869:
863:
862:Robot welding
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
839:
833:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
786:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
750:
748:
744:
743:Cammell Laird
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
715:
711:
709:
705:
701:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
653:Vasily Petrov
650:
645:
643:
639:
635:
634:forge welding
628:
624:
619:
615:
611:
607:
606:Forge welding
597:
589:
587:
576:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
548:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
527:of the eyes.
526:
522:
518:
514:
505:
496:
493:
490:
486:
482:
478:
468:
460:
454:Safety issues
451:
449:
448:welded joints
444:
440:
435:
432:
428:
424:
420:
418:
417:sensitization
414:
410:
406:
402:
399:are prone to
398:
394:
390:
387:
382:
380:
374:
370:
360:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
337:
335:
331:
326:
322:
317:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
290:
288:
284:
282:
278:
275:
271:
267:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
215:
210:
206:
202:
198:
188:
185:
181:
179:
175:
170:
164:
161:
157:
150:
145:
137:
128:
126:
125:shielding gas
121:
119:
115:
111:
107:
104:to create an
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
66:
62:
58:
47:
42:
38:
34:
33:
27:
18:
17:
2033:Power supply
2023:Filler metal
1977:Laser-hybrid
1904:Plasma (PAW)
1865:
1820:Metalworking
1757:
1745:: Woodhead.
1738:
1720:
1693:
1675:
1654:
1636:
1615:
1603:
1591:
1573:
1562:
1550:
1539:. Retrieved
1535:the original
1528:
1519:
1514:, p. 26
1507:
1495:
1483:
1464:
1458:
1447:the original
1434:
1422:. Retrieved
1412:
1393:
1387:
1347:
1341:
1328:
1317:
1307:
1274:
1270:
1241:
1236:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1185:
1180:
1168:
1154:
1142:
1131:
1113:
1095:
1083:
1078:, p. 31
1071:
1066:, p. 68
1059:
1047:
1035:
1030:, p. 63
1023:
1011:
1006:, p. 16
999:
987:
975:. Retrieved
966:
954:. Retrieved
950:
941:
932:
920:
906:
894:
787:
783:World War II
751:
746:
727:shipbuilding
720:
697:
685:C. L. Coffin
649:Humphry Davy
646:
631:
595:
586:transformers
582:
554:
510:
474:
465:
436:
421:
407:reacts with
383:
376:
338:
318:
301:
296:
285:
279:
256:
252:
247:
226:
220:
182:
165:
153:
122:
106:electric arc
85:
84:
57:
45:
30:
2152:Arc welding
2096:Fabrication
2074:Weldability
1866:Arc welding
1622:, p. 9
1598:, p. 7
1502:, p. 6
977:20 November
956:20 November
832:, in 1961.
759:brittleness
723:World War I
557:particulate
300:(GTAW), or
174:square wave
118:alternating
98:electricity
86:Arc welding
2146:Categories
2116:Metallurgy
1997:Ultrasonic
1992:Spot (RSW)
1947:Exothermic
1541:2008-11-07
1525:"Weld It!"
1512:Weman 2003
1088:Weman 2003
1076:Weman 2003
1064:Weman 2003
1028:Weman 2003
1004:Weman 2003
882:References
638:Bronze Age
537:sunglasses
499:Eye damage
386:austenitic
325:plasma gas
184:Duty cycle
2111:Machining
2106:Jewellery
2018:Electrode
2011:Equipment
1743:Cambridge
1424:9 October
1372:250892442
1338:(Russian)
779:magnesium
647:In 1800,
515:in which
439:corrosion
330:magnesium
231:cast iron
178:sine wave
149:Indonesia
110:electrode
2121:Smithing
1957:Friction
1762:New York
1719:(2003).
1674:(1994),
1581:Archived
1376:archived
1299:11047670
1228:24234010
1121:Archived
1103:Archived
933:Canteach
836:See also
775:aluminum
763:hydrogen
755:Porosity
747:Fullagar
642:Iron Age
640:and the
569:toxicity
405:chromium
306:tungsten
266:aluminum
239:aluminum
167:charged
116:(DC) or
32:Arc blow
2131:Welding
2101:Forming
2091:Casting
1858:Welding
1629:Sources
1352:Bibcode
1279:Bibcode
1220:1279591
810:ferrous
731:riveted
721:During
689:Britain
600:History
533:helmets
525:retinas
513:arc eye
489:leather
481:welders
427:niobium
395:-based
314:bicycle
261:current
160:voltage
156:current
90:welding
41:Discuss
2028:Helmet
1768:
1749:
1731:
1700:
1682:
1661:
1643:
1471:
1400:
1370:
1297:
1244:, pp.
1226:
1218:
771:helium
769:, and
735:German
616:, and
565:oxides
521:cornea
492:gloves
477:sparks
409:carbon
397:alloys
393:nickel
355:, and
270:steels
243:copper
235:nickel
207:, and
114:direct
37:merged
2038:Robot
2002:Upset
1952:Forge
1884:Flash
1450:(PDF)
1443:(PDF)
1379:(PDF)
1368:S2CID
1316:[
1295:S2CID
1224:S2CID
929:(PDF)
887:Notes
767:argon
573:ozone
561:smoke
483:wear
384:Some
255:(for
227:stick
169:anode
94:metal
88:is a
1766:ISBN
1747:ISBN
1729:ISBN
1725:Ohio
1698:ISBN
1680:ISBN
1659:ISBN
1641:ISBN
1530:Time
1469:ISBN
1426:2014
1398:ISBN
1248:and
1216:PMID
979:2017
958:2017
777:and
757:and
708:flux
702:and
673:lead
531:and
391:and
371:and
1360:doi
1287:doi
1208:doi
539:or
253:MIG
35:be
2148::
1760:.
1741:.
1527:.
1374:,
1366:,
1358:,
1348:42
1346:,
1340:,
1293:.
1285:.
1275:31
1273:.
1269:.
1257:^
1250:94
1246:20
1222:.
1214:.
1204:15
1202:.
949:.
931:.
800:.
785:.
765:,
612:,
608:,
359:.
351:,
347:,
343:,
241:,
237:,
233:,
203:,
199:,
1850:e
1843:t
1836:v
1812:e
1805:t
1798:v
1772:.
1753:.
1544:.
1477:.
1428:.
1406:.
1362::
1354::
1301:.
1289::
1281::
1230:.
1210::
1162:.
981:.
960:.
935:.
43:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
