639:
along the length of the weld. Once started, the process continues until the electrode is spent, allowing the operator to manage multiple gravity welding systems. The electrodes employed (often E6027 or E7024) are coated heavily in flux, and are typically 71 cm (28 in) in length and about 6.35 mm (0.25 in) thick. As in manual SMAW, a constant current welding power supply is used, with either negative polarity direct current or alternating current. Due to a rise in the use of semiautomatic welding processes such as flux-cored arc welding, the popularity of gravity welding has fallen as its economic advantage over such methods is often minimal. Other SMAW-related methods that are even less frequently used include firecracker welding, an automatic method for making butt and fillet welds, and massive electrode welding, a process for welding large components or structures that can deposit up to 27 kg (60 lb) of weld metal per hour.
567:
purify the weld, causes weld-protecting slag to form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to improve the weld quality. Electrodes can be divided into three groups—those designed to melt quickly are called "fast-fill" electrodes, those designed to solidify quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes, and intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow" electrodes. Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so that the welding speed can be maximized, while fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that solidifies quickly, making welding in a variety of positions possible by preventing the weld pool from shifting significantly before solidifying.
299:. Striking an arc, which varies widely based upon electrode and workpiece composition, can be the hardest skill for beginners. The orientation of the electrode to workpiece is where most stumble; if the electrode is held at a perpendicular angle to the workpiece, the tip will likely stick to the metal, which will fuse the electrode to the workpiece, causing it to heat up very rapidly. The tip of the electrode needs to be at a lower angle to the workpiece, which allows the weld pool to flow out of the arc. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off shielding gases that protect the weld area from
630:) which is operated using DCEP, and provides deep weld penetration with a forceful arc capable of burning through light rust or oxides on the workpiece. E6011 is similar except its flux coating allows it to be used with alternating current in addition to DCEP. E7024 is a fast-fill electrode, used primarily to make flat or horizontal fillet welds using AC, DCEN, or DCEP. Examples of fill-freeze electrodes are the E6012, E6013, and E7014, all of which provide a compromise between fast welding speeds and all-position welding.
353:
308:
weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must periodically stop welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new electrode into the electrode holder. This activity, combined with chipping away the slag, reduces the amount of time that the welder can spend laying the weld, making SMAW one of the least efficient welding processes. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage of operator's time spent laying weld, is approximately 25%.
623:(ksi). The penultimate digit generally identifies the welding positions permissible with the electrode, typically using the values 1 (normally fast-freeze electrodes, implying all position welding) and 2 (normally fast-fill electrodes, implying horizontal welding only). The welding current and type of electrode covering are specified by the last two digits together. When applicable, a suffix is used to denote the alloying element being contributed by the electrode.
499:
575:. Likewise, electrodes of compositions similar to those of the base materials are often used for welding nonferrous materials like aluminium and copper. However, sometimes it is desirable to use electrodes with core materials significantly different from the base material. For example, stainless steel electrodes are sometimes used to weld two pieces of carbon steel, and are often utilized to weld stainless steel workpieces with carbon steel workpieces.
262:
559:
254:
20:
471:
495:
suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat variations and make welding more difficult. However, because the current is not maintained absolutely constant, skilled welders performing complicated welds can vary the arc length to cause minor fluctuations in the current.
546:
simpler: the use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can provide either AC or DC. However, the engine driven units are most practical in field work where the welding often must be done out of doors and in locations where transformer type welders are not usable because there is no power source available to be transformed.
511:
the weld. Reversing the polarity so that the electrode is positively charged (DCEP) and the workpiece is negatively charged increases the weld penetration. With alternating current the polarity changes over 100 times per second, creating an even heat distribution and providing a balance between electrode melting rate and penetration.
332:, a condition associated with direct current characterized by the electric arc being deflected away from the weld pool by magnetic forces. Arc blow can also cause porosity in the weld, as can joint contamination, high welding speed, and a long welding arc, especially when low-hydrogen electrodes are used.
545:
are frequently used as portable welding power supplies, but because of lower efficiency and greater costs, they are less frequently used in industry. Maintenance also tends to be more difficult, because of the complexities of using a combustion engine as a power source. However, in one sense they are
510:
The preferred polarity of the SMAW system depends primarily upon the electrode being used and the desired properties of the weld. Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) causes heat to build up in the parent material, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the depth of
307:
gases. In addition, the flux provides molten slag which covers the filler as it travels from electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the finished
294:
To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece by a very light touch of the electrode to the base metal. The electrode is then pulled back slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the consumable electrode, and causes droplets of
534:
machines, with each using a different method to manipulate the welding current. The multiple coil type adjusts the current by either varying the number of turns in the coil (in tap-type transformers) or by varying the distance between the primary and secondary coils (in movable coil or movable core
494:
The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring that the current (and thus the heat) remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. This is important because most applications of SMAW are manual, requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a
432:
Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes, accounting for over half of all welding in some countries. Because of its versatility and simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the maintenance and repair industry, and is heavily used in the construction of steel
343:
Other factors in cracking propensity include high content of carbon, alloy, or sulfur in the base material, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and preheating are not employed. Furthermore, workpieces should not be excessively constrained, as this introduces residual stresses into the workpieces
339:
methods. Porosity occurs when the gases produced by the weld flux insufficiently shield the molten weld metal. An overexposed weld bead absorbs nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen from the atmosphere; these gases form tiny voids in the weld bead and are released while the weld cools. Poor fusion also
327:
Weld spatter, while not affecting the integrity of the weld, damages its appearance and increases cleaning costs. Secondary finishing services are often required due to the aesthetic appearance caused by the occurrence of molten splatter. It can be caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or
392:
with dark face plates are worn to prevent this exposure, and in recent years, new helmet models have been produced that feature a face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to high amounts of UV light. To protect bystanders, especially in industrial environments, translucent welding curtains often
638:
Though SMAW is almost exclusively a manual arc welding process, one notable process variation exists, known as gravity welding or gravity arc welding. It serves as an automated version of the traditional shielded metal arc welding process, employing an electrode holder attached to an inclined bar
461:
materials, it can be used on nickel and copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on aluminium. The thickness of the material being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill of the welder, but rarely does it drop below 1.5 mm (0.06 in). No upper bound exists: with proper
315:
Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator skill, and often necessitates the use of an electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent the molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool. However, this generally means that the electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing the time
311:
The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition of the workpiece, and the position of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and welding position also determine the welding speed. Flat welds require the least operator skill, and can be done with electrodes
570:
The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes identical to that of the base material. But even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight difference in alloy composition can strongly impact the properties of the resulting weld. This is especially true of alloy
566:
The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors, including the weld material, welding position and the desired weld properties. The electrode is coated in a metal mixture called flux, which gives off gases as it decomposes to prevent weld contamination, introduces deoxidizers to
610:
coated with cellulose, especially when combined with rutile, provide deep weld penetration, but because of their high moisture content, special procedures must be used to prevent excessive risk of cracking. Finally, iron powder is a common coating additive that increases the rate at which the
549:
In some units the alternator is essentially the same as that used in portable generating sets used to supply mains power, modified to produce a higher current at a lower voltage but still at the 50 or 60 Hz grid frequency. In higher-quality units an alternator with more poles is used and
799:
340:
affects the strength of the weld and is often easily visible. This is caused by low current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an improper electrode. Shallow welds are weaker and can be mitigated by decreasing welding speed, increasing the current, or using a smaller electrode.
221:
process reduced the cost of coating electrodes while allowing manufacturers to produce more complex coating mixtures designed for specific applications. In the 1950s, manufacturers introduced iron powder into the flux coating, making it possible to increase the welding speed.
437:
has become more popular in industrial environments. However, because of the low equipment cost and wide applicability, the process will likely remain popular, especially among amateurs and small businesses where specialized welding processes are uneconomical and unnecessary.
112:
Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's first and most popular welding processes. It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though
550:
supplies current at a higher frequency, such as 400 Hz. The smaller amount of time the high-frequency waveform spends near zero makes it much easier to strike and maintain a stable arc than with the cheaper grid-frequency sets or grid-frequency mains-powered units.
245:. In 1964 laser welding was developed in Bell Laboratory with the intention of using this technology as a communication tool. Due to the large force of energy coupled with the small area of focus, this laser became a powerful heat source for cutting and tooling.
522:, which converts alternating current into direct current. Because the power normally supplied to the welding machine is high-voltage alternating current, the welding transformer is used to reduce the voltage and increase the current. As a result, instead of 220
216:
to coat the electrode. In 1912, Strohmenger released a heavily coated electrode, but high cost and complex production methods prevented these early electrodes from gaining popularity. In 1927, the development of an
530:, for example, the power supplied by the transformer is around 17–45 V at currents up to 600 A. A number of different types of transformers can be used to produce this effect, including multiple coil and
462:
joint preparation and use of multiple passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined. Furthermore, depending on the electrode used and the skill of the welder, SMAW can be used in any position.
360:
SMAW welding, like other welding methods, can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice if proper precautions are not taken. The process uses an open electric arc, which presents a risk of burns which are prevented by
614:
To identify different electrodes, the
American Welding Society established a system that assigns electrodes with a four- or five-digit number. Covered electrodes made of mild or low alloy steel carry the prefix
1295:
1247:
117:
is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the construction of heavy steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to weld
344:(and specifically into the weld) as they expand and contract due to heating and cooling. As the weld cools and contracts, this residual stress can cause cracking in the weld.
424:
can form, which can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate. Some of the latest welding masks are fitted with an electric powered fan to help disperse harmful fumes.
947:
397:
plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the filter glass used in helmets.
335:
Defects to weld strength make welds prone to cracking. Porosity of the weld bead can cause serious weakening and is often detectable only via advanced
1361:
433:
structures and in industrial fabrication. In recent years its use has declined as flux-cored arc welding has expanded in the construction industry and
1033:
238:
226:
594:, are characterized by ease of use and good appearance of the resulting weld. However, they create welds with high hydrogen content, encouraging
1260:
193:
for his arc welding method that utilized a metal electrode. The process, like SMAW, deposited melted electrode metal into the weld as filler.
1323:
179:, obtaining American patents from 1887 showing a rudimentary electrode holder. In 1888, the consumable metal electrode was invented by
324:
The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include weld spatter, porosity, poor fusion, shallow penetration, and cracking.
101:) that cools to form a joint. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a
535:
transformers). Inverters, which are smaller and thus more portable, use electronic components to change the current characteristics.
626:
Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode with a minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi (410
619:, followed by their number. The first two or three digits of the number specify the tensile strength of the weld metal, in thousand
1354:
1280:
1237:
1219:
1201:
797:, "Process of and apparatus for working metals by the direct application of the electric current", issued 17 May 1887
667:
1347:
1316:
849:
606:
and must be stored in dry conditions. They produce strong welds, but with a coarse and convex-shaped joint surface.
1034:
https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/job-knowledge/equipment-for-manual-metal-arc-mma-or-sma-welding-014
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shipyards though today its applications are limited. Another little used variation of the process, known as
1674:
1499:
1309:
1669:
1444:
620:
157:
372:
and long sleeve jackets. Additionally, the brightness of the weld area can lead to a condition called
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703:
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503:
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114:
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70:
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732:
720:
538:
483:
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of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, gases like
400:
In addition, the vaporizing metal and flux materials expose welders to dangerous gases and
82:
8:
1454:
607:
234:
74:
736:
1571:
1509:
1484:
1459:
1416:
1391:
748:
394:
176:
1613:
1608:
1276:
1233:
1215:
1197:
663:
377:
229:. It briefly gained popularity in the 1960s after receiving publicity for its use in
180:
63:
922:
752:
225:
In 1945 Karl
Kristian Masden described an automated variation of SMAW, now known as
1469:
1370:
790:
740:
583:
168:
1581:
197:
126:
721:"Tracking down the origin of arc plasma science-II. early continuous discharges"
208:
coating to stabilize the arc, while
Kjellberg dipped iron wire into mixtures of
1576:
1540:
417:
205:
106:
78:
855:
478:
Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists of a constant current
1658:
1555:
1550:
1514:
1464:
1396:
627:
578:
Electrode coatings can consist of a number of different compounds, including
486:
clamp, and welding cables (also known as welding leads) connecting the two.
352:
189:
102:
94:
744:
1535:
1504:
1332:
454:
442:
312:
that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This permits higher welding speeds.
184:
153:
86:
1586:
1378:
603:
515:
458:
446:
401:
55:
97:. The workpiece and the electrode melts forming a pool of molten metal (
1633:
1628:
572:
542:
498:
109:, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
1623:
1618:
1530:
1256:
587:
519:
450:
296:
218:
209:
130:
98:
59:
261:
885:
The 100 Greatest
Inventions of All Time: A Ranking Past and Present
658:
Houldcroft, P. T. (1973) . "Chapter 3: Flux-Shielded Arc
Welding".
558:
329:
213:
1643:
1603:
373:
366:
253:
242:
19:
923:"Understanding Different Types of Welding – G.E. MATHIS COMPANY"
152:
After the discovery of the short pulsed electric arc in 1800 by
1301:
579:
527:
412:. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the
389:
385:
381:
300:
138:
134:
590:, and iron powder. Rutile electrodes, coated with 25%–45% TiO
470:
421:
413:
409:
405:
369:
265:
Diagram of arc and weld area, in shielded metal arc welding:
230:
141:
122:
90:
602:), sometimes known as basic or low-hydrogen electrodes, are
1086:
866:
864:
523:
201:
160:, there was little development in electrical welding until
118:
598:
and cracking. Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF
861:
164:
developed a carbon arc torch that was patented in 1881.
1074:
1062:
200:
released the first coated electrodes. Strohmenger used
1245:
1196:, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education,
611:
electrode fills the weld joint, up to twice as fast.
514:
Typically, the equipment used for SMAW consists of a
393:
surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a
295:
the electrode to be passed from the electrode to the
1050:
1038:
948:"MMA Welding Quality: Understanding Common Problems"
1214:(4th ed.), Albany, New York: Thomson Delmar,
858:of 16 March 1945 (Denemark) and 17 May 1949 (USA).
653:
651:
785:
1656:
1249:Guidelines For Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
1227:
1176:
1140:
1128:
1116:
1008:
972:
909:
836:
408:produced contains particles of various types of
851:Semiautomatic arc welding apparatus and method.
648:
482:and an electrode, with an electrode holder, a
156:and of the continuous electric arc in 1802 by
1355:
1317:
502:A high output welding power supply for SMAW,
427:
1362:
1348:
1324:
1310:
1192:Cary, Howard B.; Helzer, Scott C. (2005),
1191:
1164:
1104:
1020:
996:
984:
897:
870:
824:
812:
682:
662:. Cambridge University Press. p. 23.
657:
196:Around 1900, Arthur Percy Strohmenger and
1296:Guidelines for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
887:. Kensington Publishing Corp. p. 17.
1259:: Miller Electric Mfg Co. Archived from
714:
712:
557:
497:
469:
351:
260:
252:
237:, was developed around the same time by
18:
1032:Equipment for Manual Metal Arc Welding
1657:
1209:
1092:
1080:
1068:
1056:
1044:
718:
706:. D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1902.
1343:
1305:
1270:
1232:, Cleveland, Ohio: Lincoln Electric,
1230:The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding
1152:
709:
633:
144:can also be welded with this method.
1212:Welding: Principles and Applications
882:
725:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science
13:
14:
1686:
1289:
1331:
1131:, pp. 6.2-13, 9.2-1, 10.1-3
518:and for direct current models a
506:, MIG, Flux-Cored, & Gouging
1422:Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW)
1412:Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW)
1246:Miller Electric Mfg Co (2013).
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1122:
1110:
1098:
1026:
1014:
1002:
990:
978:
975:, pp. 6.2-18–6.2–20, 3.2–1
966:
940:
915:
903:
891:
876:
842:
489:
58:process that uses a consumable
1407:Gas metal (Microwire/MIG/GMAW)
830:
818:
806:
779:
759:
688:
676:
147:
89:between the electrode and the
1:
1185:
839:, pp. 1.1-4–1.1–6, 1.1–8
363:personal protective equipment
356:Personal protection equipment
1387:Atomic hydrogen (Athydo/AHW)
562:Various accessories for SMAW
553:
465:
248:
7:
1369:
441:SMAW is often used to weld
380:causes inflammation of the
10:
1691:
1273:Welding processes handbook
319:
316:required to lay the weld.
28:Shielded metal arc welding
23:Shielded metal arc welding
16:Manual arc welding process
1599:
1564:
1523:
1445:Electric resistance (ERW)
1435:
1377:
1339:
1228:Lincoln Electric (1994),
1194:Modern Welding Technology
766:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
457:. While less popular for
428:Application and materials
347:
105:and providing a layer of
48:flux shielded arc welding
642:
376:or flash burn, in which
73:, in the form of either
36:manual metal arc welding
1275:, New York: CRC Press,
1179:, pp. 6.2-7–6.2–10
1143:, pp. 7.2-5, 7.2-8
745:10.1109/TPS.2003.815477
1210:Jeffus, Larry (1999),
1165:Cary & Helzer 2005
1105:Cary & Helzer 2005
1021:Cary & Helzer 2005
1011:, pp. 5.1-1–5.1–2
997:Cary & Helzer 2005
985:Cary & Helzer 2005
898:Cary & Helzer 2005
871:Cary & Helzer 2005
848:Karl Kristian Masden:
825:Cary & Helzer 2005
813:Cary & Helzer 2005
683:Cary & Helzer 2005
621:pounds per square inch
563:
507:
475:
357:
337:nondestructive testing
291:
258:
115:flux-cored arc welding
24:
1639:Tools and terminology
1177:Lincoln Electric 1994
1141:Lincoln Electric 1994
1129:Lincoln Electric 1994
1117:Lincoln Electric 1994
1095:, pp. 49, 52–53.
1009:Lincoln Electric 1994
973:Lincoln Electric 1994
910:Lincoln Electric 1994
837:Lincoln Electric 1994
561:
539:Electrical generators
516:step-down transformer
501:
473:
435:gas metal arc welding
388:of the eyes. Welding
365:in the form of heavy
355:
264:
256:
85:, is used to form an
22:
1271:Weman, Klas (2003),
987:, pp. 42, 49–51
795:Olszewski, Stanisław
480:welding power supply
83:welding power supply
1675:American inventions
1475:Friction stir (FSW)
1450:Electron-beam (EBW)
927:G.E. MATHIS COMPANY
900:, pp. 102, 115
737:2003ITPS...31.1060A
719:Anders, A. (2003).
449:, stainless steel,
235:firecracker welding
190:U.S. patent 428,459
173:Stanisław Olszewski
162:Auguste de Méritens
75:alternating current
1670:Russian inventions
1572:Heat-affected zone
1500:Oxyacetylene (OAW)
952:Welding and Welder
873:, pp. 115–116
685:, pp. 102–103
634:Process variations
564:
508:
476:
395:polyvinyl chloride
358:
292:
259:
177:carbon arc welding
25:
1652:
1651:
1595:
1594:
1455:Electroslag (ESW)
1402:Flux-cored (FCAW)
1282:978-0-8493-1773-6
1239:978-99949-25-82-7
1221:978-0-8273-8240-4
1203:978-0-13-113029-6
1083:, pp. 49–53.
1071:, pp. 46–47.
791:Benardos, Nikołaj
669:978-0-521-05341-9
660:Welding Processes
474:SMAW system setup
384:and can burn the
378:ultraviolet light
183:. Later in 1890,
181:Nikolay Slavyanov
66:to lay the weld.
50:or informally as
34:), also known as
1682:
1485:Laser beam (LBW)
1392:Electrogas (EGW)
1364:
1357:
1350:
1341:
1340:
1326:
1319:
1312:
1303:
1302:
1285:
1267:
1265:
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1206:
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1168:
1162:
1156:
1155:, pp. 65–66
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1018:
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1006:
1000:
999:, pp. 52–62
994:
988:
982:
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970:
964:
963:
961:
959:
944:
938:
937:
935:
934:
919:
913:
912:, pp. 6.2-1
907:
901:
895:
889:
888:
880:
874:
868:
859:
846:
840:
834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
804:
803:
802:
798:
783:
777:
770:"Дуговой разряд"
763:
757:
756:
716:
707:
696:The Electric Arc
692:
686:
680:
674:
673:
655:
584:calcium fluoride
192:
169:Nikolay Benardos
71:electric current
1690:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1679:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1591:
1582:Residual stress
1560:
1519:
1437:Other processes
1431:
1427:Submerged (SAW)
1373:
1368:
1335:
1330:
1292:
1283:
1263:
1252:
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1188:
1183:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1151:
1147:
1139:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1119:, p. 6.2-1
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1111:
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1075:
1067:
1063:
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793: &
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764:
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717:
710:
694:Hertha Ayrton.
693:
689:
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677:
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649:
645:
636:
601:
593:
571:steels such as
556:
492:
468:
445:, low and high
430:
350:
322:
290:
287:Solidified Slag
251:
239:George Hafergut
227:gravity welding
198:Oscar Kjellberg
188:
150:
127:stainless steel
62:covered with a
17:
12:
11:
5:
1688:
1678:
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1579:
1577:Photokeratitis
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1561:
1559:
1558:
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1533:
1527:
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1507:
1502:
1497:
1495:Magnetic pulse
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1290:External links
1288:
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1266:on 2015-12-08.
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1121:
1109:
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1073:
1061:
1059:, pp. 54.
1049:
1037:
1025:
1013:
1001:
989:
977:
965:
939:
914:
902:
890:
883:Philbin, Tom.
875:
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854:US Patent No.
841:
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418:carbon dioxide
349:
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257:SMAW weld area
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149:
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79:direct current
54:, is a manual
15:
9:
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3:
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1567:
1565:Related terms
1563:
1557:
1556:Shielding gas
1554:
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1480:Friction stud
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1167:, p. 105
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1107:, p. 104
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1047:, p. 47.
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1023:, p. 103
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1005:
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954:. 24 May 2023
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731:(5): 1060–9.
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596:embrittlement
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158:Vasily Petrov
155:
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110:
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103:shielding gas
100:
96:
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76:
72:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
52:stick welding
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
21:
1546:Power supply
1536:Filler metal
1490:Laser-hybrid
1421:
1417:Plasma (PAW)
1333:Metalworking
1272:
1261:the original
1255:. Appleton,
1248:
1229:
1211:
1193:
1172:
1160:
1148:
1136:
1124:
1112:
1100:
1088:
1076:
1064:
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1016:
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992:
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968:
956:. Retrieved
951:
942:
931:. Retrieved
929:. 2017-12-13
926:
917:
905:
893:
884:
878:
850:
844:
832:
820:
808:
781:
774:electric arc
773:
769:
761:
728:
724:
695:
690:
678:
659:
637:
625:
616:
613:
577:
569:
565:
548:
537:
513:
509:
493:
490:Power supply
477:
455:ductile iron
443:carbon steel
440:
431:
404:matter. The
399:
359:
342:
334:
326:
323:
314:
310:
293:
269:Coating Flow
224:
195:
185:C. L. Coffin
166:
154:Humphry Davy
151:
111:
87:electric arc
68:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
26:
1665:Arc welding
1609:Fabrication
1587:Weldability
1379:Arc welding
1093:Jeffus 1999
1081:Jeffus 1999
1069:Jeffus 1999
1057:Jeffus 1999
1045:Jeffus 1999
827:, p. 6
815:, p. 5
604:hygroscopic
573:HSLA steels
543:alternators
459:non-ferrous
447:alloy steel
402:particulate
305:atmospheric
148:Development
125:(including
56:arc welding
1659:Categories
1629:Metallurgy
1510:Ultrasonic
1505:Spot (RSW)
1460:Exothermic
1186:References
1153:Weman 2003
933:2018-01-08
856:US2470178A
768:, Article
608:Electrodes
303:and other
284:Weld metal
281:Base metal
275:Shield Gas
210:carbonates
175:developed
1624:Machining
1619:Jewellery
1531:Electrode
1524:Equipment
1257:Wisconsin
787:US 363320
588:cellulose
554:Electrode
520:rectifier
466:Equipment
451:cast iron
297:weld pool
249:Operation
219:extrusion
214:silicates
187:received
167:In 1885,
131:aluminium
99:weld pool
60:electrode
1634:Smithing
1470:Friction
753:11047670
532:inverter
414:toxicity
330:arc blow
231:Japanese
1644:Welding
1614:Forming
1604:Casting
1371:Welding
733:Bibcode
390:helmets
386:retinas
374:arc eye
367:leather
320:Quality
243:Austria
81:from a
1541:Helmet
1298:(.pdf)
1279:
1236:
1218:
1200:
958:29 May
801:
789:,
772:(eng.
751:
698:, pp.
666:
580:rutile
526:at 50
484:ground
453:, and
410:oxides
382:cornea
370:gloves
348:Safety
301:oxygen
278:Fusion
142:alloys
139:copper
135:nickel
129:) but
123:steels
95:joined
93:to be
91:metals
1551:Robot
1515:Upset
1465:Forge
1397:Flash
1264:(PDF)
1253:(PDF)
749:S2CID
643:Notes
422:ozone
406:smoke
1277:ISBN
1234:ISBN
1216:ISBN
1198:ISBN
960:2023
702:and
664:ISBN
541:and
504:GTAW
420:and
212:and
206:lime
204:and
202:clay
171:and
137:and
121:and
119:iron
107:slag
64:flux
44:MMAW
32:SMAW
741:doi
628:MPa
272:Rod
241:in
77:or
69:An
46:),
42:or
40:MMA
1661::
950:.
925:.
863:^
747:.
739:.
729:31
727:.
723:.
711:^
704:94
700:20
650:^
586:,
582:,
133:,
1363:e
1356:t
1349:v
1325:e
1318:t
1311:v
962:.
936:.
776:)
755:.
743::
735::
672:.
617:E
600:2
592:2
528:A
524:V
38:(
30:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
