Volubilis - Knowledge

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is found a plunge pool with three steps leading into it. From the cold room one moved to a vestibule at the corner of the building, decorated with a relief of a shield taken from the Arch of Caracalla. From there, one moved into the warm room, still covered by a vault, and finally into the hot room. The vault of this has now been restored, but it is possible to see the channels in the floor through which the hot air passed. Beyond this a furnace heated the room, as well as the hot water which would have flowed into basins in the corners. The courtyard of which this hammam formed the western limit was large, and contained numerous large silos for grain storage. To the south of this courtyard was one evidently designed for reception, with long narrow rooms to the east and west, one of which was painted red, with a low bench or divan at one end. Further south a third courtyard, only partially excavated, seems to have been devoted to domestic use. The plan, with its large courtyards and narrow rooms, is very different from the contemporary one or two-roomed structures inside the walls, probably inhabited by the Berbers of the Awraba tribe. It is dated by coins and pottery to the reign of Idris I, and has been identified as his headquarters.

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length and half a yard thick. The arch is 20 feet wide and about 26 high. The inscriptions are upon large flat stones, which, when entire, were about five feet long, and three broad, and the letters on them above 6 inches long. A bust lay a little way off, very much defaced, and was the only thing to be found that represented life, except the shape of a foot seen under the lower part of a garment, in the niche on the other side of the arch. About 100 yards from the arch stands a good part of the front of a large square building, which is 140 feet long and about 60 high; part of the four corners are yet standing, but very little remains, except these of the front. Round the hill may be seen the foundation of a wall about two miles in circumference, which inclosed these buildings; on the inside of which lie scattered, all over, a great many stones of the same size the arch is built with, but hardly one stone left upon another. The arch, which stood about half a mile from the other buildings, seemed to have been a gateway, and was just high enough to admit a man to pass through on horseback.

1542: 644: 1416:. The building is 42.2 m (138 ft) long by 22.3 m (73 ft) wide and originally had two storeys. Its interior is dominated by two rows of columns framing the apses at each end of the building where the magistrates sat. The outer wall of the basilica, which is faced with columns, overlooks the forum where markets were held. Small temples and public offices also lined the 1,300 m (14,000 sq ft) forum, which would have been full of statues of emperors and local dignitaries, of which only the pedestals now remain. Not much is known about the public buildings which existed in Volubilis prior to the start of the 3rd century, as the buildings currently visible were built on the foundations of earlier structures. 4029: 1764: 1478: 1724: 1000: 1776: 1436:. Civic assemblies were held in front of the temple to beseech the aid of the gods or to thank them for successes in major civic undertakings such as fighting wars. The layout of the temple, facing the back wall of the basilica, is somewhat unusual and it has been suggested that it may have been built on top of an existing shrine. An inscription found in 1924 records that it was reconstructed in 218. It was partly restored in 1955 and given a more substantial restoration in 1962, reconstructing 10 of the 13 steps, the walls of the cella and the columns. There were four more small shrines within the temple precinct, one of which was dedicated to 1812: 1252:

set of walls. Under the Romans, the city was expanded considerably on a northeast–southwest axis, increasing in size to about 42 hectares (100 acres). Most of the city's public buildings were constructed in the older part of the city. The grand houses for which Volubilis is famous are in the newer part, behind the Decumanus Maximus (main street), which bisected the Roman-era part of the city. The decumanus was paved, with footways on either side, and was lined with arcaded porticoes on either sides, behind which were dozens of shops. The Arch of Caracalla marks the point at which the old and new cities merge. After the

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high and 12 wide, the top composed of one entire stone. I attempted to take a view of these immense ruins, which have furnished marble for the imperial palaces at Mequinas and Tafilelt; but I was obliged to desist, seeing some persons of the sanctuary following the cavalcade. Pots and kettles of gold and silver coins are continually dug up from these ruins. The country, however, abounds with serpents, and we saw many scorpions under the stones that my conductor turned up. These ruins are said by the Africans to have been built by one of the Pharaohs: they are called Kasser Farawan.

1861:; it was rebuilt during Gordian's reign in the mid-3rd century. It combined two separate houses to create a complex of 74 rooms with courtyards and private bathhouses serving both domestic and official functions. It also incorporated a colonnaded front with a dozen shops behind the colonnade, and an oil factory consisting of three oil presses and an oil store in the north-east corner of the complex. The decoration of the Gordian Palace is today quite plain with only a few scanty mosaics remaining. Despite its presumed high status, the floors seem to have been mostly rendered with 1454: 1466: 1736: 769: 128: 100: 1282: 1554: 1294: 1317:, they are mostly still extant. The full circuit of walls had 34 towers, spaced at intervals of about one every 50 metres (160 ft), and six main gates that were flanked by towers. A part of the eastern wall has been reconstructed to a height of 1.5 metres (4.9 ft). The Tingis Gate, also reconstructed, marks the northern-eastern entrance to Volubilis. It was constructed in 168/169 AD – the date is known due to the discovery of a coin of that year that was deliberately embedded in the gate's stonework by its builders. 4718: 1305: 93: 1752: 1270: 121: 76: 880: 717: 3705: 1342:

medicines, while the pressed olives were fed to animals or dried out and used as fuel for the bathhouses. For this reason, even some of the grandest mansions had their own olive presses. Fifty-eight oil-pressing complexes have so far been discovered in Volubilis. They housed a standard set of elements: a mill, used to crush the olives, a decantation basin to catch the oil from pressed olives, and a press that comprised a counterweight, a

1169:) had a strong ideological component. Archaeology at Roman sites was used as an instrument of colonialist policy, to make a connection between the ancient Roman past and the new "Latin" societies that the French were building in North Africa. The programme involved clearing modern structures built on ancient sites, excavating Roman towns and villas and reconstructing major civic structures such as triumphal arches. Ruined cities, such as 1713:, who later bore him six children. The house takes its name from a bronze statue of a rider found here in 1918 that is now on display in the archaeological museum in Rabat. It was a large building, with an area of about 1,700 m (18,000 sq ft), and incorporated a substantial area dedicated to commercial activities including eight or nine shops opening onto the road and a large olive-pressing complex. 1364: 1664:, showing the god playing his harp to an audience of trees, animals and birds. As Paul MacKendrick puts it, the mosaic is rather artlessly executed, as the animals are all of different sizes and face in different directions with no relationship to Orpheus. It appears that the mosaicist simply copied patterns from a book without attempting to integrate the different elements. The mosaic is situated in the 1243:(ICOMOS) organised three conferences to assess possible nominations to the World Heritage List for sites in North Africa. It was unanimously agreed that Volubilis was a good candidate for the list and in 1997 ICOMOS recommended that it be inscribed as "an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire", which UNESCO accepted. 1221:

of the city has been restored and furnished with a replica Roman oil press. These restorations have not been without controversy; a review carried out for UNESCO in 1997 reported that "some of the reconstructions, such as those on the triumphal arch, the capitolium, and the oil-pressing workshop, are radical and at the limit of currently accepted practice."

1232:, Gaetano Palumbo and Hassan Limane revealed what should probably be interpreted as the headquarters of Idris I just below the walls of the Roman town to the west of the ancient city centre. Excavations within the walls also revealed a section of the early medieval town. Today, many artefacts found at Volubilis can be seen on display in the 903:, it was decided that it would simply be too expensive to mount a reconquest of a vulnerable border region. Occupation of the city continued, however, as fine mosaics such as that of a chariot race conducted by animals in the House of Venus can not have been created earlier than the fourth century. A statue representing a 425:, settlement before being the capital of the kingdom of Mauretania. It grew rapidly under Roman rule from the 1st century AD onward and expanded to cover about 42 hectares (100 acres) with a 2.6 km (1.6 mi) circuit of walls. The city gained a number of major public buildings in the 2nd century, including a 1867:

rather than decorated with mosaics. Inscriptions found in the palace testify to the city's decline and eventual fall. They record a series of treaties reached with the local Berber chieftains, increasing in number as the city became more vulnerable and the tribesmen pressed harder. By the time of the

1355:. There is also substantial evidence of the city being a lively commercial centre. No fewer than 121 shops have been identified so far, many of them bakeries, and judging from the number of bronzes found at the site it may also have been a centre for the production or distribution of bronze artworks. 1259:

The city was supplied with water by an aqueduct that ran from a spring in the hills behind the city. The aqueduct may have been constructed around 60–80 AD and was subsequently reconstructed on several occasions. An elaborate network of channels fed houses and the public baths from the municipal

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had already been restored in 1930–34. It was followed by the Capitoline Temple in 1962, the basilica in 1965–67 and the Tingis Gate in 1967. A number of mosaics and houses underwent conservation and restoration in 1952–55. In recent years, one of the olive-oil production workshops in the southern end

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visited in 1920 and highlighted what she saw as the contrast between "two dominations look at each other across the valley", the ruins of Volubilis and "the conical white town of Moulay Idriss, the Sacred City of Morocco". She saw the dead city as representing "a system, an order, a social conception

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began the process of extending French rule over much of northern, western and central Africa, archaeology was closely associated with French colonialism. The French army undertook scientific explorations as early as the 1830s and by the 1850s it was fashionable for French army officers to investigate

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in the mid-18th century and subsequently looted by Moroccan rulers seeking stone for building Meknes. It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that the site was definitively identified as that of the ancient city of Volubilis. During and after the period of French rule over Morocco, about

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and may be a copy of a bust created in Cato's lifetime or shortly thereafter. Its inscription identifies its subject as the orator. Another outstanding bust, depicting a Hellenistic prince, was discovered in a bakery across the street. It seems to have been made at the same time as the Cato bust and

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Prior to the Roman occupation, Volubilis covered an area of about 12 hectares (30 acres), built on a V-shaped ridge between the Fertassa and Khoumane wadis on a roughly north–south axis. It was developed on a fairly regular pattern typical of Phoenician/Carthaginian settlements and was enclosed by a

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Just outside the walls of the city, on the floodplain of the Oued Khoumane, was found a series of interlocking courtyard buildings, of which the largest contained a hammam, or bath. This is an L-shaped structure, with a cold room paved with flagstones and benches running along the sides. At the end

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while bathing. Actaeon is depicted with horns beginning to sprout from his head as he is transformed by the angry goddess into a stag, before being chased down and killed by his own hunting dogs. The house appears to have been destroyed some time after the city's fall around 280; a mosaic depicting

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of uncertain origin and purpose stands approximately in the middle of the excavated area, between the old and new parts of the city. Various theories have been advanced to explain it, such as that it was a burial site, a religious structure of some kind, a funerary monument or a monument to a Roman

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was fixed. The olives were first crushed into a paste, then put into woven baskets that were subjected to pressing. The olive oil ran out into the decantation basin, to which water was periodically added to make the lighter oil float to the surface. This was then scooped out of the basin and poured

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There were five other temples in the city, of which the most notable is the so-called "Temple of Saturn" that stood on the eastern side of Volubilis. It appears to have been built on top of, or converted from, an earlier Punic temple, which may have been dedicated to Baal. It is a sanctuary with a

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Most of the original pre-Roman city wall was built over or destroyed, but a 77-metre (250 ft) stretch of the original wall, which was made of mud bricks on a stone foundation, can still be seen near the tumulus. The Roman city walls stretch for 2.6 km (1.6 mi) and average 1.6 m

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Half an hour's journey after leaving the sanctuary of Muley Dris Zerone, and at the foot of Atlas, I perceived to the left of the road, magnificent and massive ruins. The country, for miles round, is covered with broken columns of white marble. There were still standing two porticoes about 30 feet

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There is not very much remains standing of the ruins; two archways, each of great size, and in moderately good preservation, alone tell of the grandeur of the old city, while acres and acres of land are strewn with monuments and broken sculpture. A few isolated pillars also remain, and an immense

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One building seems to be part of a triumphal arch, there being several broken stones that bear inscriptions, lying in the rubbish underneath, which were fixed higher than any part now standing. It is 56 feet long and 15 thick, both sides exactly alike, built with very hard stones, about a yard in

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An early medieval wall stands to the west of the Arch of Caracalla; it was built after the end of the Roman occupation, apparently some time in the 5th or 6th centuries, to protect the eastern side of the city's new residential area. It was oriented in a north–south direction and was constructed

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puts it, Wharton saw Volubilis as a symbol of civilisation and Moulay Idriss as one of barbarism; the subtext is that "in ransacking the Roman outpost, Islam destroyed its only chance to build a civilised society". Fortunately for Morocco, "the political stability which France is helping them to

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poured water into carved marble basins at the foot of the arch. Caracalla and Julia Domna were represented on medallion busts, though these have been defaced. The monument was reconstructed by the French between 1930 and 1934. However, the restoration is incomplete and of disputed accuracy. The

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are still readily visible, as are the remains of the original presses and olive mills. One such building has been reconstructed with a full-size replica of a Roman olive press. Olive oil was central to the life of the city, as it was not just a foodstuff but was also used for lamps, bathing and

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tree, was one of the most luxurious residences in the city. It had a set of private baths and a richly decorated interior, with fine mosaics dating from the 2nd century AD showing animal and mythological scenes. There were mosaics in seven corridors and eight rooms. The central courtyard has a

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Volubilis remained the capital of the region well into the Islamic period. Islamic coins dating to the 8th century have been found on the site, attesting to the arrival of Islam in this part of Morocco. They are concentrated outside the city walls, which suggests that Arab settlement remained

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in Volubilis. He, too, lived outside the walls of the city, along the banks of the Wadi Khoumane, where a complex has recently been excavated that may be identified with his headquarters. Idriss I conquered most of Northern Morocco during the three years of his reign, founding the city of

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The houses found at Volubilis range from richly decorated mansions to simple two-room mud-brick structures used by the city's poorer inhabitants. The city's considerable wealth is attested by the elaborate design of the houses of the wealthy, some of which have large mosaics still

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supply and a series of drains carried sewage and waste away to the river to be flushed. The aqueduct ran under the Decumanus Secundus, a street that ran parallel with the Decumanus Maximus, and terminated at a large fountain in the city centre near the Arch of Caracalla.

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puts it, "The Islamic sense of history and architecture found the concept of setting off monuments entirely foreign", which "gave the French proof of the conviction that only they could fully appreciate the Moroccan past and its beauty." Emile Pauty of the

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final treaty, just a few years before the fall of the city, the chieftains were being treated as virtual equals of Rome – an indication of how much Roman power in the area had declined. The last two inscribed altars, from 277 and 280, refer to a

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that still runs through all our modern ways." In contrast, she saw the still very much alive town of Moulay Idriss as "more dead and sucked back into an unintelligible past than any broken architrave of Greece or Rome." As Sarah Bird Wright of the

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Panoramic view of Volubilis, looking west. The old Phoenician core of the city is on the left, the Basilica and Capitoline Temple are visible in the centre, while the Arch of Caracalla can be seen on the right behind the Roman extension to the

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Roman remains during their leave and spare time. By the late 19th century French archaeologists were undertaking an intensive effort to uncover northwest Africa's pre-Islamic past through excavations and restorations of archaeological sites.

1379:, have been reconstructed. Many private buildings, including the mansions of the city's elite, have also been uncovered. They are especially notable for the fine mosaics that have been discovered in a number of buildings and which are still 1923:

may well have come from the House of Venus, where an empty pedestal in another room suggests that the Cato had a companion piece. The bust, which is also on display in Rabat, is usually identified as Juba II but other possibilities include

1492:, redecorated by that emperor in the 260s to become the city's most lavish baths. The nearby north baths were the largest in the city, covering an area of about 1,500 m (16,000 sq ft). They were possibly built in the time of 1403:

Two major public buildings are readily visible at the centre of the city – the basilica and the Capitoline Temple. The basilica was used for the administration of justice and the governance of the city. Completed during the reign of

1914:. One of the most notable artefacts discovered at Volubilis, it is now on display in the Archaeological Museum in Rabat. It was still on its original pedestal when it was found by archaeologists. The bust has been dated to the time of 740:

spectacles. At its peak in the late 2nd century, Volubilis had around 20,000 inhabitants – a very substantial population for a Roman provincial town – and the surrounding region was also well inhabited, to judge from over 50

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surrounding wall and a three-sided portico. In its interior was a small temple with a cella built on a shallow podium. The temple's traditional identification with Saturn is purely hypothetical and has not generally been accepted.

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The Capitoline Temple stands behind the basilica within what would originally have been an arcaded courtyard. An altar stands in the courtyard in front of 13 steps leading up to the Corinthian-columned temple, which had a single

1032:, or the "Pharaoh's Castle", by the local people, alluding to a legend that the ancient Egyptians had built it. Nonetheless, some of its buildings remained standing, albeit ruined, until as late as the 17th century when 1905:

feeding birds with grain has been charred by what appears to have been a fire burning directly on top of it, perhaps resulting from the building being taken over by squatters who used the mosaic as the site of a

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criticised the Muslims for taking the view that "the passage of time is nothing" and charged them with "let their monuments fall into ruin with as much indifference as they once showed ardour in building them."

935:. Much of the city centre had been abandoned and was turned into a cemetery, while the centre of habitation had moved to the southwest of the city, where a new wall was built to contain the abridged Roman town. 1104:, visited Volubilis during his travels in Morocco between 1887 and 1889, after the site had been identified by French archaeologists but before any serious excavations or restorations had begun. He wrote: 800:, or pairs of magistrates. However, the city's position was always tenuous; it was located on the south-eastern edge of the province, facing hostile and increasingly powerful Berber tribes. A ring of five 1691:. The most prestigious houses in the city were situated adjoining the Decumanus Maximus, behind rows of shops that lined the street under an arcade. They were entered from side streets between the shops. 732:

annexed Mauretania in 44 AD, the city grew substantially due to its wealth and prosperity, derived from the fertile lands of the province which produced valuable export commodities such as grain,

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that came before, the Republic of the Volubilitans took care to have this arch made from the ground up, including a chariot drawn by six horses and all the ornaments, with Marcus Aurelius Sebastenus,

1628:, Proconsul, and for Julia Augusta , the pious, fortunate mother of the camp and the Senate and the country, because of his exceptional and new kindness towards all, which is greater than that of the 1842:

is named for the mosaic depicting the twelve tasks that the demigod had to perform as penance for killing his wife and children. It is thought to have been created during the reign of the emperor

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as suggested by Thouvenot. The end of the Roman city probably came in the form of an earthquake towards the end of the century, which buried numerous bronze statues in the wreckage of the houses.

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Following the war, excavations resumed under the French and Moroccan authorities (following Morocco's independence in 1955) and a programme of restoration and reconstruction began. The Arch of

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to carry out excavations in Volubilis. Although Jane's ill-health meant that they were unable to carry out the programme of work that they drew up for Lyautey, the work went ahead anyway under

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forms a striking visual contrast with the smaller Tingis Gate at the far end of the decumanus. It was built in 217 by the city's governor, Marcus Aurelius Sebastenus, to honour the emperor

1072: 452:. It continued to be inhabited for at least another 700 years, first as a Latinised Christian community, then as an early Islamic settlement. In the late 8th century it became the seat of 1668:, the dining room, where the diners would have reclined on couches set against the walls and admired the central mosaic. Other mosaics can be seen in the atrium, which has a depiction of 1763: 1687:, located near the forum, contains a humorous mosaic of an athlete or acrobat riding a donkey back to front while holding a cup in his outstretched hand. It may possibly represent 507:, which grows along the sides of the valley. It could also be seen as a direct translation of the Amazigh name if this one was related to the root WLLY meaning "to turn, to spin". 476:

half of the site was excavated, revealing many fine mosaics, and some of the more prominent public buildings and high-status houses were restored or reconstructed. Today it is a

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in modern Spain), resettled at Volubilis in 818. Although people continued to live in Volubilis for several more centuries, it was probably almost deserted by the 14th century.

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Carrasco, J. L. Escacena (2000). "Archaeological relationship between North Africa and Iberia". In Arnaiz-Villena, Antonio; Martínez-Laso, Jorge; Gómez-Casado, Eduardo (eds.).

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in the sixth and seventh century, when three Christian inscriptions are dated by the provincial year. By the time the Arabs had arrived in 708, the city's name was changed to

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in Algeria, were excavated and cleared on a massive scale. The remains were intended to serve, as one writer has put it, as "the witness to an impulse towards Romanization".

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and the four seasons are depicted in another mosaic in the house. The house was of palatial size, with 41 rooms covering an area of 2,000 m (22,000 sq ft).

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was named after a bronze statue found there. It has a prominent interior courtyard leading to a number of public rooms decorated with mosaics, including a depiction of

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inscription on the top of the arch was reconstructed from the fragments noticed by Windus in 1722, which had been scattered on the ground in front of the arch.

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is located further up the Decumanus Maximus. It was the largest building in the city and was probably the residence of the governor, rather than the emperor

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tribe lay in between. A Jewish community existed in Volubilis in the third century, as evident from several Hebrew, Greek and Latin funeral inscriptions and

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The city fell to local tribes around 285 and was never retaken by Rome because of its remoteness and indefensibility on the south-western border of the

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acquire will at last give their higher qualities time for fruition"—very much the theme that the French colonial authorities wanted to get across.

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to order the construction of a 2.5 km (1.6 mi) circuit of walls with eight gates and 40 towers. Volubilis was connected by road to

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to the inhabitants of Rome's provinces. However, by the time the arch was finished both Caracalla and Julia had been murdered by a usurper.

6387: 4700: 3817: 3559: 1240: 784:, and its inhabitants were rewarded with grants of citizenship and a ten-year exemption from taxes. The city was raised to the status of a 3579: 3539: 6429: 6417: 2113: 1281: 848:, and Gallic and Syrian cavalry were based at Toscolosida. Rising tensions in the region near the end of the 2nd century led the emperor 1024:

describes its walls and gates, as well as the tomb of Idris, guarded only by two or three castles. His body was subsequently removed to

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Although only about half of Volubilis has been excavated, a number of prominent public buildings are still visible and some, notably a

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The first excavations at Volubilis were carried out by the French archaeologist Henri de la Martinière between 1887 and 1892. In 1915

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fell into disrepair with the end of the Roman occupation, a new residential area was constructed to the west near the Wadi Khoumane.

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Visiting 95 years later in 1820, after the 1755 earthquake had flattened the few buildings left standing, James Gray Jackson wrote:

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PONTIFICI MAXIMO TRIBVNITIA POTESTATE XX IMPERATORI IIII CONSVLI IIII PATRI PATRIAE PROCONSVLI ET IVLIAE AVGVSTAE PIAE FELICI MATRI

1799: 1153: 7810: 7764: 6402: 4693: 4635: 3847: 3653: 1977: 1811: 1293: 569:, the "v" in "volubilis" was pronounced like a "w", making the pronunciation closer to modern Amazigh and Arabic pronunciations. 7709: 6397: 6131: 3777: 337: 181: 1787: 7679: 6504: 6031: 3529: 3506: 3413: 3394: 3375: 3353: 3334: 3315: 3296: 3258: 3217: 3198: 3179: 3160: 3141: 2421: 2196: 2123: 2097: 2043: 1453: 7769: 7644: 6797: 1424:. The building was of great importance to civic life as it was dedicated to the three chief divinities of the Roman state, 643: 2062: 1028:, 3 km (1.9 mi), where a great mausoleum was built for it. The name of the city was forgotten and it was termed 483:, listed for being "an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire". 7830: 6350: 1607: 967:" in Volubilis, occupied by the Awraba, under Ishaq ibn Mohammad. He married Kanza, from the Awraba, and fathered a son, 1527:

The arch is constructed from local stone and was originally topped by a bronze chariot pulled by six horses. Statues of

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The Arch of Caracalla is one of Volubilis' most distinctive sights, situated at the end of the city's main street, the

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The French had a very different conception of historic preservation to that of the Moroccan Muslims. As the historian

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for which the house is named has been removed to Tangier, but in the next-door room is a still-extant mosaic showing

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between 1912 and 1955, but the excavations at the site began decades earlier. From 1830, when the French conquest of

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Volubilis continued to be inhabited for centuries after the end of Roman control. It was certainly reoccupied by the

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and accompanied by other sea creatures, and in the bathing rooms. One room off the main courtyard has a mosaic of a

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in the early 3rd century, it is one of the finest Roman basilicas in Africa and is probably modelled on the one at

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reorganised what was left of the province to retain only the coastal strip between Lixus, Tingis and Septa (modern

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in 25 BC and turned his attention to building a second capital at Volubilis. Educated in Rome and married to

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influence lasted for a considerable time afterwards, as the city's magistrates retained the Carthaginian title of

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as one of "the wealthiest cities, albeit the wealthiest among small ones" in Mauretania. It is also mentioned by

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IMPERATORI CAESARI MARCO AVRELLIO ANTONINO PIO FELICI AVGVSTO PARTHICO MAXIMO BRITTANICO MAXIMO GERMANICO MAXIMO

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Das "Itinerarium provinciarum Antonini Augusti": Ein kaiserzeitliches Strassenverzeichnis des Römischen Reiches

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The same building was also the site of the discovery in 1918 of a bronze bust of outstanding quality depicting

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Volubilis also possessed at least three sets of public baths. Some mosaics can still be seen in the Baths of

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Fentress, Elizabeth; Limane, Hassan (2010). "Excavations in Medieval Settlements in Volubilis 2000-2004".

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Built in a fertile agricultural area, it developed from the 3rd century BC onward as a Berber, then proto-

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and the Moroccan Institut National des Sciences de l'Archéologie et du Patrimoine under the direction of

888: 825: 4344: 2006: 7719: 7383: 7275: 7045: 6817: 6639: 6547: 6412: 6355: 1337:

During Roman times, Volubilis was a major producer of olive oil. The remains of buildings dedicated to

710: 876:-shaped lamps. It is the most south-western location where ancient Hebrew inscription has been found. 588:) corresponded with Volubilis. This term is still used nowadays by the locals, sometimes shortened as 460:

of Morocco. By the 11th century Volubilis had been abandoned after the seat of power was relocated to

7739: 6832: 6787: 6714: 6634: 6582: 6572: 6524: 5871: 4721: 3442: 1603: 1225: 996:

which served as his new capital, depriving Volubilis of its last vestiges of political significance.

2186: 1387:. Very little remains of the original Punic settlement, as it lies under the later Roman buildings. 7340: 7250: 6759: 6739: 6734: 6719: 6672: 6612: 6567: 6369: 5579: 4574: 4088: 2720: 1383:

in the houses where they were laid. The buildings were mostly made from locally quarried grey-blue

1209:

and loaned to the excavators by Lyautey. The excavations continued on and off until 1941, when the

1198: 809: 315: 3208:

Gran-Aymerich, Eve (2006). "Jane Dieulafoy". In Cohen, Getzel M.; Joukowsky, Martha Sharp (eds.).

7749: 7729: 7669: 7659: 7649: 7055: 6744: 6644: 6624: 6539: 6529: 6234: 6174: 6154: 5866: 4579: 4569: 865: 3611: 3563: 7754: 7744: 7694: 7674: 7488: 7463: 7428: 7310: 7035: 6682: 6444: 5975: 5414: 4203: 4188: 4068: 4043: 3978: 3968: 3837: 3827: 3583: 3543: 1182: 1037: 472: 375: 20: 7724: 7654: 7478: 7230: 7030: 7025: 6822: 6729: 6654: 6617: 6602: 6577: 6557: 6459: 5288: 4735: 4339: 4303: 3973: 3903: 3832: 2087: 1025: 698: 572: 492: 465: 411: 2244: 1611: 1009: 907:

with crossed arms might hint to Christians in the town and early fourth century evidence of

7734: 7699: 7388: 7255: 7155: 7080: 6945: 6908: 6284: 5948: 5524: 5354: 5229: 4885: 4794: 4655: 4564: 3983: 3842: 1847: 1621: 1095: 1036:

ransacked the site to provide building material for his new imperial capital at Meknes. An

920: 857: 853: 721: 7378: 5544: 776:

The city remained loyal to Rome despite a revolt in 40–44 AD led by one of Ptolemy's

151: 8: 7664: 7513: 7315: 7185: 7135: 6454: 6051: 5079: 4619: 4584: 1838: 1769:

Mosaic of Diana and her nymph surprised by Actaeon while bathing, from the House of Venus

1652:. They have been named by archaeologists after their principal mosaics (or other finds): 1425: 1162: 968: 686: 637: 480: 277: 3424: 1586:

AVGVSTI ET CASTRORVM ET SENATVS ET PATRIAE RESPVBLICA VOLVBILITANORVM OB SINGVLAREM EIVS

7714: 7438: 7245: 7100: 7040: 6960: 6903: 6767: 6003: 5982: 5468: 5099: 4715: 4660: 4645: 4098: 4083: 3518: 2168: 1638:, who is most deeply devoted to the divinity of Augustus, initiating and dedicating it. 1321:

using stone looted from ruined buildings elsewhere in the abandoned areas of the city.

1229: 1078:

The ruins of the triumphal arch, photographed in 1887 by Henri Poisson de La Martinière

813: 758: 453: 7353: 3269: 7348: 7200: 6955: 6915: 6893: 6101: 5715: 5598: 5018: 4926: 4890: 4594: 4349: 4118: 4078: 3525: 3502: 3485: 3466: 3430: 3409: 3390: 3371: 3349: 3330: 3311: 3292: 3275: 3254: 3213: 3194: 3175: 3156: 3137: 3118: 2417: 2192: 2119: 2093: 2039: 1893: 1889: 1521: 1505: 1437: 768: 615: 556: 3253:]. Translated by G. Michael Woloch. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. 716: 7413: 7373: 7305: 7240: 7165: 7160: 6932: 6855: 6802: 6597: 6592: 6481: 6340: 6289: 6249: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6199: 6121: 6068: 6061: 6046: 6041: 5965: 5893: 5686: 5635: 5559: 5170: 4810: 4474: 4369: 4108: 4063: 3363: 1928: 1911: 1827: 1709:

next door also has a mosaic of Bacchus, this time shown coming across the sleeping

1616: 1602:

For the emperor Caesar, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus , the pious, fortunate Augustus,

1429: 1210: 1147: 960: 908: 511: 496: 422: 386: 61: 3751: 3622: 1197:, the military governor of French Morocco, commissioned the French archaeologists 7508: 7320: 7300: 7260: 7195: 7145: 7140: 7015: 6965: 6873: 6707: 6687: 6607: 6056: 5881: 5128: 5038: 5003: 4640: 3015: 2411: 1624:

for the twentieth time, Emperor for the fourth time, Consul for the fourth time,

1304: 1206: 1202: 989: 944: 849: 824:) were constructed to bolster the city's defence. Sidi Said was the base for the 754: 566: 457: 366: 265: 155: 46: 3102:"Revisiting Epigraphic Evidence of the Oldest Synagogue in Morocco in Volubilis" 1729:

Mosaic of Bacchus encountering the sleeping Ariadne from the House of the Knight

7563: 7205: 6940: 6888: 6860: 6807: 6792: 6772: 6587: 6562: 6519: 6509: 6335: 6309: 6239: 6224: 6189: 6149: 5910: 5781: 5463: 5399: 5349: 5313: 5259: 5069: 4931: 4609: 4536: 4520: 4479: 4459: 4208: 4198: 3988: 3479: 1661: 1509: 1376: 1253: 1194: 1187: 1135: 873: 817: 746: 630: 607: 434: 361: 4869: 3463:

A journey to Mequinez, the residence of the present emperor of Fez and Morocco

1594:

SEBASTENO PROCVRATORE AVGVSTI DEVOTISSIMO NVMINI EIVS A SOLO FACIENDVM CVRAVIT

7784: 7095: 7065: 6980: 6514: 6491: 6304: 6159: 6144: 6091: 5898: 5726: 5489: 5220: 5200: 5059: 5034: 4414: 4389: 4293: 3993: 3958: 3807: 3434: 3279: 3134:

Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700

3101: 1932: 1822: 1625: 1177: 1122: 1110: 1033: 1021: 999: 904: 626: 196: 183: 3470: 1239:

UNESCO listed Volubilis as a World Heritage Site in 1997. In the 1980s, the

805: 7573: 7433: 6878: 6827: 6782: 6777: 6629: 6439: 6325: 6269: 6264: 6036: 5920: 5854: 5721: 5711: 5594: 5429: 5249: 5245: 5008: 4983: 4911: 4750: 4379: 4133: 3998: 3882: 3852: 3762: 3668: 1863: 1409: 977: 656: 449: 442: 430: 261: 4183: 3489: 1176:

This theme resonated with other visitors to the site. The American writer

745:

discovered in the area. It was mentioned by the 1st century AD geographer

7368: 6990: 6812: 6702: 6096: 5681: 5493: 5114: 5104: 4850: 4834: 4830: 4589: 4334: 4263: 1858: 1590:

CVM SEIVGIBVS ET ORNAMENTIS OMNIBVS INCOHANTE ET DEDICANTE MARCO AVRELLIO

1517: 1338: 1329: 1041: 742: 690: 5450: 5318: 3091:

Akerraz, Aomar, ed. (1985). "Note sur l'enceinte tardive de Volubilis".

931:, and it was inhabited by the Awraba, a Berber tribe that originated in 575:(1828–1884) discovered that what some sources in Arabic referred to as " 75: 7593: 7533: 7498: 7290: 7225: 7215: 7110: 6995: 6883: 6466: 6434: 6179: 6106: 5938: 5933: 5691: 5655: 5650: 5388: 4993: 4845: 4744: 4559: 4515: 4510: 4494: 4464: 4364: 4329: 4173: 3327:

The Empire Stops Here: A Journey along the Frontiers of the Roman World

3172:

Constance Fenimore and Edith Wharton: Perspectives On Landscape and Art

2413:

The Expansion of Christianity: A Gazetteer of its First Three Centuries

2391: 1885: 1669: 1665: 1127: 1013: 892: 879: 821: 786: 652: 441:

growing, prompted the construction of many fine town-houses with large

418:. Before Volubilis, the capital of the kingdom may have been at Gilda. 257: 169: 5823: 4113: 3680: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 1588:

ERGA VNIVERSOS ET NOVAM SVPRA OMNES RETRO PRINCIPES INDVLGENTIAM ARCVM

7618: 7578: 7503: 7473: 7453: 7330: 7270: 7180: 7130: 7125: 7050: 7010: 6898: 6868: 6677: 6552: 6345: 6229: 6204: 6083: 5812: 5807: 5797: 5706: 5604: 5583: 5434: 5339: 5119: 4947: 4805: 4775: 4740: 4599: 4419: 4359: 4283: 4273: 4248: 4223: 4218: 4158: 4073: 4008: 3877: 3862: 3857: 3734: 3728: 3721: 3558: 3021: 1992: 1919: 1513: 1489: 1384: 1217: 1134:

Much of Volubilis was excavated by the French during their rule over

1100: 1090:

Remnants of the basilica as seen in 1887 before its later restoration

1017: 864:) but had no eastwards connections with the neighbouring province of 737: 733: 706: 694: 629:

had a presence there, as evidenced by the remains of a temple to the

618: 327: 249: 5589: 5548: 5044: 2478: 2476: 1660:

in the southern part of the city thus takes its name from the large

1576:

The inscription reads (after the abbreviations have been expanded):

7583: 7568: 7558: 7543: 7458: 7448: 7418: 7408: 7403: 7393: 7295: 7210: 7090: 7075: 7005: 6985: 6975: 6970: 6950: 6749: 6330: 6294: 6184: 6111: 5943: 5771: 5574: 5513: 5509: 5409: 5369: 5334: 5282: 5265: 5083: 5074: 4854: 4824: 4815: 4765: 4604: 4469: 4444: 4434: 4409: 4384: 4313: 4258: 4253: 4243: 4163: 4143: 4123: 3963: 3867: 2818: 2816: 2349: 1944: 1924: 1843: 1673: 1630: 1405: 1372: 1161:

The French programme of excavation at Volubilis and other sites in

952: 869: 837: 777: 729: 682: 660: 504: 426: 253: 5539: 5519: 4865: 4308: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2703: 2701: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 1520:. Caracalla was himself a North African and had recently extended 939:

distinct from the Berber settlement inside them. It was here that

790:

and its system of governance was overhauled, with the Punic-style

614:. The area around Volubilis has been inhabited at least since the 464:. Much of the local population was transferred to the new town of 7603: 7598: 7588: 7553: 7548: 7538: 7483: 7468: 7285: 7280: 7265: 7235: 7190: 7170: 7150: 7105: 6837: 6692: 6471: 6279: 6274: 6164: 5775: 5766: 5751: 5741: 5701: 5676: 5630: 5568: 5564: 5424: 5404: 5378: 5364: 5358: 5210: 5190: 5180: 5175: 5139: 5134: 5089: 5053: 5049: 4988: 4920: 4875: 4820: 4784: 4780: 4759: 4755: 4541: 4454: 4429: 4424: 4374: 4298: 4288: 4233: 4213: 4193: 4178: 4168: 4153: 4148: 4138: 4128: 4048: 3704: 3606: 2724: 2473: 2063:"Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, vŏlūbĭlis" 1897: 1880: 1710: 1699: 1688: 1677: 1493: 1433: 1391: 1352: 1166: 1139: 985: 948: 940: 861: 845: 796: 781: 702: 678: 674: 669: 603: 415: 403: 245: 159: 4489: 2538: 2169:"Description of the Medieval city, from the Museum of Volubilis" 1367:

Plan of Volubilis, indicating some of the most notable buildings

1363: 1040:

caused further severe destruction. However, English antiquarian

7613: 7493: 7423: 7363: 7358: 7325: 7085: 7070: 7020: 7000: 6422: 6299: 6194: 5802: 5756: 5746: 5730: 5695: 5660: 5645: 5640: 5554: 5472: 5458: 5419: 5374: 5308: 5195: 5184: 5155: 4978: 4957: 4916: 4895: 4879: 4860: 4840: 4800: 4484: 4449: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4354: 4278: 4268: 4228: 4053: 4013: 4003: 3872: 3802: 3693: 3100:

Andreeva, Sofia; Fedorchuk, Artem; Nosonovsky, Michael (2019).

2793: 2742: 2730: 2698: 2661: 1940: 1936: 1314: 1170: 981: 980:. He was assassinated in Volubilis in 791 on the orders of the 900: 841: 801: 664: 622: 611: 553: 477: 407: 3933: 887:

Rome's control over the city ended following the chaos of the

7398: 7120: 6847: 6139: 5760: 5736: 5625: 5620: 5533: 5503: 5499: 5292: 5215: 5160: 5124: 5109: 5094: 5063: 5012: 4998: 4962: 4790: 4769: 4439: 4103: 4093: 4058: 3673: 3068: 2979: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2437: 2381: 2379: 2010: 1972: 1902: 1888:, drawn by teams of peacocks, geese and ducks. The mosaic of 1528: 1421: 1413: 1117: 956: 932: 896: 438: 514:

Latin dictionary gives the Latin meaning of "volubilis" as "

7608: 7175: 7115: 6697: 6073: 5384: 5298: 5224: 5205: 5165: 4952: 4238: 3953: 3520:

Edith Wharton's Travel Writing: The Making of a Connoisseur

3115:

Prehistoric Iberia: Genetics, Anthropology, and Linguistics

3099: 2686: 2397: 1915: 1846:, who identified himself with Hercules. Jupiter, his lover 972: 964: 833: 633: 3046: 3044: 3042: 2991: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2881: 2862: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2759: 2723:, as well as a detailed plan of the site, can be found at 2495: 2493: 2491: 2376: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2226: 2224: 2222: 2220: 6169: 5255: 3423:

Shabeeny, El Hage abd Salam; Jackson, James Grey (1820).

3056: 1879:, towards the eastern side of the city under a prominent 1008:

A Muslim group known as the Rabedis, who had revolted in

993: 461: 3093:

Bulletin Archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques

2934: 2932: 2567: 2565: 2038:(in French). Algeria: Haut Commissariat à l'Amazighité. 1287:

The Tingis Gate, looking back down the Decumanus Maximus

471:

The ruins remained substantially intact until they were

53: 3538: 3039: 3027: 2967: 2944: 2917: 2898: 2843: 2833: 2831: 2783: 2781: 2550: 2488: 2370: 2300: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2217: 2205: 3542:. Volubilis Project. 25 September 2003. Archived from 2625: 2589: 2526: 1508:. Although it is not architecturally outstanding, the 1346:

or cross-bar and the wooden supports within which the

1126:

Edge of the excavated area at Volubilis. A stretch of

951:

in 787-8. A direct descendant of the Islamic prophet,

3676:, Modern Capital and Historic City: a Shared Heritage 2929: 2649: 2613: 2601: 2577: 2562: 2449: 2337: 2271: 2259: 844:

cohorts. Sidi Moussa was the location of a cohort of

765:. Its population was dominated by Romanised Berbers. 589: 437:. Its prosperity, which was derived principally from 397: 3003: 2828: 2778: 2514: 2325: 2283: 1395:

victory. However, these remain unproven hypotheses.

565:("It flows and will flow, swirling on forever.") In 380: 3652: 3578: 2822: 2461: 7816:Populated places established in the 3rd century BC 3517: 3499:The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism 2637: 856:and Tingis (capital city of the Roman province of 597: 3441: 3271:The Land of an African Sultan: Travels in Morocco 3155:. Chalfont St Peter, Bucks: Bradt Travel Guides. 2753: 2736: 2707: 2680: 1313:(5.2 ft) thick. Built of rubble masonry and 1246: 636:and finds of pottery and stones inscribed in the 491:The origins of its name are unknown but may be a 7782: 3429:. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. 3210:Breaking Ground: Pioneering Women Archaeologists 2086:Kreeft, Peter; Tacelli, Ronald K. (2009-09-20). 1680:, considered by the Romans to be a lucky animal. 1299:Interior of the North Baths, fed by the aqueduct 1130:track used to carry spoil away is still visible. 1044:had sketched the site in 1722. In his 1725 book 468:, about 5 km (3.1 mi) from Volubilis. 3422: 3408:. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 2544: 1884:fanciful mosaic depicting racing chariots in a 1067:Volubilis before its excavation and restoration 7806:Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Tingitana 3619:in the Manar al-Athar digital heritage archive 3235: 3226: 2482: 2443: 1333:A reconstructed Roman olive press in Volubilis 5839: 4701: 3919: 3778: 3638: 3207: 2692: 2085: 2009:. African World Heritage Fund. Archived from 701:were thoroughly Romanised kings, although of 402:) is a partly-excavated Berber-Roman city in 3792: 3236:Fentress, Elizabeth; Limane, Hassan (2018). 3174:. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. 1241:International Council on Monuments and Sites 1113:at Rome, opens on to the little river below. 713:was clearly reflected in the city's design. 580: 38: 3305: 3074: 2997: 2892: 2875: 2772: 2385: 562:labitur, et labetur in omne volubilis aevum 560: 5846: 5832: 4708: 4694: 3934:Romano-Berber cities in Roman North Africa 3926: 3912: 3785: 3771: 3645: 3631: 2511:Leo Africanus trad. A. Épaulard, I, p. 245 2184: 2035:Dictionnaire des racines berbères communes 1950: 1118:Excavation, restoration and UNESCO listing 74: 4651:Christianity in the Roman Africa province 3406:Pomponius Mela's Description of the World 3387:The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene 3022:Volubilis Project – House of the Cavalier 2398:Andreeva, Fedorchuk & Nosonovsky 2019 1896:and a companion nymph being surprised by 1275:The Decumanus Maximus, looking north-east 3362: 3238:Volubilis après Rome. Fouilles 2000-2004 3212:. London: University of Michigan Press. 3193:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 3136:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3112: 3062: 3050: 3033: 2973: 2961: 2911: 2856: 2499: 2319: 2230: 2211: 2031: 1821: 1362: 1328: 1303: 1121: 998: 878: 767: 715: 681:was placed on the Mauretanian throne by 642: 5853: 4636:North Africa during classical antiquity 3941:Sorted by contemporary national borders 3477: 3286: 3090: 2631: 2607: 2467: 2343: 2242: 2161: 2146:(in Arabic). 2014-11-14. Archived from 1745:in the House of the Labours of Hercules 992:. On his majority Idriss II removed to 761:refers to its location and names it as 19:For the Alfred Boucher sculptures, see 16:Partly excavated Berber city in Morocco 7826:Buildings and structures in Fès-Meknès 7783: 3515: 3496: 3460: 3384: 3324: 3267: 3244: 3150: 3131: 3009: 2985: 2938: 2837: 2655: 2619: 2583: 2556: 2532: 2520: 2455: 2409: 2294: 2277: 2265: 2245:"Inscriptions puniques et néopuniques" 899:). Although a Roman army was based in 410:that may have been the capital of the 5827: 4689: 4678:UNESCO World Heritage Sites Proposed 3907: 3766: 3626: 3403: 3343: 3188: 2923: 2787: 2595: 2571: 2331: 2180: 2178: 1830:, found in the House of Venus in 1918 1781:Mosaic of Diana in the House of Venus 1702:in a chariot being drawn by leopards. 1642: 1459:Exterior of the Basilica at Volubilis 1224:From 2000 excavations carried out by 1154:Institut des Hautes Études Marocaines 360: 3310:. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press Books. 3169: 2643: 2057: 2055: 1965: 1358: 590: 3582:. Volubilis Project. Archived from 3562:. Volubilis Project. Archived from 2410:Mullen, Roderic (1 December 2003). 2118:. The Open University. 2015-08-07. 1999: 1571:South side of the Arch of Caracalla 1547:North side of the Arch of Caracalla 1398: 914: 651:The city lay within the kingdom of 602:Built on a shallow slope below the 581: 370: 39: 13: 3306:MacKendrick, Paul Lachlan (2000). 3291:. Berlin: Frank & Timme GmbH. 2175: 2115:Getting started on Classical Latin 2007:"Archaeological Site of Volubilis" 1993:"Archaeological Site of Volubilis" 1817:Mosaic in the House of Wild Beasts 1805:Mosaic in the House of the Athlete 1536:The Arch of Caracalla at Volubilis 1109:drain or aqueduct, not unlike the 772:Arch of Caracalla (Triumphal Arch) 673:long after the end of Punic rule. 14: 7842: 7821:Roman towns and cities in Morocco 3600: 3443:"UNESCO Advisory Body Evaluation" 3426:An account of Timbuctoo and Housa 2089:Handbook of Christian Apologetics 2052: 1793:Mosaic of the Labours of Hercules 1757:Mosaic of the Labours of Hercules 1499: 868:, as the territory of the Berber 804:located at the modern hamlets of 724:showing the location of Volubilis 414:, at least from the time of King 127: 99: 4716: 4027: 3703: 3524:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 3484:. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. 1810: 1798: 1786: 1774: 1762: 1750: 1734: 1722: 1685:House of the Athlete or Desultor 1564: 1552: 1540: 1476: 1464: 1452: 1292: 1280: 1268: 1083: 1071: 647:A Punic stele found in Volubilis 288:Archaeological Site of Volubilis 126: 119: 98: 91: 7796:Archaeological sites in Morocco 7791:World Heritage Sites in Morocco 5350:Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir) 4668:Roman colonies in Berber Africa 4615:Praetorian prefecture of Africa 3654:World Heritage Sites in Morocco 3612:Volubilis on the UNESCO Website 3501:. University of Chicago Press. 3083: 2713: 2505: 2403: 2243:Février, James Germain (1966). 2236: 749:, who described it in his work 705:ancestry; their preference for 625:. By the third century BC, the 598:Foundation and Roman occupation 594:El Ksar, meaning "The Palace". 7811:Phoenician colonies in Morocco 4722:Phoenician cities and colonies 3389:. New York: Psychology Press. 3308:The North African Stones Speak 2725:http://www.sitedevolubilis.org 2249:Études d'Antiquités africaines 2132: 2106: 2079: 2032:Haddadou, Mohand Akli (2006). 2025: 1985: 1308:Basilica and Capitoline Temple 1247:City layout and infrastructure 1163:French-controlled North Africa 1048:, Windus described the scene: 1: 3153:North Africa: The Roman Coast 1448:Public buildings in Volubilis 955:, he escaped to Morocco from 794:replaced by annually elected 6418:Frontiers and fortifications 4184:Oppidum Novum (Caesariensis) 1959: 610:north of the modern city of 552:." The word is mentioned in 398: 7: 6477:Decorations and punishments 3683:(formerly known as Titawin) 3560:"The House of the Cavalier" 3516:Wright, Sarah Bird (1997). 3191:In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts 3108:. Vol. 8. p. 127. 2545:Shabeeny & Jackson 1820 2371:Volubilis Project – History 1741:Mosaic of the Four Seasons 1324: 1264:Infrastructure in Volubilis 1234:Rabat Archaeological Museum 963:in 787. He was proclaimed " 889:Crisis of the Third Century 826:Cohors IV Gallorum equitata 473:devastated by an earthquake 381: 10: 7847: 7831:Former capitals of Morocco 7384:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 5959:historiography of the fall 5702:Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte) 3540:"The History of Volubilis" 3497:Wright, Gwendolyn (1991). 3370:. London: Cadogan Guides. 3229:Quadernos de Madinat Zahra 3189:Dyson, Stephen L. (2006). 2483:Fentress & Limane 2010 2444:Fentress & Limane 2010 2185:Publishers, Nagel (1977). 1981:(in French). 17 June 2020. 1612:greatest victor in Germany 1608:greatest victor in Britain 1604:greatest victor in Parthia 836:, while Aïn Schkor housed 406:situated near the city of 390: 278:UNESCO World Heritage Site 54: 18: 7765:External wars and battles 7632: 7526: 7339: 6931: 6924: 6846: 6758: 6663: 6538: 6490: 6368: 6318: 6257: 6248: 6130: 6082: 6002: 5919: 5889: 5880: 5862: 5790: 5669: 5613: 5482: 5455:Portus Magonis (Portimão) 5443: 5327: 5274: 5238: 5148: 5027: 5019:Strato's Tower (Caesarea) 4971: 4940: 4904: 4728: 4676: 4628: 4550: 4529: 4503: 4322: 4036: 4025: 3994:Oppidum Novum (Tingitana) 3946: 3939: 3798: 3743: 3713: 3700: 3660: 3385:Roller, Duane W. (2003). 3132:Conant, Jonathan (2012). 1870:foederata et diuturna pax 1672:in a chariot pulled by a 1226:University College London 1199:Marcel and Jane Dieulafoy 347: 343: 333: 323: 308: 300: 292: 284: 275: 271: 241: 233: 225: 220: 212: 175: 165: 147: 85: 73: 33: 5201:Ornithon (Tell el-Burak) 3793:Former cities in Morocco 3465:. London: Jacob Tonson. 3448:. UNESCO. September 1997 3404:Romer, Frank E. (1998). 3368:Marrakesh, Fez and Rabat 3329:. London: Random House. 3245:Grimal, Pierre (1984) . 3170:Dean, Sharon L. (2002). 1471:Interior of the Basilica 7760:Roman–Iranian relations 6235:Optimates and populares 4570:Mauretania Caesariensis 3686:Archaeological Site of 3478:Wharton, Edith (1920). 3325:Parker, Philip (2010). 3287:Löhberg, Bernd (2006). 3268:Harris, Walter (1889). 2823:Volubilis Project – Map 1951:Headquarters of Idris I 866:Mauretania Caesariensis 751:De situ orbis libri III 655:, which became a Roman 486: 7770:Civil wars and revolts 7036:Sextus Pompeius Festus 6683:Conflict of the Orders 6042:Legislative assemblies 3979:Iulia Campestris Babba 3969:Iulia Constantia Zilil 3838:Iulia Campestris Babba 3828:Iulia Constantia Zilil 3151:Davies, Ethel (2009). 3117:. New York: Springer. 2988:, p. 153 fn. 181. 2416:. BRILL. p. 327. 2092:. InterVarsity Press. 1853:A building dubbed the 1831: 1640: 1596: 1559:Dedicatory inscription 1368: 1334: 1309: 1183:University of Richmond 1131: 1115: 1064: 1055: 1005: 884: 773: 757:, and the 2nd century 725: 659:following the fall of 648: 561: 21:Volubilis (sculptures) 7479:Simplicius of Cilicia 7231:Quintus Curtius Rufus 6460:Siege in Ancient Rome 6069:Executive magistrates 5045:Cape Melqart (Cefalù) 3974:Iulia Valentia Banasa 3833:Iulia Valentia Banasa 3607:The Volubilis Project 3461:Windus, John (1725). 3348:. London: Routledge. 3344:Raven, Susan (1993). 2754:UNESCO September 1997 2737:UNESCO September 1997 2708:UNESCO September 1997 2681:UNESCO September 1997 2067:www.perseus.tufts.edu 1825: 1626:Father of the Country 1600: 1578: 1483:The Capitoline Temple 1366: 1332: 1307: 1125: 1106: 1059: 1050: 1046:A Journey to Mequinez 1026:Moulay Idriss Zerhoun 1002: 971:, who was proclaimed 882: 771: 736:and wild animals for 719: 646: 573:Charles-Joseph Tissot 466:Moulay Idriss Zerhoun 456:, the founder of the 412:Kingdom of Mauretania 362:[wɔˈɫuːbɪlɪs] 7801:Mauretania Tingitana 7489:Stephanus Byzantinus 7394:Eusebius of Caesaria 7256:Sidonius Apollinaris 6946:Ammianus Marcellinus 6285:Tribune of the plebs 5722:Maqom Hadesh (Ounga) 5560:Carthage (Cartagena) 4948:Callista (Santorini) 4886:Tipasa in Mauretania 4846:Rusippisir (Taksebt) 4656:Early African Church 4565:Mauretania Tingitana 4084:Castellum Tingitanum 3586:on February 21, 2011 3566:on November 20, 2008 2191:. Nagel Publishers. 2140:"وليلي أو قصر فرعون" 1718:Mosaics in Volubilis 1598:or, in translation: 1096:Walter Burton Harris 921:Eastern Roman Empire 883:Mosaics in Volubilis 858:Mauretania Tingitana 722:Mauretania Tingitana 663:in 146 BC. The 358:Latin pronunciation: 338:North African States 197:34.07111°N 5.55361°W 107:Shown within Morocco 7665:Distinguished women 7316:Velleius Paterculus 7156:Nicolaus Damascenus 7136:Marcellus Empiricus 6525:Republican currency 5459:Olissipona (Lisbon) 4620:Exarchate of Africa 3735:Mazagan (El Jadida) 3733:Portuguese City of 3617:Images of Volubilis 3251:Les villes romaines 3095:. pp. 429–436. 2255:(1): 88–89, Pl. II. 1839:Labours of Hercules 1826:The bronze bust of 1707:House of the Knight 1696:House of the Ephebe 697:, Juba and his son 687:Cleopatra Selene II 638:Phoenician language 481:World Heritage Site 193: / 110:Show map of Morocco 30: 7439:Phlegon of Tralles 7246:Seneca the Younger 6720:Naming conventions 6450:Personal equipment 5983:Later Roman Empire 5631:Balanaea (Baniyas) 4861:Rusuccuru (Dellys) 4661:Church of Carthage 4646:Limes Tripolitanus 4585:Creta et Cyrenaica 4099:Civitas Popthensis 3724:(formerly Mogador) 3580:"Map of Volubilis" 3274:. London: S. Low. 2693:Gran-Aymerich 2006 2485:, p. 103–122. 2013:on 20 October 2013 1832: 1643:Houses and palaces 1369: 1335: 1310: 1230:Elizabeth Fentress 1132: 1038:earthquake in 1755 1006: 885: 774: 759:Antonine Itinerary 726: 689:, the daughter of 649: 526:turns itself round 454:Idris ibn Abdallah 324:Reference no. 202:34.07111; -5.55361 138:Show map of Africa 135:Volubilis (Africa) 28: 7778: 7777: 7740:Pontifices maximi 7522: 7521: 7379:Diogenes Laërtius 7201:Pliny the Younger 6956:Asconius Pedianus 6916:Romance languages 6788:Civil engineering 6530:Imperial currency 6403:Political control 6364: 6363: 5998: 5997: 5821: 5820: 5451:Portus Hannibalis 5340:Arambys (Mogador) 5225:Ushu (Palaetyrus) 5206:Porphyreon (Jieh) 5075:Kapara (Soluntum) 4891:Tipasa in Numidia 4841:Rusicade (Skikda) 4683: 4682: 4595:Diocese of Africa 4119:Diana Veteranorum 4079:Castellum Dimmidi 3901: 3900: 3760: 3759: 3692:Historic City of 3546:on April 24, 2012 3531:978-0-312-15842-2 3508:978-0-226-90848-9 3415:978-0-472-08452-4 3396:978-0-415-30596-9 3377:978-1-86011-432-8 3364:Rogerson, Barnaby 3355:978-0-415-08150-4 3336:978-0-224-07788-0 3317:978-0-8078-4942-2 3298:978-3-86596-085-6 3260:978-0-299-08934-4 3219:978-0-472-03174-0 3200:978-0-300-11097-5 3181:978-1-57233-194-5 3162:978-1-84162-287-3 3143:978-0-521-19697-0 3077:, p. 310-11. 3065:, pp. 243–4. 2926:, p. xxxiii. 2719:Reports on these 2423:978-90-474-0232-9 2198:978-2-8263-0164-6 2125:978-1-4730-0108-4 2099:978-0-8308-7544-3 2045:978-9961-789-98-8 1622:tribunician power 1522:Roman citizenship 1506:Decumanus Maximus 1359:Notable buildings 830:auxiliary cavalry 808:, Bled el Gaada, 763:Volubilis Colonia 512:Lewis & Short 396: 379: 351: 350: 319: 152:Meknès Prefecture 7838: 7730:Magistri equitum 7645:Cities and towns 7638: 7564:Constantinopolis 7374:Diodorus Siculus 7306:Valerius Maximus 7241:Seneca the Elder 7161:Nonius Marcellus 6929: 6928: 6482:Hippika gymnasia 6445:Infantry tactics 6351:Consular tribune 6341:Magister equitum 6290:Military tribune 6255: 6254: 6215:Pontifex maximus 6210:Princeps senatus 6200:Magister militum 5966:Byzantine Empire 5887: 5886: 5848: 5841: 5834: 5825: 5824: 5590:Tagilit (Tíjola) 5365:Shalat (Chellah) 5335:Azama (Azemmour) 4720: 4710: 4703: 4696: 4687: 4686: 4629:Related articles 4475:Turris Tamalleni 4370:Hippo Diarrhytus 4109:Cohors Breucorum 4031: 3928: 3921: 3914: 3905: 3904: 3787: 3780: 3773: 3764: 3763: 3708: 3707: 3647: 3640: 3633: 3624: 3623: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3535: 3523: 3512: 3493: 3474: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3447: 3438: 3419: 3400: 3381: 3359: 3340: 3321: 3302: 3283: 3264: 3241: 3232: 3223: 3204: 3185: 3166: 3147: 3128: 3109: 3096: 3078: 3075:MacKendrick 2000 3072: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3037: 3031: 3025: 3019: 3013: 3007: 3001: 2998:MacKendrick 2000 2995: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2942: 2936: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2896: 2893:MacKendrick 2000 2890: 2879: 2876:MacKendrick 2000 2873: 2860: 2854: 2841: 2835: 2826: 2820: 2791: 2785: 2776: 2773:MacKendrick 2000 2770: 2757: 2751: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2696: 2690: 2684: 2678: 2659: 2653: 2647: 2641: 2635: 2629: 2623: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2598:, p. 173–4. 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2560: 2559:, p. 69–70. 2554: 2548: 2547:, p. 120–1. 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2509: 2503: 2497: 2486: 2480: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2447: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2386:MacKendrick 2000 2383: 2374: 2368: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2317: 2298: 2292: 2281: 2275: 2269: 2263: 2257: 2256: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2215: 2209: 2203: 2202: 2182: 2173: 2172: 2165: 2159: 2158: 2156: 2155: 2136: 2130: 2129: 2110: 2104: 2103: 2083: 2077: 2076: 2074: 2073: 2059: 2050: 2049: 2029: 2023: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2003: 1997: 1996: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1969: 1912:Cato the Younger 1828:Cato the Younger 1814: 1802: 1790: 1778: 1766: 1754: 1738: 1726: 1658:House of Orpheus 1617:Pontifex Maximus 1568: 1556: 1544: 1480: 1468: 1456: 1399:Public buildings 1296: 1284: 1272: 1211:Second World War 1165:(in Algeria and 1148:Gwendolyn Wright 1087: 1075: 961:Battle of Fakhkh 943:established the 915:After the Romans 909:crossing oneself 604:Zerhoun mountain 593: 592: 586:Pharaoh's Palace 584: 583: 564: 521:or (more freq.) 401: 395:romanized: 394: 392: 387:Berber languages 384: 374: 372: 364: 359: 313: 208: 207: 205: 204: 203: 198: 194: 191: 190: 189: 186: 139: 130: 129: 123: 111: 102: 101: 95: 78: 65: 62:Berber languages 57: 56: 50: 42: 41: 31: 27: 7846: 7845: 7841: 7840: 7839: 7837: 7836: 7835: 7781: 7780: 7779: 7774: 7636: 7634: 7628: 7518: 7354:Aëtius of Amida 7335: 7321:Verrius Flaccus 7301:Valerius Antias 7261:Silius Italicus 7196:Pliny the Elder 7141:Marcus Aurelius 7016:Cornelius Nepos 6966:Aurelius Victor 6920: 6842: 6754: 6688:Secessio plebis 6659: 6534: 6486: 6360: 6314: 6244: 6126: 6078: 5994: 5915: 5876: 5858: 5852: 5822: 5817: 5786: 5677:Aspis (Kelibia) 5665: 5609: 5478: 5464:Ossonoba (Faro) 5439: 5323: 5270: 5234: 5171:Athar (Tripoli) 5144: 5023: 4967: 4936: 4900: 4776:Iol (Cherchell) 4724: 4714: 4684: 4679: 4672: 4641:African Romance 4624: 4552: 4546: 4525: 4499: 4318: 4032: 4023: 3942: 3935: 3932: 3902: 3897: 3794: 3791: 3761: 3756: 3739: 3709: 3702: 3698: 3656: 3651: 3603: 3598: 3589: 3587: 3569: 3567: 3549: 3547: 3532: 3509: 3451: 3449: 3445: 3416: 3397: 3378: 3356: 3337: 3318: 3299: 3261: 3220: 3201: 3182: 3163: 3144: 3125: 3086: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3061: 3057: 3049: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3020: 3016: 3008: 3004: 2996: 2992: 2984: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2960: 2945: 2937: 2930: 2922: 2918: 2910: 2899: 2891: 2882: 2874: 2863: 2855: 2844: 2836: 2829: 2821: 2794: 2786: 2779: 2771: 2760: 2752: 2743: 2735: 2731: 2718: 2714: 2706: 2699: 2691: 2687: 2679: 2662: 2654: 2650: 2642: 2638: 2630: 2626: 2618: 2614: 2606: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2582: 2578: 2574:, p. xxxi. 2570: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2535:, p. 86–9. 2531: 2527: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2498: 2489: 2481: 2474: 2466: 2462: 2454: 2450: 2442: 2438: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2408: 2404: 2396: 2392: 2384: 2377: 2369: 2350: 2342: 2338: 2330: 2326: 2318: 2301: 2293: 2284: 2276: 2272: 2264: 2260: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2218: 2210: 2206: 2199: 2183: 2176: 2171:. 9 March 2022. 2167: 2166: 2162: 2153: 2151: 2138: 2137: 2133: 2126: 2112: 2111: 2107: 2100: 2084: 2080: 2071: 2069: 2061: 2060: 2053: 2046: 2030: 2026: 2016: 2014: 2005: 2004: 2000: 1991: 1990: 1986: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1953: 1818: 1815: 1806: 1803: 1794: 1791: 1782: 1779: 1770: 1767: 1758: 1755: 1746: 1739: 1730: 1727: 1645: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1572: 1569: 1560: 1557: 1548: 1545: 1516:and his mother 1502: 1484: 1481: 1472: 1469: 1460: 1457: 1401: 1361: 1327: 1300: 1297: 1288: 1285: 1276: 1273: 1249: 1213:forced a halt. 1207:First World War 1203:Louis Chatelain 1120: 1098:, a writer for 1091: 1088: 1079: 1076: 990:Harun al-Rashid 945:Idrisid dynasty 917: 850:Marcus Aurelius 755:Pliny the Elder 600: 567:Classical Latin 519:is turned round 489: 458:Idrisid dynasty 357: 304:ii, iii, iv, vi 280: 237:11th century AD 201: 199: 195: 192: 187: 184: 182: 180: 179: 143: 142: 141: 140: 137: 136: 133: 132: 131: 114: 113: 112: 109: 108: 105: 104: 103: 81: 80:Volubilis ruins 69: 68: 59: 44: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7844: 7834: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7776: 7775: 7773: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7641: 7639: 7630: 7629: 7627: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7530: 7528: 7524: 7523: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7345: 7343: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7206:Pomponius Mela 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6941:Aelius Donatus 6937: 6935: 6926: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6913: 6912: 6911: 6909:Ecclesiastical 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6863: 6858: 6852: 6850: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6764: 6762: 6756: 6755: 6753: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6711: 6710: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6669: 6667: 6661: 6660: 6658: 6657: 6652: 6650:Toys and games 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6621: 6620: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6544: 6542: 6536: 6535: 6533: 6532: 6527: 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4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4326: 4324: 4320: 4319: 4317: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4209:Quiza Xenitana 4206: 4201: 4199:Portus Divinus 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4040: 4038: 4034: 4033: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3950: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3940: 3937: 3936: 3931: 3930: 3923: 3916: 3908: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3799: 3796: 3795: 3790: 3789: 3782: 3775: 3767: 3758: 3757: 3755: 3754: 3752:Ait-Ben-Haddou 3747: 3745: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3737: 3731: 3725: 3717: 3715: 3711: 3710: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3696: 3690: 3684: 3677: 3671: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3657: 3650: 3649: 3642: 3635: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3614: 3609: 3602: 3601:External links 3599: 3597: 3596: 3576: 3556: 3536: 3530: 3513: 3507: 3494: 3475: 3458: 3439: 3420: 3414: 3401: 3395: 3382: 3376: 3360: 3354: 3346:Rome in Africa 3341: 3335: 3322: 3316: 3303: 3297: 3284: 3265: 3259: 3242: 3233: 3231:. No. 7p. 3224: 3218: 3205: 3199: 3186: 3180: 3167: 3161: 3148: 3142: 3129: 3123: 3110: 3097: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3079: 3067: 3055: 3053:, p. 243. 3038: 3036:, p. 242. 3026: 3014: 3002: 3000:, p. 303. 2990: 2978: 2976:, p. 244. 2966: 2964:, p. 241. 2943: 2941:, p. 292. 2928: 2916: 2914:, p. 240. 2897: 2895:, p. 311. 2880: 2878:, p. 305. 2861: 2859:, p. 239. 2842: 2827: 2792: 2790:, p. 116. 2777: 2775:, p. 304. 2758: 2741: 2729: 2712: 2697: 2685: 2660: 2658:, p. 494. 2648: 2636: 2634:, p. 158. 2624: 2622:, p. 136. 2612: 2600: 2588: 2586:, p. 117. 2576: 2561: 2549: 2537: 2525: 2513: 2504: 2502:, p. 238. 2487: 2472: 2460: 2458:, p. 294. 2448: 2446:, p. 107. 2436: 2422: 2402: 2390: 2388:, p. 312. 2375: 2348: 2336: 2334:, p. 131. 2324: 2322:, p. 237. 2299: 2282: 2280:, p. 141. 2270: 2268:, p. 491. 2258: 2235: 2233:, p. 236. 2216: 2214:, p. 128. 2204: 2197: 2174: 2160: 2131: 2124: 2105: 2098: 2078: 2051: 2044: 2024: 1998: 1984: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1952: 1949: 1908: 1907: 1877:House of Venus 1873: 1855:Gordian Palace 1851: 1820: 1819: 1816: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1785: 1783: 1780: 1773: 1771: 1768: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1749: 1747: 1740: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1714: 1703: 1692: 1681: 1662:Orpheus mosaic 1644: 1641: 1574: 1573: 1570: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1539: 1537: 1510:triumphal arch 1501: 1500:Triumphal arch 1498: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1451: 1449: 1400: 1397: 1377:triumphal arch 1360: 1357: 1339:olive pressing 1326: 1323: 1302: 1301: 1298: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1267: 1265: 1248: 1245: 1195:Hubert Lyautey 1188:Hilaire Belloc 1136:French Morocco 1119: 1116: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1070: 1068: 959:following the 916: 913: 818:Bled Takourart 747:Pomponius Mela 608:alluvial plain 599: 596: 488: 485: 435:triumphal arch 349: 348: 345: 344: 341: 340: 335: 331: 330: 325: 321: 320: 310: 306: 305: 302: 298: 297: 294: 290: 289: 286: 282: 281: 276: 273: 272: 269: 268: 243: 239: 238: 235: 231: 230: 229:3rd century BC 227: 223: 222: 218: 217: 214: 210: 209: 177: 173: 172: 167: 163: 162: 149: 145: 144: 134: 125: 124: 118: 117: 116: 115: 106: 97: 96: 90: 89: 88: 87: 86: 83: 82: 79: 71: 70: 67: 66: 51: 35: 34: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7843: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7788: 7786: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7642: 7640: 7631: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7525: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7346: 7344: 7342: 7338: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7096:Julius Paulus 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7031:Fabius Pictor 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6934: 6930: 6927: 6923: 6917: 6914: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6849: 6845: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6768:Amphitheatres 6766: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6757: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6709: 6706: 6705: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6668: 6666: 6662: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6619: 6616: 6615: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6545: 6543: 6541: 6537: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6505:Deforestation 6503: 6501: 6498: 6497: 6495: 6493: 6489: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6455:Siege engines 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6437: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6424: 6421: 6420: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6388:Establishment 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6375: 6373: 6371: 6367: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6319:Extraordinary 6317: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6305:Promagistrate 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6262: 6260: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6247: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6137: 6135: 6133: 6129: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6092:Twelve Tables 6090: 6089: 6087: 6085: 6081: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6044: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6009: 6007: 6005: 6001: 5989: 5986: 5985: 5984: 5981: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5967: 5964: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5922: 5918: 5912: 5909: 5905: 5902: 5901: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5891: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5879: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5864: 5861: 5856: 5849: 5844: 5842: 5837: 5835: 5830: 5829: 5826: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5789: 5783: 5780: 5777: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5762: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5732: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5717: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5697: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5674: 5672: 5668: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5626:Marat (Amrit) 5624: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5606: 5603: 5600: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5585: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5570: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5550: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5535: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5520:Gadir (Cadiz) 5518: 5515: 5511: 5508: 5505: 5501: 5498: 5495: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5481: 5474: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5448: 5446: 5442: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5390: 5386: 5383: 5380: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5345:Caricus Murus 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5326: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5299:Gaulos (Gozo) 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5284: 5280: 5279: 5277: 5273: 5267: 5264: 5261: 5257: 5254: 5251: 5247: 5244: 5243: 5241: 5237: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5186: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5147: 5141: 5140:Ṣiṣ (Palermo) 5138: 5136: 5133: 5130: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5085: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5065: 5061: 5058: 5055: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5040: 5036: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5026: 5020: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4970: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4939: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4922: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4903: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4881: 4877: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4856: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4836: 4832: 4829: 4826: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4796: 4792: 4789: 4786: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4771: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4746: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4733: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4711: 4706: 4704: 4699: 4697: 4692: 4691: 4688: 4675: 4669: 4666: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4631: 4627: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4553:and provinces 4549: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4508: 4506: 4502: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4390:Pheradi Majus 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4294:Unica Colonia 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4204:Portus Magnus 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4044:Aquae Calidae 4042: 4041: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3951: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3929: 3924: 3922: 3917: 3915: 3910: 3909: 3906: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3800: 3797: 3788: 3783: 3781: 3776: 3774: 3769: 3768: 3765: 3753: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3742: 3736: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3718: 3716: 3712: 3706: 3695: 3691: 3689: 3685: 3682: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3648: 3643: 3641: 3636: 3634: 3629: 3628: 3625: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3527: 3522: 3521: 3514: 3510: 3504: 3500: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3482: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3459: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3427: 3421: 3417: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3398: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3379: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3272: 3266: 3262: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3225: 3221: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3202: 3196: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3139: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3124:0-306-46364-4 3120: 3116: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3089: 3088: 3076: 3071: 3064: 3063:Rogerson 2010 3059: 3052: 3051:Rogerson 2010 3047: 3045: 3043: 3035: 3034:Rogerson 2010 3030: 3023: 3018: 3012:, p. 43. 3011: 3006: 2999: 2994: 2987: 2982: 2975: 2974:Rogerson 2010 2970: 2963: 2962:Rogerson 2010 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2940: 2935: 2933: 2925: 2920: 2913: 2912:Rogerson 2010 2908: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2894: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2877: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2858: 2857:Rogerson 2010 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2840:, p. 42. 2839: 2834: 2832: 2824: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2789: 2784: 2782: 2774: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2756:, p. 72. 2755: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2739:, p. 75. 2738: 2733: 2726: 2722: 2716: 2710:, p. 74. 2709: 2704: 2702: 2695:, p. 60. 2694: 2689: 2683:, p. 73. 2682: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2657: 2652: 2646:, p. 39. 2645: 2640: 2633: 2628: 2621: 2616: 2610:, p. 45. 2609: 2604: 2597: 2592: 2585: 2580: 2573: 2568: 2566: 2558: 2553: 2546: 2541: 2534: 2529: 2523:, p. 86. 2522: 2517: 2508: 2501: 2500:Rogerson 2010 2496: 2494: 2492: 2484: 2479: 2477: 2469: 2464: 2457: 2452: 2445: 2440: 2425: 2419: 2415: 2414: 2406: 2399: 2394: 2387: 2382: 2380: 2372: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2346:, p. 66. 2345: 2340: 2333: 2328: 2321: 2320:Rogerson 2010 2316: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2304: 2297:, p. 41. 2296: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2279: 2274: 2267: 2262: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2239: 2232: 2231:Rogerson 2010 2227: 2225: 2223: 2221: 2213: 2212:Carrasco 2000 2208: 2200: 2194: 2190: 2189: 2181: 2179: 2170: 2164: 2150:on 2020-06-10 2149: 2145: 2141: 2135: 2127: 2121: 2117: 2116: 2109: 2101: 2095: 2091: 2090: 2082: 2068: 2064: 2058: 2056: 2047: 2041: 2037: 2036: 2028: 2012: 2008: 2002: 1994: 1988: 1980: 1979: 1974: 1973:"Rirha/Gilda" 1968: 1964: 1957: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1933:Cleomenes III 1930: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1871: 1866: 1865: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1840: 1837:House of the 1834: 1833: 1829: 1824: 1813: 1808: 1801: 1796: 1789: 1784: 1777: 1772: 1765: 1760: 1753: 1748: 1744: 1737: 1732: 1725: 1720: 1717: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1654: 1653: 1651: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1632: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1599: 1595: 1592: 1582: 1577: 1567: 1562: 1555: 1550: 1543: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1479: 1474: 1467: 1462: 1455: 1450: 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