511:
units) of triangular âidentical symmetrical unitsâ to construct a 'spherical' shell to enclose some given material at any given size. In terms of optimising the ratio of number of required protein sub-assemblies and the surface area enclosed, icosahedral symmetry is again found to be the smallest and most efficient symmetry to adopt. Icosahedral capsid structure is an optimal design for encasing material due to its geometric and symmetric properties, lending to its efficient design being naturally and necessarily adopted by a majority of viral lineages. The symmetrical and highly-order nature of most virus crystals can be attributed to the inherent symmetry of the icosahedral capsid structure and its protein-protein interactions.
564:
74:
789:
224:
680:
426:
25:
881:, as they remain as prominent issues by placing limitations on crystal size variability. More emphasis is required on overcoming the limitations to macromolecular crystals, as its demand has been growing amongst researchers. Many viral crystals fall into this category, hence, the traditional crystallisation technique is said to receive more attention heading into the future.
780:, it is not enough to exceed that of X-ray crystallography. X-ray crystallography still remain as the most suitable approach when taking into account atomic level structures and micro-molecular interactions. Researchers therefore combine both cryo-EM and X-ray crystallisation as a method of overcoming each other's limitations.
475:
445:
genome. Due to the nature of packing identical asymmetric proteins with no rotational symmetry in order to minimise disturbance to protein-protein bonds at specific binding and receptor sites, capsid protein structures composed of a repetition of identical protein subunits necessarily arranges itself
856:
typically associated with life, such as cellular structure and independent metabolism. Overcoming limitations to virus crystallisation can provide important details about unknown molecular interactions that determine their life-like behaviour, thus allowing its characteristics to be comparable with
510:
capsid structure, specific geometric limitations naturally and necessarily apply on the possible conformations of the encasing structure. The icosahedral capsid structure is the most common arrangement due to 2-3-5 symmetry of its namesake shape, allowing for the use of up to the greatest number (60
725:
of scattered waves emitted in different directions across the lattice. Diffraction patterns depend on internal order within the crystal. High internal order with dense arrangements produce more extensive diffraction patterns with higher resolution, allowing for more precise determination of atomic
662:
Crystalline structures of virus crystals undergo imaging to produce visual results. They are developed to obtain information on microscopic arrangements in immobilized virus particles. Imaging has improved over time as advancements in X-ray sources, detectors and computer based imaging programs
388:
protruding from the extracellular aspect. Such viral envelope is usually acquired when travelling through the plasma or intracellular matrices of the host organism and may vary in composition depending on the host cell's membrane lipid content and host cell proteins. The structure of note for
1836:
Duyvesteyn, Helen M. E.; Ginn, Helen M.; PietilÀ, Maija K.; Wagner, Armin; Hattne, Johan; Grimes, Jonathan M.; Hirvonen, Elina; Evans, Gwyndaf; Parsy, Marie-Laure; Sauter, Nicholas K.; Brewster, Aaron S.; Huiskonen, Juha T.; Stuart, David I.; Sutton, Geoff; Bamford, Dennis H. (2018-02-28).
813:. This is an alternative to cryo-EM that allows for visualisation of the environment and interaction outside of the virus inhabited host cell. Such advancements have propelled the understanding of virus activity in its host cell environment, rather than solely focusing on the virus itself.
796:
experiment: sample preparation, grid preparation, data collection, image processing, and structure determination. The reconstruction of a 3D density map is derived upon its 2D model, which allows for clearer visualisation of the structure for the sake of better understanding of its
840:, as it allows for more control over light power and range. Despite the rapid evolution cryo-EM that does not require crystallisation, MX and XFELs allow virus crystallisation to remain relevant and continue to play a vital role in providing atomic-level details of viruses.
742:
content on average. The solvent consists of water and other small molecules that freely diffuse through the crystal's interstitial spaces. Such unwanted presence of solvent-filled channels within macromolecular crystals hinder the reading of X-ray diffraction patterns.
737:
size have significant limitations compared to smaller crystals. They are softer and are more susceptible to damage, and can easily disintegrate over high radiation. This results from the significant amount of liquid between molecules, with approximately 50%
112:
to effectively analyze the structure and function behind viruses. Understanding of such characteristics have been enhanced thanks to the enhancement and diversity in crystallisation technologies. Virus crystals have a deep history of being widely applied in
186:
was difficult due to their relatively miniature size, with the smallest of viruses measuring in at roughly 20 nm in diameter. Microscopy was therefore a relatively challenging field, with alternative methods of observation in high demand.
809:, which involve direct conversion of ejected electrons into electrical signals, thus improving the speed and feasibility of the imaging procedure. Limitations with studying large molecular complexes were combated with the introduction of
580:
Viruses of specific species are placed in incubators with healthy cells, which mimics their ideal conditions for proper functioning. With the presence of healthy cells, viruses attach and undergo replication to produce large samples.
559:
The aim of crystallisation is to grow suitable sized, high quality virus crystals in order to be read properly during the imaging process. Artificial crystallisation in the laboratory is generally carried out in four major steps:
589:
The replicated virus particles are extracted, which is followed by purification to remove unwanted substances such as debris. This process isolates virus particles and leaves them in high concentration solutions. They then undergo
49:
614:, a critical process during the early stages of crystallisations, where small clusters of coat proteins aggregate to form the building blocks of the outer capsid structure. Some coat proteins are charged and produce
824:
sources, fast detectors, and innovative sample delivery methods to study the dynamic features of macromolecules. Such technique that observes virus dynamics rather than its static composition is referred to as
254:
structure through virus crystals that could diffract X-ray. This discovery served as a basis to continuous refinement in methods of virus crystallography, which later led to the determination of numerous other
650:, and the presence of specific additives or precipitants in the solution. When successful, viral particles align and associate with each other in a regular pattern forming repeating three dimensional
1960:
454:. This resultant helical structure is the case due to the geometric limitations and symmetrical nature necessitated by the protein sub-assembly array and its protein-protein interactions. The
817:
820:
have also been involved in the image technology overhaul phase. MX is considered a new scientific discipline that adapts advanced tools and automated procedures. This is carried out with
848:
Whether or not viruses are âaliveâ is a subject of heavy debate across the world. While viruses exhibit some behaviours that can be characterized as 'alive', such as their ability to
806:
765:
In cryo-EM, crystallisation is not necessary and can directly observe biological samples, such as infected host cells and active viruses. This provides significant advantages over
692:
207:
and other organic molecules) could diffract X-rays, implying a complex structural mechanism in viral bodies. This breakthrough served as the basis for the expansion of
401:, spring-like, structure. Viral capsid structures are organised in such a way as to maximise the efficiency of carrying its specific length of RNA or DNA chain. The
246:
was developed during the mid 20th century by scientists' efforts to study the characteristics of crystallised viruses in laboratory investigations. Amongst them was
158:. These early observations were primarily regarded as laboratory curiosities. What began as mere curiosities evolved into the need for purification and isolation of
709:
of diffracted X-rays by individual atoms and virus particles. Precise atomic positions and arrangement of capsid proteins are generated under high resolution.
906:
Sehnke, Paul C.; Harrington, Melissa; Hosur, M.V.; Li, Yunge; Usha, R.; Craig Tucker, R.; Bomu, Wu; Stauffacher, Cynthia V.; Johnson, John E. (July 1988).
466:
in their 1962 crystallisation study was discovered to be composed of a '2 to 5 capsid protein subunit aggregate', arranged in a helical capsid structure.
1968:
701:
1688:
1305:
2047:"X-ray Diffraction Techniques for Mineral Characterization: A Review for Engineers of the Fundamentals, Applications, and Research Directions"
2271:
1164:
953:
Erickson, John W.; Frankenberger, Elizabeth A.; Rossmann, Michael G.; Fout, G. Shay; Medappa, K. C.; Rueckert, Roland R. (February 1983).
2399:
1114:
769:
when investigating complex viral structures that pose challenges during crystallisation. It is particularly useful in observing the
413:
of viruses is facilitated by the crystallisation of viruses (and more specifically their capsid protein subunits) in order to study
610:
Concentrated virus pellets are treated with reagents that allow them to form small crystal nuclei. Such stages are referred to as
490:
of the capsid. Protein chains VP1, VP2, VP3, and VP4 individually derive from smaller structural protein components of the capsid.
39:
2011:
1452:
1400:
1345:
1202:
2294:"Viruses Broaden the Definition of Life by Genomic Incorporation of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Processes"
758:
of a beam of electrons to detect and image a sample. Cryo-EM provides an overall improved performance over the traditional
1359:
1535:
450:
that folds to encase its contents in a helical structure, much like the naturally occurring helical structure seen in
733:
X-ray crystallography does not guarantee accurate performance for all virus crystals. For example, virus crystals at
405:
of the capsid proteins may also play a role in its organisation, though this has not yet been fully elucidated. The
642:
once initial crystal nuclei are formed. The growth of virus crystals can be influenced by various factors such as
506:
limitations of the packaging of the genome. Similar to the constraints that lend to the symmetrical nature of the
528:
414:
519:
Viruses generally invade and hijack host cells as a method of replication. Once infected, the host cell has its
805:
have expanded the extent in which virus morphology could be uncovered by researchers. Cryo-EM began to feature
203:
even in crystal form. It was during this time when researchers discovered that crystallised viruses (much like
874:
826:
810:
802:
751:
668:
143:
344:. Such advancements in technology have not only shed light on viral characteristics, but has revolutionized
483:
364:
in the viral genome core, and are encased by a protective protein coat. Generally, the core is encased in
232:
117:
and virology, and still to this day remains a catalyst for studying viral patterns to mitigate potential
654:. The growth process can take hours to days, depending on the virus and the crystallisation conditions.
563:
1680:
536:
1772:"Hydrophobic Interaction: A Promising Driving Force for the Biomedical Applications of Nucleic Acids"
1559:
Zandi, Roya; Reguera, David; Bruinsma, Robijn F.; Gelbart, William M.; Rudnick, Joseph (2004-11-02).
955:"Crystallization of a common cold virus, human rhinovirus 14: "Isomorphism" with poliovirus crystals"
714:
532:
1285:
730:
is used to measure the crystal's ability to diffract waves upon being exposed to the X-ray source.
619:
571:
plates with prepared protein solutions for the Phase II Real-time
Protein Crystal Growth experiment
310:
192:
139:
2217:
295:
It was towards the end of the 20th century when scientists realized viruses surrounded with thick
1136:
615:
568:
204:
163:
135:
1713:
Zandi, Roya; van der Schoot, Paul; Reguera, David; Kegel, Willem; Reiss, Howard (March 2006).
870:
837:
770:
766:
684:
664:
618:, which needs to be overcome by hydrophobic interactions in order to crystallise the capsid.
329:
243:
212:
486:, a repeating subunit that makes up its spherical capsid structure. (Right) Image of the 3D
54:
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602:. This process is repeated until the precipitate is further densified into a virus pellet.
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455:
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251:
236:
228:
196:
188:
171:
78:
1137:"DĂ©couverte du premier virus, le virus de la mosaĂŻque du tabac : 1892 ou 1898 ?"
8:
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82:
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particles. The crystals are composed of thousands of inactive forms of a particular
2381:
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2313:
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118:
105:
35:
1990:
Verdaguer, Nuria; Garriga, DamiĂ ; Fita, Ignacio (2013), Mateu, Mauricio G. (ed.),
836:, which is a new generation of light sources succeeding the traditional notion of
368:
proteins in a single or double-layered structure. Some viruses, such as some
231:
with different geometries allow for different perspectives of visualisation. Both
1515:
1340:(4th ed.), Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston,
853:
447:
425:
337:
322:
314:
256:
247:
2003:
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402:
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296:
280:
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1991:
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527:
are produced from virus replication and propagation. This process consists of
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2080:
1938:
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1523:
1333:
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988:
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734:
524:
459:
385:
377:
341:
272:
1577:
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2202:
2140:
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1946:
1888:
1813:
1787:
1756:
1666:
1604:
1531:
1392:
1355:
1301:
1270:
1160:
1141:
Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des
Sciences - Series III - Sciences de la Vie
1110:
548:
381:
182:
Achieving clear visualisation of viruses using limited technology, such as
114:
1499:
1006:
979:
474:
321:
enables scientists to visualise viruses at near-atomic resolution without
2114:
1930:
1380:
821:
643:
599:
595:
394:
369:
200:
2071:
2046:
679:
1914:
706:
696:
611:
499:
463:
437:
The helical capsid structure is majorly dependent on the length of the
356:
Viruses are defined as âobligate intracellular parasitesâ that contain
264:
260:
183:
147:
134:
Virus crystals originate back to the late 19th century where the first
109:
1915:"Advancements in macromolecular crystallography: from past to present"
776:
However, despite Cryo-EM being able to provide higher resolution over
705:
in 2-fold symmetry view. Virus crystals amplify weak signals from the
271:. Such advancements provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of
442:
438:
44:
380:
surrounding a layer of membrane-bound proteins, with either surface
2159:
Guaita, Margherita; Watters, Scott C.; Loerch, Sarah (2022-12-01).
1998:, vol. 68, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 117â144,
713:
X-ray crystallography utilizes virus crystalsâ ability to diffract
639:
623:
503:
410:
348:
as a whole, and continue to be subject to heavy focus to this day.
345:
208:
167:
166:. Protein crystallisation techniques were ultimately introduced in
1913:
Rathore, Ishan; Mishra, Vandana; Bhaumik, Prasenjit (2021-05-10).
952:
793:
773:
of the virus, which is difficult to achieve via crystallisation.
739:
318:
284:
159:
97:
2161:"Recent advances and current trends in cryo-electron microscopy"
1770:
Xiao, Fan; Chen, Zhe; Wei, Zixiang; Tian, Leilei (August 2020).
626:
regions of molecules that associate with each other strongly in
543:, and is subject to heavy focus for better understanding of the
24:
1712:
1286:"Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin, O.M. 12 May 1910--29 July 1994"
1185:
Louten, Jennifer (2016), "Virus
Structure and Classification",
540:
397:
in structure, with the second most common organisation being a
376:
when found in particular hosts. This membrane is composed of a
365:
108:. The inactive nature of virus crystals provide advantages for
16:
Re-arrangement of viral components into solid crystal particles
2045:
Ali, Asif; Chiang, Yi Wai; Santos, Rafael M. (February 2022).
2099:"Modern Uses of Electron Microscopy for Detection of Viruses"
688:
507:
398:
101:
93:
1500:"Physical Principles in the Construction of Regular Viruses"
1227:
McPherson, Alexander; DeLucas, Lawrence James (2015-09-03).
482:
showing the asymmetrical capsid structural aggregate of the
429:
Schematic model showing the helical capsid structure of the
1835:
1558:
155:
151:
2215:
746:
451:
361:
357:
268:
2218:"A simplified description of X-ray free-electron lasers"
1996:
Structure and
Physics of Viruses: An Integrated Textbook
816:
Advancements in X-ray crystallography under the name of
2097:
Goldsmith, Cynthia S.; Miller, Sara E. (October 2009).
905:
647:
2292:
Stefano, George B.; Kream, Richard M. (October 2022).
1381:"Taxonomy, Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses"
250:, an expert in molecular microbiology, who determined
174:, which were the first ever viruses to be discovered.
77:
Comparison between crystallisation of salt (left) and
1965:
International
Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)
832:
Time resolved crystallography is facilitated through
417:; a proxy for the capsids' properties and functions.
2344:
McPherson, Alexander; Gavira, Jose A. (2014-01-01).
1989:
1912:
1290:
Biographical
Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
1059:
McPherson, Alexander; Gavira, Jose A. (2014-01-01).
2216:Margaritondo, G.; Rebernik Ribic, P. (2011-03-01).
2158:
1504:
Cold Spring Harbor
Symposia on Quantitative Biology
877:, researchers are shifting their focus back to the
372:, also develop a large lipid membrane known as the
313:emerged as a new, alternative method for studying
302:Such viruses made it difficult to properly obtain
1332:Gelderblom, Hans R. (1996), Baron, Samuel (ed.),
783:
2417:
1961:"ICTV 9th Report (2011): Tectiviridae - Figures"
1226:
762:due to its higher resolution and magnification.
351:
2343:
2096:
2044:
1769:
1565:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1058:
959:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
908:"Crystallization of viruses and virus proteins"
630:environments, but minimize contact with water.
469:
1715:"Classical Nucleation Theory of Virus Capsids"
498:structure is majorly dependent on the energy
2291:
792:Five major stages are involved in a typical
554:
1561:"Origin of icosahedral symmetry in viruses"
663:enhanced feasibility in procedures such as
420:
162:for clearer visualisation, thus leading to
138:discoveries were made by German biologists
1839:"Towards in cellulo virus crystallography"
1497:
1331:
585:2. Extraction and purification (isolation)
389:crystallisation and identification is the
2385:
2346:"Introduction to protein crystallization"
2317:
2257:
2192:
2130:
2070:
1878:
1803:
1746:
1656:
1594:
1576:
1498:Caspar, D. L. D.; Klug, A. (1962-01-01).
1462:
1410:
1334:"Structure and Classification of Viruses"
1260:
1212:
1100:
1061:"Introduction to protein crystallization"
996:
978:
787:
678:
674:
562:
473:
424:
222:
124:
72:
1378:
752:Cryogenic electron microscopy (Cryo-EM)
747:Cryogenic electron microscopy (Cryo-EM)
311:cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM)
279:, thus facilitating the development of
2418:
2339:
2337:
2154:
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2150:
2092:
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2040:
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1908:
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1904:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1430:
1283:
1229:"Microgravity protein crystallization"
1184:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
869:With major enhancements being made in
567:NASA engineer Michael Hopkins loading
336:have contributed towards the field of
2165:Current Opinion in Structural Biology
1708:
1706:
1622:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1554:
1552:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1134:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
843:
657:
299:were unable to form ordered crystals.
229:Satellite Tobacco Mosaic Virus (STMV)
1433:"Virus Structure and Classification"
1327:
1325:
1323:
1308:from the original on 20 October 2022
901:
899:
897:
895:
893:
287:heading into the late 20th century.
18:
2334:
2147:
2087:
2033:
1895:
1820:
864:
818:macromolecular crystallography (MX)
638:Virus crystals are typically grown
484:Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV)
191:viruses were first crystallised by
129:
13:
1992:"X-Ray Crystallography of Viruses"
1703:
1691:from the original on 10 April 2024
1611:
1549:
1476:
1445:10.1016/b978-0-12-800947-5.00002-8
1195:10.1016/b978-0-12-800947-5.00002-8
1013:
834:X-ray Free Electron Lasers (XFELs)
811:cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET)
803:cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM)
514:
14:
2437:
2310:10.2174/1570159X20666220420121746
1320:
1277:
1128:
890:
239:(right) come in equivalent sizes.
2350:Acta Crystallographica Section F
2222:Journal of Synchrotron Radiation
1919:Emerging Topics in Life Sciences
1623:Cohen, Fredric S. (March 2016).
1387:, Elsevier, pp. 1730â1756,
1065:Acta Crystallographica Section F
807:direct electron detectors (DEDs)
23:
2402:from the original on 2024-03-27
2285:
2274:from the original on 2024-04-20
2209:
1983:
1953:
1763:
1673:
1538:from the original on 2024-03-27
1424:
1362:from the original on 2024-04-24
1167:from the original on 2024-04-10
1117:from the original on 2024-03-27
551:mechanisms of viral behaviour.
393:structure. Viruses are majorly
218:
1372:
1220:
1178:
946:
784:Advances in imaging technology
290:
1:
2103:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1284:Dodson, Guy (December 2002).
1153:10.1016/S0764-4469(01)01368-3
1135:Lecoq, Hervé (October 2001).
884:
827:time resolved crystallography
669:cryogenic electron microscopy
594:, which separates the liquid
352:Viral structure and behaviour
1516:10.1101/SQB.1962.027.001.005
932:10.1016/0022-0248(88)90319-3
529:Protein-protein interactions
470:Icosahedral capsid structure
415:protein-protein interactions
172:Tobacco Mosaic Viruses (TMV)
7:
2004:10.1007/978-94-007-6552-8_4
1739:10.1529/biophysj.105.072975
1379:Fauquet, Claude M. (1999),
879:growing process of crystals
721:in this case refers to the
104:arranged in the shape of a
10:
2442:
1863:10.1038/s41598-018-21693-3
1625:"How Viruses Invade Cells"
854:certain essential features
687:determined structure of a
2370:10.1107/S2053230X13033141
2298:Current Neuropharmacology
2242:10.1107/S090904951004896X
2177:10.1016/j.sbi.2022.102484
1649:10.1016/j.bpj.2016.02.006
1431:Louten, Jennifer (2016),
1085:10.1107/S2053230X13033141
912:Journal of Crystal Growth
693:Enterobacteria phage PRD1
622:refer to the tendency of
555:Crystallisation procedure
92:is the re-arrangement of
1437:Essential Human Virology
1385:Encyclopedia of Virology
1245:10.1038/npjmgrav.2015.10
1187:Essential Human Virology
875:cryo-electron microscopy
620:Hydrophobic interactions
525:virally encoded proteins
421:Helical capsid structure
195:, who demonstrated that
177:
81:(right) as seen through
1578:10.1073/pnas.0405844101
857:those that belong to a
801:Recent advancements in
616:electrostatic repulsion
569:protein crystallography
164:protein crystallisation
136:protein crystallisation
38:, as no other articles
1967:. 2011. Archived from
1788:10.1002/advs.202001048
1393:10.1006/rwvi.1999.0277
1302:10.1098/rsbm.2002.0011
852:and evolve, they lack
798:
771:conformational changes
710:
572:
491:
434:
269:Human retrovirus (HIV)
240:
170:after the rise of the
86:
980:10.1073/pnas.80.4.931
871:X-ray crystallography
838:synchrotron radiation
791:
767:X-ray crystallography
715:electromagnetic waves
685:X-ray crystallography
682:
675:X-ray crystallography
665:X-ray crystallography
598:from the solid virus
566:
477:
428:
340:and behaviour in the
330:X-ray crystallography
309:In response to this,
244:X-ray crystallography
233:orthorhombic crystals
226:
213:X-ray crystallography
199:viruses retained its
125:Historical background
90:Virus crystallisation
76:
2115:10.1128/CMR.00027-09
1931:10.1042/etls20200316
1338:Medical Microbiology
728:X-ray diffractometer
488:icosahedral symmetry
456:Tobacco Mosaic Virus
431:Tobacco Mosaic virus
328:Combination of both
79:Tobacco Mosaic virus
2362:2014AcCrF..70....2M
2234:2011JSynR..18..101M
2072:10.3390/min12020205
2063:2022Mine...12..205A
1855:2018NatSR...8.3771D
1731:2006BpJ....90.1939Z
1719:Biophysical Journal
1641:2016BpJ...110.1028C
1629:Biophysical Journal
1571:(44): 15556â15560.
1439:, Elsevier: 19â29,
1189:, Elsevier: 19â29,
1077:2014AcCrF..70....2M
971:1983PNAS...80..931E
924:1988JCrGr..90..222S
83:electron microscopy
1843:Scientific Reports
1316:– via JSTOR.
859:biological kingdom
844:Undiscovered areas
799:
711:
683:Shown here is the
658:Imaging techniques
573:
537:tertiary structure
521:cellular processes
496:Icosahedral capsid
492:
435:
241:
87:
57:for suggestions.
47:to this page from
2304:(10): 1888â1893.
2013:978-94-007-6552-8
1454:978-0-12-800947-5
1402:978-0-12-227030-7
1347:978-0-9631172-1-2
1204:978-0-12-800947-5
778:light microscopes
634:4. Crystal growth
304:X-ray diffraction
119:disease outbreaks
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1776:Advanced Science
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918:(1â3): 222â230.
903:
865:Future prospects
760:light microscope
592:centrifugalizing
338:virus morphology
315:virus structures
259:, including the
257:virus structures
227:Crystals of the
130:Pre-20th century
94:viral components
66:
63:
52:
50:related articles
27:
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1971:on 23 June 2022
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717:upon exposure.
702:Alphatectivirus
699:from the genus
677:
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523:compromised as
517:
515:Viral behaviour
472:
423:
354:
323:crystallisation
297:lipid membranes
293:
281:antiviral drugs
273:viral infection
248:Dorothy Hodgkin
221:
193:Wendell Stanley
180:
132:
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61:
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45:introduce links
28:
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2109:(4): 552â563.
2086:
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735:macromolecular
726:positions. An
676:
673:
659:
656:
576:1. Propagation
556:
553:
516:
513:
480:Ribbon diagram
471:
468:
422:
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391:capsid protein
386:spike proteins
353:
350:
292:
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237:cubic crystals
220:
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55:Find link tool
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606:3. Nucleation
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382:glycoproteins
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370:Coronaviruses
367:
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342:immune system
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30:
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2276:. Retrieved
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1337:
1310:. Retrieved
1293:
1289:
1279:
1239:(1): 15010.
1236:
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300:
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242:
219:1950s, 1960s
181:
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115:epidemiology
89:
88:
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2356:(1): 2â20.
1849:(1): 3771.
1296:: 179â219.
1071:(1): 2â20.
822:synchrotron
797:morphology.
719:Diffraction
644:temperature
600:precipitate
596:supernatant
549:biochemical
458:studied by
395:icosahedral
291:1990s-Today
277:replication
235:(left) and
201:infectivity
96:into solid
2406:2024-03-27
2278:2024-04-09
2171:: 102484.
2057:(2): 205.
2027:2024-04-09
1542:2024-03-27
1470:2024-03-27
1418:2024-03-27
1366:2024-03-27
1171:2024-03-27
1121:2024-03-27
885:References
707:scattering
697:tectivirus
612:nucleation
500:efficiency
265:rhinovirus
261:poliovirus
184:microscopy
148:hemoglobin
140:Ritthausen
53:; try the
40:link to it
2378:2053-230X
2250:0909-0495
2185:0959-440X
2123:0893-8512
2081:2075-163X
1939:2397-8554
1871:2045-2322
1796:2198-3844
1681:"RTPCG-2"
1587:0027-8424
1524:0091-7451
1253:2373-8065
1093:2053-230X
989:0027-8424
940:0022-0248
850:replicate
545:molecular
504:geometric
439:viral RNA
43:. Please
2426:Virology
2420:Category
2400:Archived
2396:24419610
2328:35450524
2272:Archived
2268:21335894
2203:36323134
2194:10266358
2141:19822888
2051:Minerals
2022:23737050
1975:10 April
1947:33969867
1889:29491457
1814:32832360
1757:16387781
1695:10 April
1689:Archived
1685:nasa.gov
1667:26958878
1605:15486087
1536:Archived
1532:14019094
1510:: 1â24.
1360:archived
1356:21413309
1312:27 March
1306:Archived
1271:28725714
1165:Archived
1161:11570281
1115:Archived
1111:24419610
756:kinetics
652:lattices
640:in vitro
624:nonpolar
411:geometry
407:symmetry
403:kinetics
374:envelope
346:virology
306:results.
285:vaccines
209:virology
205:proteins
168:virology
160:proteins
62:May 2024
2387:3943105
2358:Bibcode
2319:9886803
2259:3042323
2230:Bibcode
2132:2772359
2059:Bibcode
1880:5830620
1851:Bibcode
1805:7435255
1748:1386774
1727:Bibcode
1658:4788752
1637:Bibcode
1464:7150055
1412:7149719
1262:5515504
1214:7150055
1102:3943105
1073:Bibcode
1007:6302674
967:Bibcode
920:Bibcode
794:cryo-EM
740:solvent
628:aqueous
539:of the
533:primary
531:of the
508:helical
478:(Left)
448:lattice
446:into a
399:helical
334:cryo-EM
319:Cryo-EM
144:Osborne
98:crystal
2394:
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2376:
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2256:
2248:
2201:
2191:
2183:
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998:393501
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938:
689:virion
541:capsid
460:Caspar
433:(TMV).
366:capsid
267:, and
156:fishes
36:orphan
34:is an
211:into
178:1930s
152:worms
106:prism
102:virus
2392:PMID
2374:ISSN
2324:PMID
2264:PMID
2246:ISSN
2199:PMID
2181:ISSN
2137:PMID
2119:ISSN
2077:ISSN
2018:PMID
2008:ISBN
1977:2024
1943:PMID
1935:ISSN
1885:PMID
1867:ISSN
1810:PMID
1792:ISSN
1753:PMID
1697:2024
1663:PMID
1601:PMID
1583:ISSN
1528:PMID
1520:ISSN
1449:ISBN
1397:ISBN
1352:PMID
1342:ISBN
1314:2024
1267:PMID
1249:ISSN
1199:ISBN
1157:PMID
1107:PMID
1089:ISSN
1003:PMID
985:ISSN
936:ISSN
873:and
667:and
547:and
535:and
502:and
494:The
464:Klug
462:and
409:and
332:and
283:and
275:and
154:and
142:and
2382:PMC
2366:doi
2314:PMC
2306:doi
2254:PMC
2238:doi
2189:PMC
2173:doi
2127:PMC
2111:doi
2067:doi
2000:doi
1927:doi
1875:PMC
1859:doi
1800:PMC
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1743:PMC
1735:doi
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1645:doi
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1573:doi
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1459:PMC
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1209:PMC
1191:doi
1149:doi
1145:324
1097:PMC
1081:doi
993:PMC
975:doi
928:doi
691:of
452:DNA
443:DNA
441:or
384:or
362:RNA
360:or
358:DNA
252:TMV
197:TMV
189:TMV
150:in
2422::
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2354:70
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