1679:, p. 38, "Strict uniformitarianism may often be a guarantee against pseudo-scientific phantasies and loose conjectures, but it makes one easily forget that the principle of uniformity is not a law, not a rule established after comparison of facts, but a methodological principle, preceding the observation of facts ... It is the logical principle of parsimony of causes and of the economy of scientific notions. By explaining past changes by analogy with present phenomena, a limit is set to conjecture, for there is only one way in which two things are equal, but there is an infinity of ways in which they could be supposed different."
31:
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809:'s first scientific paper, "Is uniformitarianism necessary?" (1965), reduced these four assumptions to two. He dismissed the first principle, which asserted spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws, as no longer an issue of debate. He rejected the third (uniformity of rate) as an unjustified limitation on scientific inquiry, as it constrains past geologic rates and conditions to those of the present. So, Lyell's uniformitarianism was deemed unnecessary.
153:
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816:, which states that the distant past "consisted of epochs of paroxysmal and catastrophic action interposed between periods of comparative tranquility" Especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most geologists took this interpretation to mean that catastrophic events are not important in geologic time; one example of this is the debate of the formation of the
825:"geologists do not deny uniformitarianism in its true sense, that is to say, of interpreting the past by means of the processes that are seen going on at the present day, so long as we remember that the periodic catastrophe is one of those processes. Those periodic catastrophes make more showing in the stratigraphical record than we have hitherto assumed."
759:) is what most people (including geologists) think of when they hear the word "uniformitarianism", confusing this hypothesis with the entire definition. As late as 1990, Lemon, in his textbook of stratigraphy, affirmed that "The uniformitarian view of earth history held that all geologic processes proceed continuously and at a very slow pace."
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century, Lyell's rhetoric conflating axiom with hypotheses has descended in unmodified form. Many geologists have been stifled by the belief that proper methodology includes an a priori commitment to gradual change, and by a preference for explaining large-scale phenomena as the concatenation of innumerable tiny changes."
841:
is a slow, gradual process punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events that have affected Earth and its inhabitants. In practice it is reduced from Lyell's conflation, or blending, to simply the two philosophical assumptions. This is also known as the principle of geological actualism, which
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are to be accepted. The present may not be a long enough key to penetrating the deep lock of the past. Geologic processes may have been active at different rates in the past that humans have not observed. "By force of popularity, uniformity of rate has persisted to our present day. For more than a
675:
The two methodological assumptions below are accepted to be true by the majority of scientists and geologists. Gould claims that these philosophical propositions must be assumed before you can proceed as a scientist doing science. "You cannot go to a rocky outcrop and observe either the constancy of
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Hutton possessed an instinctive ability to reverse physical processes – to read landscapes backwards, as it were. Fingering the white quartz which seamed the grey granite boulders in a
Scottish glen, for instance, he understood the confrontation that had once occurred between the two types of rock,
380:
tend to adopt opposite views over process, rate, and state in the inorganic world, there are eight different systems of beliefs in the development of the terrestrial sphere. All geoscientists stand by the principle of uniformity of law. Most, but not all, are directed by the principle of simplicity.
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It is ironic that Hutton, the man whose prose style is usually dismissed as unreadable, should have coined one of the most memorable, and indeed lyrical, sentences in all science: "(in geology) we find no vestige of a beginning,—no prospect of an end". In those simple words, Hutton framed a concept
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The substantive hypotheses were controversial and, in some cases, accepted by few. These hypotheses are judged true or false on empirical grounds through scientific observation and repeated experimental data. This is in contrast with the previous two philosophical assumptions that come before one
349:
was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation". He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text, and developed Hutton's idea that the
768:
Gould explained Hutton's view of uniformity of rate; mountain ranges or grand canyons are built by the accumulation of nearly insensible changes added up through vast time. Some major events such as floods, earthquakes, and eruptions, do occur. But these catastrophes are strictly local. They
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glacial outburst floods. An important result of this debate and others was the re-clarification that, while the same principles operate in geologic time, catastrophic events that are infrequent on human time-scales can have important consequences in geologic history. Derek Ager has noted that
790:
The uniformity of state hypothesis implies that throughout the history of our earth there is no progress in any inexorable direction. The planet has almost always looked and behaved as it does now. Change is continuous but leads nowhere. The earth is in balance: a dynamic
1243:, that we are to look for the means of ascertaining what has already been, it is here proposed to examine the appearances of the earth, in order to be informed of operations which have been transacted in time past. It is thus that, from principles of natural philosophy,
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to explain the historical development of the physical world and projected into the future for the purposes of prediction and control. In short, it involves the process of inferring past causes from presently observable effects under the assumption that
211:
Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things had been
716:
assumption, shared by the vast majority of scientists, deals with geological causes, not physicochemical laws. The past is to be explained by processes acting currently in time and space rather than inventing extra esoteric or unknown processes
690:
The axiom of uniformity of law is necessary in order for scientists to extrapolate (by inductive inference) into the unobservable past. The constancy of natural laws must be assumed in the study of the past; else we cannot meaningfully study
1083:
Strahler, A.N. 1987. Science and Earth
History- The Evolution/Creation Controversy, Prometheus Books, Amherst, New York, USA. p. 194: “Under the updated statement of a useful principle of uniformitarianism it boils down essentially to
64:, is the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in our present-day scientific observations have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe. It refers to
195:
The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find a reason to conclude:
99:
concept that "the present is the key to the past" and that geological events occur at the same rate now as they have always done, though many modern geologists no longer hold to a strict gradualism. Coined by
206:
Lastly, That while the present land was forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is at
203:
2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. And,
376:
Geoscientists support diverse systems of Earth history, the nature of which rests on a certain mixture of views about the process, control, rate, and state which are preferred. Because geologists and
1769:. And here's why: among geologists in the 1920s, catastrophic explanations for geological events (other than volcanos or earthquakes) were considered wrong-minded to the point of heresy." p. 42.
1667:, p. 120, "We should try to explain the past by causes now in operation without inventing extra, fancy, or unknown causes, however plausible in logic, if available processes suffice."
220:
2ndly, The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean.
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neither occurred in the past nor shall happen in the future, at any greater frequency or extent than they display at present. In particular, the whole earth is never convulsed at once.
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Whilst visiting Allar's Mill on the Jed Water, Hutton was delighted to see horizontal bands of red sandstone lying 'unconformably' on top of near vertical and folded bands of rock.
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Modern geologists do not apply uniformitarianism in the same way as Lyell. They question if rates of processes were uniform through time and only those values measured during the
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315:" which proposed repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the
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the basic mode of reasoning in empirical science. Without assuming this spatial and temporal invariance, we have no basis for extrapolating from the known to the unknown
1940:
292:. Playfair later recalled that "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time", and Hutton concluded a 1788 paper he presented at the
1772:"Consider, then, what Bretz was up against. The very word 'Catastrophism' was heinous in the ears of geologists. ... It was a step backward, a betrayal of
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nature's laws or the working of unknown processes. It works the other way around." You first assume these propositions and "then you go to the outcrop."
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it was used in the same ways – to transmit information, to express solidarity with family, friends, and neighbors, to mark one's social position, etc. –
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The assumption of spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws is by no means unique to geology since it amounts to a warrant for inductive inference
88:
in scientific research. Other scientists disagree and consider that nature is not absolutely uniform, even though it does exhibit certain regularities.
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1230:
311:, explained this by local catastrophes, after which other fixed species repopulated the affected areas. In Britain, geologists adapted this idea into "
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the behavior of nature is regular and indicative of an objective causal structure in which presently operative causes may be projected into the past
299:
Both
Playfair and Hall wrote their own books on the theory, and for decades robust debate continued between Hutton's supporters and the Neptunists.
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1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been formed by the operation of second causes.
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in the lower layers of the cliff face have been tilted almost vertically before being eroded to form a level plane, under horizontal layers of
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justified, or indeed required, on two grounds. First, nothing in our incomplete but extensive knowledge of history disagrees with it. Second,
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1605:
In the observable, erroneous beliefs can be proven wrong and be inductively corrected by other observations. This is Popper's principle of
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in 1830. Today, Earth's history is considered to have been a slow, gradual process, punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events.
2065:
2185:"Fundamentals of Physical Geography, (2 Edition). Chapter 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere, Section C: Concept of Uniformitarianism"
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1088:, coupled with a rejection of supernatural causes.” p. 62: “In cosmology, the study of the structure and evolution of the universe,
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language was normally acquired in the past in the same way as it is today – usually by native acquisition in early childhood – and
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that no one had previously contemplated, that the rocks making up the earth today have not, after all, been here since
Creation.
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and he perceived how, under fantastic pressure, the molten quartz had forced its way into the weaknesses in the mother granite.
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earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. The terms
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Uniformity of kind – past and present causes are all of the same kind, have the same energy, and produce the same effects.
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If the stone, for example, which fell today, were to rise again tomorrow, there would be an end of natural philosophy ,
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Uniformity of methodology – the appropriate hypotheses for explaining the geological past are those with analogy today.
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Making inferences about the past is wrapped up in the difference between studying the observable and the unobservable.
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structure and organization in the past as it does today, and it must have changed in the same ways as it does today.
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1935:
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FARIA, Felipe. Actualismo,Catastrofismo y
Uniformitarismo. In: PĂ©rez, MarĂa Luisa Bacarlett & Caponi, Gustavo.
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that cannot be verified using the scientific method, some consider that uniformitarianism should be a required
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1806:(3rd ed.). Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 83–84.
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1786:"Nearly 50 years had passed since Bretz first proposed the idea of catastrophic flooding, and now in 1971
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Hutton then sought evidence to support his idea that there must have been repeated cycles, each involving
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296:, later rewritten as a book, with the phrase "we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end".
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in
Berwickshire, showing the gently tilting red sandstone layers above vertically tilted greywacke rocks.
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1856:(3rd ed.). Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. p. 81.
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our principles would fail, and we would no longer investigate the rules of nature from our observations
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None of these connotations requires another, and they are not all equally inferred by uniformitarians.
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methodological assumption shared by most scientists and not a statement about the empirical world."
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Assumption that the natural laws and processes of the universe are constant through time and space
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Rosenberg, Alex. Philosophy of science: A contemporary introduction, 4th ed. Routledge, 2019, 173
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states that all past geological action was like all present geological action. The principle of
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proposed an opposing, self-maintaining infinite cycle based on natural history and not on the
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1126:, and we are justified in seeking—as scientists we must seek—such a rational interpretation."
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and, therefore, no way of reaching general conclusions from a finite number of observations."
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All make definite assertions about the quality of rate and state in the inorganic realm.
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1474:. Ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie. Vol. VIII. Pennsylvania, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973
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1st, The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials;
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Lyell's uniformitarianism is a family of four related propositions, not a single idea:
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throughout space-time, but has also been used to describe spatiotemporal invariance of
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the invariance of nature's laws must be assumed to come to conclusions about the past.
1178:, "the idea that Earth was shaped by a series of sudden, short-lived, violent events."
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Allen, E. A., et al., 1986, Cataclysms on the
Columbia, Timber Press, Portland, OR.
655:(1987), stating that Lyell conflated two different types of propositions: a pair of
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2116:"Toward the vindication of punctuational change in catastrophes and earth history"
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Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and
Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time
1897:
1765:"Bretz knew that the very idea of catastrophic flooding would threaten and anger
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it is assumed that the laws of physics are similar throughout the entire universe
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639:
Uniformity of degree – geological circumstances have remained the same over time.
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Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière, contenant les epoques de la nature
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affirmation of the validity of universal scientific laws through time and space
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with regard to the course of nature, or to events which are in time to happen.
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252:, in a way which indicated to him that the presumed primordial rock had been
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2167:
Simpson, G. G. (1963). "Historical science". In
Albritton, C. C. Jr. (ed.).
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was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century.
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How Does Earth Work: Physical
Geology and the Process of Science (textbook)
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the fundamental causal regularities of the world have not changed over time
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Uniformity of law – the laws of nature are constant across time and space.
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only with this postulate is a rational interpretation of history possible
862:, where it is considered a foundational principle of the field. Linguist
69:
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1746:, Charles Leyell, vol. II, London, 1832: Quart. Rev., v. 47, p. 103-123.
237:, and then moving undersea again for further layers to be deposited. At
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2171:. Stanford, California: Freeman, Cooper, and Company. pp. 24–48.
1979:
1962:
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1164:. Toluca: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, p. 55–80, 2015.
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can do science and so cannot be tested or falsified by science.
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1231:"Abstract, The System of the Earth, Its Duration and Stability"
977:"Uniformitarianism, the uniformity of nature, and paleoecology"
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1914:
Half Life: Extending the Effective Lifespan of the Corporation
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2451:
2147:
The Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology, and Theology
2123:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p.
327:
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and attempt to defeat Bretz's 'outrageous hypothesis.'" p 49
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104:, uniformitarianism was originally proposed in contrast to
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his arguments had become a standard of geological thinking
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of order and system in the economy of this globe, and may
781:: Change is evenly distributed throughout space and time.
72:
principles underpinning science, such as the constancy of
2197:"The "Doctrine of Uniformity" in Geology Briefly Refuted"
2191:
2063:
Gordon, B. L. (2013). "In Defense of Uniformitarianism".
1065:, p. 82; "The uniformitarian principle assumes that
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which, as Bacon showed nearly four hundred years ago, is
703:: Natural processes are constant across time and space.
112:
in the late 18th century, starting with the work of the
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past processes are not observable by their very nature.
667:. The four together make up Lyell's uniformitarianism.
1941:
University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences
276:. In the spring of 1788 he took a boat trip along the
2004:
Historical Sociolinguistics: problems and methodology
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1963:"The many faces of uniformitarianism in linguistics"
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2119:. In Berggren, W. A.; Van Couvering, J. A. (eds.).
1692:. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. p. 30
685:: Natural laws are constant across space and time.
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1831:. New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. p. 12.
1629:Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations
1291:
1282:on 4 July 1785, printed and circulated privately.
1241:it is not in human record, but in natural history
1162:Pensar la vida: FilosofĂa, naturaleza y evoluciĂłn
746:: Change is typically slow, steady, and gradual.
712:Though similar to uniformity of law, this second
3779:
2048:(3rd ed.). University of California Press.
1135:
1826:
307:in the 1790s, which established the reality of
256:after the strata had formed. He had read about
125:. Hutton's work was later refined by scientist
2002:Romaine, Suzanne (1988). Ammon, Ulrich (ed.).
1776:. It was a heresy of the worst order." p. 44
1774:all that geological science had fought to gain
812:Uniformitarianism was proposed in contrast to
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2201:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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2006:. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. II: 1452-1468.
1936:"The Uniformitarian Principle in linguistics"
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981:New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics
889:The principle is known in linguistics, after
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2213:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2187:. University of British Columbia, Okanagan.
2066:Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith
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1204:"Uniformitarianism: World of Earth Science"
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858:Uniformitarianism has also been applied in
701:Uniformity of process across time and space
260:as interpreted by Neptunists, and found an
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2911:
2277:
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2250:Have physical constants changed with time?
2149:. Natural Law and Divine Miracle. London:
2140:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
1413:
1285:
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1142:. Paris: L'Imprimerie Royale. pp. 3–4
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360:for the opposing viewpoint, was coined by
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3544:Relationship between religion and science
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2103:
1978:
1888:The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition,
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1585:
1000:
779:Uniformity of state across time and space
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175:represented deposits from shrinking seas
2183:Pidwirny, Michael; Jones, Scott (1999).
2144:
1967:Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics
1870:
1854:The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record
1804:The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record
1779:"It was inevitable that sooner or later
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744:Uniformity of rate across time and space
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2001:
1960:
1910:
1651:, p. 11, "As such, it is another
1533:From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences
1507:
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1483:
1420:Keith Stewart Thomson (May–June 2001).
1292:Robert Macfarlane (13 September 2003).
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957:Time-variation of fundamental constants
683:Uniformity of law across time and space
14:
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2160:Catastophism: Systems of Earth History
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1781:the geological community would rise up
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1192:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing.
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1120:Uniformity is an unprovable postulate
1042:
974:
510:de Saussure, Werner, and geognosists,
95:, uniformitarianism has included the
1851:
1801:
1318:
489:Small part of Hutton, Cotta, Darwin
1470:Wilson, Leonard G. "Charles Lyell"
1399:, vol. V, pt. III, 1805, quoted in
24:
2193:Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, William
1921:
1827:Smith, Gary A; Aurora Pun (2006).
1472:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
1264:Concerning the System of the Earth
853:
721:, otherwise known as parsimony or
649:explained Lyell's propositions in
372:Systems of inorganic earth history
25:
3819:
3564:Sociology of scientific knowledge
3559:Sociology of scientific ignorance
3512:History and philosophy of science
2222:
2121:In Catastrophes and Earth History
2080:"Is uniformitarianism necessary?"
2044:Evolution: The History of an Idea
1901:© 2007 Columbia University Press.
1344:"Jedburgh: Hutton's Unconformity"
1294:"Glimpses into the abyss of time"
3761:
3749:
2284:
866:gives the following definition:
444:Most of Hutton, Playfair, Lyell
1995:
1954:
1904:
1882:
1845:
1820:
1795:
1749:
1736:
1725:
1682:
1670:
1658:
1642:
1620:
1525:
1464:
1452:
1361:
1256:
1245:we may arrive at some knowledge
1222:
1210:
1196:
1181:
1169:
801:
512:Elis de Beaumont and followers
322:
147:
2953:Analytic–synthetic distinction
2701:Analytic–synthetic distinction
1326:"Scottish Geology – Glen Tilt"
1154:
1095:
1077:
1056:
1017:
1002:10.1080/00288306.1963.10420063
968:
837:The current consensus is that
508:Hooke, Steno, Lehmann, Pallas,
179:onto primordial rocks such as
13:
1:
2033:
1911:Forster, Geoffrey P. (2010).
897:or Unifomitarian Hypothesis.
364:in a review of Lyell's book.
245:he found granite penetrating
129:and popularised by geologist
917:Law of universal gravitation
119:in his many books including
7:
3798:Geological history of Earth
3286:Hypothetico-deductive model
3261:Deductive-nomological model
3246:Constructivist epistemology
2746:Internalism and externalism
2084:American Journal of Science
900:
517:Different Kind of processes
10:
3824:
2132:Gould, Stephen J. (1987).
1690:Principles of stratigraphy
1422:"Vestiges of James Hutton"
1397:Royal Society of Edinburgh
1280:Royal Society of Edinburgh
881:it must have had the same
671:Methodological assumptions
658:methodological assumptions
652:Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle
294:Royal Society of Edinburgh
233:, uplift with tilting and
142:
3740:
3572:
3474:
3404:
3347:Semantic view of theories
3266:Epistemological anarchism
3218:
3203:dependent and independent
2940:
2872:
2821:
2670:
2577:Evolutionary epistemology
2547:
2292:
2158:Huggett, Richard (1990).
2145:Hooykaas, Reijer (1963).
2040:Bowler, Peter J. (2003).
1917:. APAC Press. p. 62.
1176:Pidwirny & Jones 1999
1136:Buffon, G. L. L. (1778).
922:Astronomical spectroscopy
611:Restoration cosmogonists,
570:
525:
516:
467:
422:
413:
3803:History of Earth science
3089:Intertheoretic reduction
3078:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
3055:Functional contextualism
2849:Philosophy of perception
2652:Representational realism
2622:Naturalized epistemology
2162:. London: Edward Arnold.
1961:Walkden, George (2019).
1767:the geological community
962:
895:Uniformitarian Principle
820:due to the catastrophic
621:
62:Uniformitarian Principle
3808:Epistemology of science
3574:Philosophers of science
3352:Scientific essentialism
3301:Model-dependent realism
3236:Constructive empiricism
3129:Evidence-based practice
2829:Outline of epistemology
2662:Transcendental idealism
1852:Ager, Derek V. (1993).
1802:Ager, Derek V. (1993).
1391:"Hutton's Unconformity"
1369:"Hutton's Unconformity"
1249:form a rational opinion
932:History of paleontology
893:and associates, as the
755:Uniformity of rate (or
335:meeting in Glasgow 1840
80:. Though an unprovable
49:Below: 2003 photograph.
3657:Alfred North Whitehead
3647:Charles Sanders Peirce
2776:Problem of other minds
1314:The Man Who Found Time
1188:James, Hutton (1785).
927:Cosmological principle
887:
860:historical linguistics
846:is the cornerstone of
732:Substantive hypotheses
664:substantive hypotheses
615:Scriptural geologists
414:Same Kind of processes
336:
258:angular unconformities
223:
165:Abraham Gottlob Werner
161:
58:Doctrine of Uniformity
50:
3788:Metatheory of science
3756:Philosophy portal
3507:Hard and soft science
3502:Faith and rationality
3371:Scientific skepticism
3151:Scientific Revolution
2934:Philosophy of science
2854:Philosophy of science
2834:Faith and rationality
2716:Descriptive knowledge
2587:Feminist epistemology
2527:Nicholas Wolterstorff
2113:Gould, S. J. (1984).
2105:10.2475/ajs.263.3.223
2078:Gould, S. J. (1965).
1744:Principles of Geology
1582:. "You first assume."
1312:Review of Repcheck's
1274:abstract, as read by
1045:, pp. 223–228, "
975:Scott, G. H. (1963).
868:
613:English diluvialists,
389:assumption concerning
366:Principles of Geology
346:Principles of Geology
331:Charles Lyell at the
330:
193:
167:(1749–1817) proposed
156:Cliff at the east of
155:
136:Principles of Geology
47:'s 1787 illustration.
35:Hutton's Unconformity
33:
3482:Criticism of science
3357:Scientific formalism
3241:Constructive realism
3146:Scientific pluralism
3119:Problem of induction
2786:Procedural knowledge
2771:Problem of induction
1742:William J. Whewell,
1395:Transactions of the
1306:on 1 November 2007.
1278:at a meeting of the
952:Scientific consensus
305:paleontological work
56:, also known as the
3549:Rhetoric of science
3487:Descriptive science
3231:Confirmation holism
3124:Scientific evidence
3084:Inductive reasoning
3013:Demarcation problem
2864:Virtue epistemology
2859:Social epistemology
2839:Formal epistemology
2726:Epistemic injustice
2721:Exploratory thought
2522:Ludwig Wittgenstein
2239:"Uniformitarianism"
2096:1965AmJS..263..223G
1688:Lemon, R. R. 1990.
1627:Hutton, J. (1795).
1531:David Cahan, 2003,
1229:Hutton, J. (1785).
1190:Theory of the Earth
1118:, pp. 24–48, "
993:1963NZJGG...6..510S
818:Channeled Scablands
719:without good reason
404:System of Inorganic
354:for this idea, and
333:British Association
243:Cairngorm mountains
122:Theory of the Earth
45:John Clerk of Eldin
3768:Science portal
3697:Carl Gustav Hempel
3652:Wilhelm Windelband
3539:Questionable cause
3362:Scientific realism
3183:Underdetermination
3018:Empirical evidence
3008:Creative synthesis
2517:Timothy Williamson
2307:Augustine of Hippo
2243:Physical Geography
2233:Physical Geography
2203:. pp. 512–13.
1896:2006-06-24 at the
1704:, pp. 120–121
1461:, pp. 111–117
1438:10.1511/2001.3.212
1426:American Scientist
1270:2008-09-07 at the
947:Physical cosmology
831:history of geology
592:De Mallet, Buffon
529:Non-directionalism
426:Non-directionalism
339:From 1830 to 1833
337:
284:and the geologist
162:
51:
3775:
3774:
3617:
3616:
3529:Normative science
3386:Uniformitarianism
3141:Scientific method
3035:Explanatory power
2900:
2899:
2766:Privileged access
2402:Søren Kierkegaard
2229:Uniformitarianism
2169:Fabric of geology
1891:uniformitarianism
1761:978-0-88192-067-3
1541:978-0-226-08928-7
942:Physical constant
912:Noether's theorem
807:Stephen Jay Gould
619:
618:
399:Substantive claim
394:Substantive claim
352:uniformitarianism
274:Old Red Sandstone
54:Uniformitarianism
16:(Redirected from
3815:
3766:
3765:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3727:Bas van Fraassen
3682:Hans Reichenbach
3662:Bertrand Russell
3579:
3578:
3405:Philosophy of...
3188:Unity of science
2981:Commensurability
2927:
2920:
2913:
2904:
2903:
2844:Metaepistemology
2822:Related articles
2796:Regress argument
2731:Epistemic virtue
2482:Bertrand Russell
2457:Duncan Pritchard
2417:Hilary Kornblith
2332:Laurence BonJour
2279:
2272:
2265:
2256:
2255:
2246:
2218:
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2107:
2074:
2059:
2047:
2028:
2027:
2021:
2017:
2015:
2007:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1982:
1980:10.5334/gjgl.888
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1928:
1919:
1918:
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1902:
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1624:
1618:
1601:, p. 119, "
1596:
1583:
1573:
1562:
1553:
1544:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1450:
1449:
1440:. Archived from
1417:
1411:
1410:
1405:. Archived from
1383:
1377:
1376:
1371:. Archived from
1365:
1359:
1358:
1350:. Archived from
1340:
1334:
1333:
1328:. Archived from
1322:
1316:
1311:
1302:. Archived from
1289:
1283:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1233:. Archived from
1226:
1220:
1219:, pp. 57–62
1214:
1208:
1207:
1200:
1194:
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1185:
1179:
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1075:
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1021:
1015:
1014:
1004:
972:
907:Conservation law
519:than exist today
416:that exist today
396:concerning state
384:
383:
378:geomorphologists
343:'s multi-volume
268:where layers of
74:cause and effect
21:
3823:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3771:
3760:
3750:
3748:
3736:
3717:Paul Feyerabend
3677:Michael Polanyi
3613:
3599:Galileo Galilei
3568:
3554:Science studies
3470:
3400:
3391:Verificationism
3296:Instrumentalism
3281:Foundationalism
3256:Conventionalism
3214:
3050:Feminist method
2936:
2931:
2901:
2896:
2868:
2817:
2736:Gettier problem
2666:
2597:Foundationalism
2543:
2492:Wilfrid Sellars
2447:Alvin Plantinga
2327:George Berkeley
2294:Epistemologists
2288:
2283:
2237:
2225:
2206:
2205:
2056:
2036:
2031:
2019:
2018:
2009:
2008:
2000:
1996:
1959:
1955:
1946:
1944:
1929:
1922:
1909:
1905:
1898:Wayback Machine
1887:
1883:
1875:
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1643:
1631:. p. 297.
1625:
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1514:
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1482:
1478:
1469:
1465:
1457:
1453:
1444:on 2011-06-11.
1418:
1414:
1401:Natural History
1384:
1380:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1354:on 2009-07-29.
1348:Jedburgh online
1342:
1341:
1337:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1290:
1286:
1272:Wayback Machine
1261:
1257:
1237:on 2008-09-07.
1227:
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1202:
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1186:
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1159:
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1078:
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1057:
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1018:
973:
969:
965:
903:
856:
854:Social sciences
839:Earth's history
828:
804:
734:
673:
661:with a pair of
624:
614:
612:
607:
605:
604:Non-Actualistic
598:
588:
586:
585:Non-Actualistic
579:
572:
566:Bonnet, Cuvier
562:
561:Non-directional
560:
559:Non-Actualistic
553:
543:
542:Non-directional
541:
540:Non-Actualistic
534:
527:
520:
518:
511:
509:
504:
502:
495:
485:
483:
476:
469:
459:
458:Non-directional
457:
450:
440:
439:Non-directional
438:
431:
424:
417:
415:
405:
401:Concerning rate
400:
395:
391:kind of process
390:
388:
374:
362:William Whewell
325:
313:diluvial theory
213:
196:
150:
145:
102:William Whewell
86:first principle
48:
42:
28:
23:
22:
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3704:
3702:W. V. O. Quine
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3637:Rudolf Steiner
3634:
3629:
3627:Henri Poincaré
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3497:Exact sciences
3494:
3489:
3484:
3478:
3476:
3475:Related topics
3472:
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3466:
3461:
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3446:
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3434:Social science
3431:
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3427:Space and time
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3136:Scientific law
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3045:Falsifiability
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2562:Constructivism
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2514:
2512:Baruch Spinoza
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2507:P. F. Strawson
2504:
2499:
2497:Susanna Siegel
2494:
2489:
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2474:
2472:W. V. O. Quine
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2372:Nelson Goodman
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2347:René Descartes
2344:
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2337:Gilles Deleuze
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2312:William Alston
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2090:(3): 223–228.
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1451:
1412:
1409:on 2005-01-07.
1378:
1375:on 2015-09-24.
1360:
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1332:on 2006-06-16.
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410:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:Methodological
373:
370:
324:
321:
317:biblical flood
301:Georges Cuvier
286:Sir James Hall
222:
221:
218:
209:
208:
204:
201:
149:
146:
144:
141:
26:
18:Uniformitarian
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3820:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3757:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3687:Rudolf Carnap
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3622:Auguste Comte
3620:
3619:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3594:Francis Bacon
3592:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3522:Pseudoscience
3520:
3519:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3381:Structuralism
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3344:
3343:Received view
3341:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3251:Contextualism
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3217:
3211:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2928:
2923:
2921:
2916:
2914:
2909:
2908:
2905:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2871:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2751:Justification
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2627:Phenomenalism
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2617:NaĂŻve realism
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2567:Contextualism
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2535:
2533:
2532:Vienna Circle
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2467:Hilary Putnam
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2442:Robert Nozick
2440:
2438:
2437:John McDowell
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2397:Immanuel Kant
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2367:Alvin Goldman
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2275:
2273:
2268:
2266:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2216:
2210:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2153:. p. 38.
2152:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2137:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2067:
2061:
2057:
2055:0-520-23693-9
2051:
2046:
2045:
2038:
2037:
2025:
2013:
2005:
1998:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1932:Ringe, Donald
1927:
1925:
1916:
1915:
1907:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1892:
1885:
1879:, p. 174
1878:
1873:
1865:
1863:0-471-93808-4
1859:
1855:
1848:
1840:
1838:0-13-034129-0
1834:
1830:
1823:
1815:
1813:0-471-93808-4
1809:
1805:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1758:
1752:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1711:
1703:
1698:
1691:
1685:
1678:
1677:Hooykaas 1963
1673:
1666:
1661:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1638:
1636:
1630:
1623:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1550:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1528:
1521:
1520:Hooykaas 1963
1516:
1510:, p. 35.
1509:
1504:
1498:, p. 33.
1497:
1492:
1486:, p. 34.
1485:
1480:
1473:
1467:
1460:
1455:
1448:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1392:
1388:
1387:John Playfair
1382:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1339:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1301:
1300:
1299:The Spectator
1295:
1288:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1266:
1265:
1259:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1236:
1232:
1225:
1218:
1213:
1205:
1199:
1191:
1184:
1177:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1141:
1140:
1132:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1098:
1091:
1087:
1080:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1025:
1020:
1012:
1008:
1003:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
971:
967:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
904:
898:
896:
892:
891:William Labov
886:
884:
880:
876:
872:
867:
865:
861:
851:
849:
845:
840:
835:
832:
826:
823:
819:
815:
814:catastrophism
810:
808:
794:
789:
788:
787:
786:
780:
777:
776:
775:
774:
767:
766:
765:
764:
758:
754:
753:
752:
751:
745:
742:
741:
740:
739:
738:
724:
723:Occam's razor
720:
715:
711:
710:
709:
708:
702:
699:
698:
697:
696:
689:
688:
684:
681:
680:
679:
678:
677:
668:
666:
665:
660:
659:
654:
653:
648:
644:
638:
635:
632:
629:
628:
627:
610:
603:
601:
600:Catastrophism
597:Changing Rate
596:
595:
591:
584:
582:
578:Constant Rate
577:
575:
569:
565:
558:
556:
555:Catastrophism
552:Changing Rate
551:
550:
546:
539:
537:
533:Constant Rate
532:
530:
523:
522:Non-Actualism
515:
507:
500:
498:
497:Catastrophism
494:Changing Rate
493:
492:
488:
481:
479:
475:Constant Rate
474:
472:
466:
462:
455:
453:
452:Catastrophism
449:Changing Rate
448:
447:
443:
436:
434:
430:Constant Rate
429:
427:
420:
412:
408:
406:Earth history
403:
398:
393:
386:
385:
382:
379:
369:
367:
363:
359:
358:
357:catastrophism
353:
348:
347:
342:
341:Charles Lyell
334:
329:
320:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
282:John Playfair
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
219:
216:
215:
214:
205:
202:
199:
198:
197:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
159:
154:
140:
138:
137:
132:
131:Charles Lyell
128:
127:John Playfair
124:
123:
118:
115:
111:
107:
106:catastrophism
103:
98:
94:
89:
87:
83:
79:
78:physical laws
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
46:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3732:Larry Laudan
3712:Imre Lakatos
3667:Otto Neurath
3642:Karl Pearson
3632:Pierre Duhem
3604:Isaac Newton
3534:Protoscience
3492:Epistemology
3385:
3366:Anti-realism
3364: /
3345: /
3336: /
3322: /
3320:Reductionism
3318: /
3291:Inductionism
3271:Evolutionism
3076:
2963:a posteriori
2962:
2958:
2810:
2711:Common sense
2689:A posteriori
2688:
2680:
2642:Reductionism
2536:
2487:Gilbert Ryle
2357:Fred Dretske
2342:Keith DeRose
2286:Epistemology
2242:
2200:
2168:
2159:
2146:
2135:
2120:
2087:
2083:
2070:
2064:
2043:
2003:
1997:
1970:
1966:
1956:
1945:. Retrieved
1939:
1913:
1906:
1889:
1884:
1872:
1853:
1847:
1828:
1822:
1803:
1797:
1787:
1780:
1773:
1766:
1751:
1743:
1738:
1727:
1697:
1689:
1684:
1672:
1660:
1652:
1644:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1614:
1613:Therefore, '
1610:
1602:
1532:
1527:
1515:
1508:Huggett 1990
1503:
1496:Huggett 1990
1491:
1484:Huggett 1990
1479:
1471:
1466:
1454:
1445:
1442:the original
1429:
1425:
1415:
1407:the original
1394:
1381:
1373:the original
1363:
1355:
1352:the original
1347:
1338:
1330:the original
1320:
1313:
1307:
1304:the original
1297:
1287:
1276:James Hutton
1263:
1258:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1238:
1235:the original
1224:
1212:
1198:
1189:
1183:
1171:
1161:
1156:
1144:. Retrieved
1138:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1116:Simpson 1963
1097:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1071:
1066:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1026:, p. 79
1019:
984:
980:
970:
888:
882:
878:
874:
870:
869:
864:Donald Ringe
857:
848:paleoecology
836:
827:
811:
805:
802:20th century
793:steady state
778:
743:
735:
718:
713:
700:
682:
674:
663:
662:
657:
656:
650:
645:
642:
625:
599:
580:
573:
554:
535:
528:
526:Steady State
521:
496:
477:
470:
451:
432:
425:
423:Steady State
418:
375:
365:
355:
351:
344:
338:
323:19th century
298:
290:Siccar Point
278:Berwickshire
262:unconformity
224:
210:
194:
185:James Hutton
177:precipitated
163:
158:Siccar Point
148:18th century
134:
120:
117:James Hutton
97:gradualistic
90:
70:metaphysical
61:
57:
53:
52:
3722:Ian Hacking
3707:Thomas Kuhn
3692:Karl Popper
3672:C. D. Broad
3589:Roger Bacon
3517:Non-science
3459:Linguistics
3439:Archaeology
3334:Rationalism
3324:Determinism
3311:Physicalism
3276:Fallibilism
3226:Coherentism
3156:Testability
3109:Observation
3104:Objectivity
3065:alternative
2996:Correlation
2986:Consilience
2791:Proposition
2761:Objectivity
2647:Reliabilism
2637:Rationalism
2582:Fallibilism
2557:Coherentism
2502:Ernest Sosa
2477:Thomas Reid
2462:James Pryor
2432:G. E. Moore
2422:David Lewis
2412:Saul Kripke
2407:Peter Klein
2387:Susan Haack
2317:Robert Audi
2020:|work=
1609:. However,
1459:Bowler 2003
1403:, June 1999
1217:Bowler 2003
1063:Gordon 2013
1024:Gordon 2013
606:Directional
589:Gradualism
587:directional
544:Gradualism
503:Directional
501:Actualistic
486:Gradualism
484:Directional
482:Actualistic
456:Actualistic
441:Gradualism
437:Actualistic
280:coast with
247:metamorphic
110:naturalists
108:by British
3782:Categories
3609:David Hume
3582:Precursors
3464:Psychology
3444:Economics‎
3338:Empiricism
3329:Pragmatism
3316:Positivism
3306:Naturalism
3176:scientific
3060:Hypothesis
3023:Experiment
2892:Discussion
2882:Task Force
2801:Simplicity
2781:Perception
2657:Skepticism
2632:Positivism
2607:Infinitism
2572:Empiricism
2427:John Locke
2392:David Hume
2382:Anil Gupta
2377:Paul Grice
2352:John Dewey
2322:A. J. Ayer
2151:E.J. Brill
2034:References
1947:2020-03-22
1877:Gould 1987
1732:Gould 1965
1719:, p.
1717:Gould 1987
1702:Gould 1987
1665:Gould 1987
1649:Gould 1984
1599:Gould 1987
1578:, p.
1576:Gould 1987
1558:, p.
1556:Gould 1987
1432:(3): 212.
1043:Gould 1965
757:gradualism
581:Gradualism
547:Carpenter
536:Gradualism
478:Gradualism
433:Gradualism
409:Promoters
309:extinction
227:deposition
183:. In 1785
66:invariance
3793:Evolution
3449:Geography
3417:Chemistry
3376:Scientism
3171:ladenness
2991:Construct
2969:Causality
2756:Knowledge
2741:Induction
2691:knowledge
2683:knowledge
2022:ignored (
2012:cite book
1989:2397-1835
1973:(1): 52.
1011:0028-8306
844:actualism
419:Actualism
270:greywacke
239:Glen Tilt
212:required;
191:account.
169:Neptunism
114:geologist
82:postulate
3744:Category
3396:Vitalism
3219:Theories
3193:Variable
3114:Paradigm
3001:function
2959:A priori
2948:Analysis
2941:Concepts
2877:Category
2696:Analysis
2681:A priori
2672:Concepts
2612:Innatism
2549:Theories
2245:. About.
2209:cite web
2195:(1866).
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714:a priori
266:Jedburgh
207:present.
189:Biblical
171:, where
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3454:History
3422:Physics
3412:Biology
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3198:control
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2592:Fideism
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250:schists
241:in the
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229:on the
181:granite
143:History
93:geology
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3166:choice
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2602:Holism
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231:seabed
173:strata
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963:Notes
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622:Lyell
463:Hall
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3040:Fact
2961:and
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2050:ISBN
2024:help
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