317:, or floods of vastly greater power than those observed at the present time, played any significant role in the formation of the Earth's surface. Instead they believed that the earth had been shaped by the long term action of forces such as volcanism, earthquakes, erosion, and sedimentation, that could still be observed in action today. In part, the geologists' rejection was fostered by their impression that the catastrophists of the early nineteenth century believed that God was directly involved in determining the history of Earth. Some of the theories about Catastrophism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were connected with
243:. He added extensive editorial notes to the translation, explicitly linking the latest of Cuvier's revolutions with the biblical flood. The resulting essay was extremely influential in the English-speaking world. Buckland spent much of his early career trying to demonstrate the reality of the biblical flood using geological evidence. He frequently cited Cuvier's work, even though Cuvier had proposed an inundation of limited geographic extent and extended duration, whereas Buckland, to be consistent with the biblical account, was advocating a universal flood of short duration. Eventually, Buckland abandoned
27:
2428:
2438:
290:, published in the 1830s, which challenged theories about geological cataclysms proposed by proponents of catastrophism like Cuvier and Buckland. One of the key differences between catastrophism and uniformitarianism is that uniformitarianism observes the existence of vast timelines, whereas catastrophism does not. Today most geologists combine catastrophist and uniformitarianist standpoints, taking the view that
255:, following a visit to the Alps where Agassiz demonstrated the effects of glaciation at first hand. As a result of the influence of Jameson, Buckland, and other advocates of natural theology, the nineteenth century debate over catastrophism took on much stronger religious overtones in Britain than elsewhere in Europe.
283:
built upon Hutton's ideas during the first half of 19th century and amassed observations in support of the uniformitarian idea that the Earth's features had been shaped by same geological processes that could be observed in the present acting gradually over an immense period of time. Lyell presented
238:
interpreted Cuvier's work differently. Cuvier had written an introduction to a collection of his papers on fossil quadrupeds, discussing his ideas on catastrophic extinction. Jameson translated Cuvier's introduction into
English, publishing it under the title
403:
Neocatastrophism is the explanation of sudden extinctions in the palaeontological record by high magnitude, low frequency events (such as asteroid impacts, super-volcanic eruptions, supernova gamma ray bursts, etc.), as opposed to the more prevalent
222:
record indicated that there had been several of these revolutions, which he viewed as recurring natural events, amid long intervals of stability during the history of life on Earth. This led him to believe the Earth was several million years old.
472:
events has centered on whether the extinction mechanism was the asteroid impact, widespread volcanism (which occurred about the same time), or some other mechanism or combination. Most of the mechanisms suggested are catastrophic in nature.
120:(1769–1832) popularised the concept of catastrophism in the early 19th century; he proposed that new life-forms had moved in from other areas after local floods, and avoided religious or metaphysical speculation in his scientific writings.
378:
and subsequently 3,500 years ago made two catastrophic close passes by Earth, 52 years apart, and later interacted with Mars, which then had a series of near collisions with Earth which ended in 687 BCE, before settling into its current
82:) throughout the past resembled those that can be observed today. Since the 19th-century disputes between catastrophists and uniformitarians, a more inclusive and integrated view of geologic events has developed, in which the
155:
with new concepts about the processes which had formed the Earth. The discovery of other ancient flood myths was taken as explaining why the flood story was "stated in scientific methods with surprising frequency among the
205:
record. While he did speculate that the catastrophe responsible for the most recent extinctions in
Eurasia might have been the result of the inundation of low-lying areas by the sea, he did not make any reference to
522:. The impact theory does have some faults; some computer simulations show the formation of a ring or multiple moons post impact, and elements are not quite the same between the Earth and Moon.
340:
in
Washington State, USA. Bretz encountered resistance to his theories from the geology establishment of the day, kicking off an acrimonious 40 year debate. Finally in 1979 Bretz received the
210:. Nor did he ever make any reference to divine creation as the mechanism by which repopulation occurred following the extinction event. In fact Cuvier, influenced by the ideas of the
896:
2160:
105:, to be replaced abruptly by the new forms whose fossils defined the geological strata. Some catastrophists attempted to relate at least one such change to the
86:
accepts that some catastrophic events occurred in the geologic past, but regards these as explicable as extreme examples of natural processes which can occur.
391:, the biblical reference to the "Sun standing still" for a day (Joshua 10:12 & 13, explained by changes in Earth's rotation), and the sinking of
532:
1909:
1209:
1148:
567:
78:
features. The proponents of uniformitarianism held that the present was "the key to the past", and that all geological processes (such as
612:
Turney, C.S.M.; Brown, H. (2007). "Catastrophic early
Holocene sea level rise, human migration and the Neolithic transition in Europe".
461:. These events sparked a wide acceptance of a scientifically based catastrophism with regard to certain events in the distant past.
417:
2413:
1868:
1219:
1133:
2176:
1936:
1143:
294:
is a slow, gradual story punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events that have affected Earth and its inhabitants.
1533:
2259:
1179:
751:
1921:
1581:
2467:
1110:
1102:
1070:
1049:
446:
1988:
514:
early in Earth's formation approximately 4.5 billion years ago blew out rocky debris, remelted Earth and formed the
16:
For the idea that Earth-like planets have been affected in the past by short-lived, violent galaxy-wide events, see
1993:
1591:
2238:
2228:
2152:
1427:
62:
has largely been shaped by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope. This contrasts with
2366:
2233:
2013:
1757:
1555:
1459:
1348:
519:
449:(K–T boundary). In 1990, a 180 kilometres (110 mi) candidate crater marking the impact was identified at
2431:
2018:
1762:
1501:
792:
345:
1963:
2371:
1873:
903:
507:
218:, avoided religious or metaphysical speculation in his scientific writings. Cuvier also believed that the
2441:
2035:
1123:
582:
547:
298:
328:
The rise in uniformitarianism made the introduction of a new catastrophe theory very difficult. In 1923
2137:
1311:
614:
2482:
1931:
1728:
1538:
1306:
1199:
759:
177:
2060:
2354:
2218:
2190:
2165:
2122:
2025:
1958:
1833:
1706:
1674:
1647:
1637:
843:
1838:
165:
152:
2359:
2289:
2198:
1926:
1808:
1576:
1172:
557:
182:
The leading scientific proponent of catastrophism in the early nineteenth century was the French
2462:
2398:
2047:
1916:
1878:
1779:
1750:
1723:
1718:
1316:
1097:. Society for Interdisciplinary Studies in association with Nottingham Trent University, 1994,
572:
477:
1904:
480:
cometary collision with
Jupiter illustrated that catastrophic events occur as natural events.
2339:
2213:
2132:
2127:
2112:
2097:
2087:
2003:
1978:
1813:
1769:
1733:
1701:
1642:
1620:
1601:
1464:
1417:
1368:
1363:
1321:
286:
148:
46:
led him to believe that series of catastrophic events wiped out worlds before the modern one.
2472:
2313:
2208:
2142:
1943:
1858:
1774:
1686:
1669:
1596:
1586:
1296:
1204:
1188:
1037:
978:
935:
862:
623:
211:
83:
1948:
1818:
454:
8:
2376:
2334:
2284:
2203:
2051:
2043:
1973:
1953:
1899:
1743:
1496:
1439:
1301:
1284:
1262:
503:
489:
427:
363:
333:
1654:
990:
982:
939:
866:
627:
2477:
2349:
2301:
2294:
1891:
1803:
1664:
1625:
1449:
1393:
1383:
1343:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1165:
951:
878:
852:
552:
134:
2437:
2391:
2117:
2065:
1843:
1659:
1560:
1523:
1518:
1474:
1469:
1422:
1388:
1106:
1098:
1066:
1045:
955:
230:
was influential during the early nineteenth century, a group of geologists including
215:
198:
63:
26:
882:
635:
279:, sometimes known as the father of geology, in the late 18th century. The geologist
1983:
1550:
1528:
1336:
1023:
986:
943:
870:
631:
450:
291:
264:
231:
227:
90:
17:
1828:
101:. Plants and animals living in the parts of the world where such events occurred
2344:
1968:
1795:
1784:
1738:
1681:
1630:
1410:
1214:
1060:
587:
469:
366:
propounded catastrophism in several popular books. He speculated that the planet
268:
207:
110:
2184:
2056:
1998:
1358:
1353:
1291:
1269:
1128:
841:
Belbruno, J. R.; Gott III, J. Richard (2005). "Where Did The Moon Come From?".
806:"Venus in the Corner Pocket: The Controversial Theories of Immanuel Velikovsky"
592:
441:
period. The impact wiped out about 70% of all species, including the non-avian
423:
329:
235:
190:
187:
117:
43:
763:
2456:
2386:
2223:
1823:
1491:
1486:
1007:
788:
537:
405:
357:
341:
337:
280:
252:
244:
219:
38:
32:
2381:
2329:
2274:
2107:
2102:
1696:
1454:
577:
542:
511:
434:
276:
144:
2408:
2279:
2008:
1543:
1373:
1279:
1237:
857:
562:
384:
310:
30:
The discoveries of different layers of fossils, such as those containing
1848:
969:
Stevenson, D. J. (1987). "Origin of the Moon-The
Collision Hypothesis".
924:
Binder, A.B. (1974). "On the origin of the Moon by rotational fission".
2269:
2170:
2092:
2079:
1713:
1513:
1400:
1378:
1331:
1326:
1274:
1242:
1157:
1139:
Catastrophism! Man, Myth and Mayhem in
Ancient History and the Sciences
947:
465:
438:
302:
248:
194:
102:
67:
805:
2403:
2254:
1863:
1481:
1229:
272:
183:
2306:
1508:
1028:
1011:
926:
874:
442:
431:
392:
318:
161:
106:
1691:
1405:
375:
322:
314:
140:
98:
93:
ended with violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as major
79:
75:
71:
51:
1138:
430:
published a paper suggesting that a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi)
458:
408:
thought which emphasises low magnitude, high frequency events.
202:
157:
1612:
388:
380:
371:
367:
94:
59:
494:
Modern theories also suggest that Earth's anomalously large
515:
495:
395:. Scientists vigorously rejected Velikovsky's conjectures.
258:
309:) and rejected the idea that cataclysmic events such as
70:), according to which slow incremental changes, such as
411:
307:
geologic change occurs slowly over long periods of time
498:
was formed catastrophically. In a paper published in
171:
147:
western society to reconcile biblical narratives of
321:and catastrophic origins were sometimes considered
297:From around 1850 to 1980, most geologists endorsed
1044:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
510:proposed that a catastrophic near-miss by a large
263:Uniformitarian explanations for the formation of
2454:
1065:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing.
840:
518:, thus explaining the Moon's lesser density and
284:his ideas in the influential three volume work,
193:. His motivation was to explain the patterns of
383:. Velikovsky used this to explain the biblical
267:and an understanding of the immense stretch of
128:
89:Proponents of catastrophism proposed that each
533:Alternatives to evolution by natural selection
351:
1173:
1095:Catastrophism, Neocatastrophism and Evolution
971:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
662:
660:
1144:Answers In Creation - Catastrophism Article
611:
301:("The present is the key to the past") and
1180:
1166:
657:
23:Geological theory of abrupt, severe change
1027:
968:
856:
568:Pensée (Immanuel Velikovsky Reconsidered)
201:that he and others were observing in the
2414:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1187:
797:
259:The rise of uniformitarianism in geology
25:
1058:
1036:
776:
738:
726:
714:
702:
690:
666:
651:
647:
645:
437:66 million years ago at the end of the
143:, efforts were made in a predominantly
2455:
923:
398:
2177:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
1161:
1154:"Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism"
418:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
271:, or as the concept came to be known
1006:
678:
642:
412:Luis Alvarez impact event hypothesis
214:and the intellectual climate of the
991:10.1146/annurev.ea.15.050187.001415
803:
13:
1582:Evolutionary developmental biology
1150:Dictionary of the History of Ideas
1134:The Fall and Rise of Catastrophism
1129:Catastrophism and Mass Extinctions
1080:
825:
172:Cuvier and the natural theologians
99:formation of major mountain chains
14:
2494:
1117:
483:
464:Since then, the debate about the
2436:
2427:
2426:
1090:, Dent, London, 1993, p. 75
74:, brought about all the Earth's
2239:Extended evolutionary synthesis
1428:Gene-centered view of evolution
962:
917:
889:
834:
819:
782:
770:
744:
636:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.07.003
275:, were found in the writing of
2367:Hologenome theory of evolution
2234:History of molecular evolution
1460:Evolutionarily stable strategy
1349:Last universal common ancestor
732:
720:
708:
696:
684:
672:
605:
226:By contrast in Britain, where
1:
2161:Renaissance and Enlightenment
1113:(Nottingham Trent University)
1059:McGowan, Christopher (2001).
1012:"Catastrophism and Evolution"
828:Encyclopedia of Geomorphology
808:. Museum of Unnatural Mystery
793:Geological Society of America
599:
447:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
346:Geological Society of America
2372:Missing heritability problem
1999:Gamete differentiation/sexes
904:Geological Society of London
325:rather than natural events.
139:In the early development of
129:Geology and biblical beliefs
7:
548:Glacial lake outburst flood
525:
468:of the dinosaurs and other
352:Immanuel Velikovsky's views
10:
2501:
2004:Life cycles/nuclear phases
1556:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
1000:
615:Quaternary Science Reviews
487:
415:
355:
175:
132:
123:
15:
2422:
2322:
2247:
2151:
2078:
2034:
1889:
1793:
1610:
1569:
1502:Parent–offspring conflict
1438:
1307:Earliest known life forms
1228:
1195:
760:Columbia University Press
756:The Columbia Encyclopedia
374:" which was ejected from
332:published a paper on the
178:Alternatives to Darwinism
2468:History of Earth science
2355:Cultural group selection
2219:The eclipse of Darwinism
2191:On the Origin of Species
2166:Transmutation of species
844:The Astronomical Journal
2360:Dual inheritance theory
2199:History of paleontology
1016:The American Naturalist
558:History of paleontology
476:The observation of the
58:is the theory that the
2048:Punctuated equilibrium
1369:Non-adaptive radiation
1317:Evolutionary arms race
1042:The Meaning of Fossils
762:. 2007. Archived from
573:Punctuated equilibrium
47:
2340:Evolutionary medicine
2214:Mendelian inheritance
1922:Biological complexity
1910:Programmed cell death
1602:Phenotypic plasticity
1322:Evolutionary pressure
1312:Evidence of evolution
1210:Timeline of evolution
1038:Rudwick, Martin J. S.
445:, leaving behind the
287:Principles of Geology
176:Further information:
116:The French scientist
29:
2314:Teleology in biology
2209:Blending inheritance
1587:Genetic assimilation
1450:Artificial selection
1189:Evolutionary biology
622:(17–18): 2036–2041.
520:lack of an iron core
251:theory advocated by
160:", an example being
84:scientific consensus
2377:Molecular evolution
2335:Ecological genetics
2204:Transitional fossil
1994:Sexual reproduction
1834:endomembrane system
1763:pollinator-mediated
1719:dolphins and whales
1497:Parental investment
983:1987AREPS..15..271S
940:1974Moon...11...53B
867:2005AJ....129.1724B
791:to J Harlen Bretz,
752:"Uniformitarianism"
628:2007QSRv...26.2036T
504:William K. Hartmann
490:Giant impact theory
399:Current application
364:Immanuel Velikovsky
334:channeled scablands
241:Theory of the Earth
2350:Cultural evolution
1465:Fisher's principle
1394:Handicap principle
1384:Parallel evolution
1248:Adaptive radiation
1062:The Dragon Seekers
948:10.1007/BF01877794
789:Penrose Medal 1979
779:, pp. 174–179
741:, pp. 174–175
729:, pp. 136–138
705:, pp. 133–135
669:, pp. 133–134
553:History of geology
348:'s highest award.
336:formed by glacial
315:volcanic eruptions
164:'s account of the
135:History of geology
66:(sometimes called
48:
2450:
2449:
2066:Uniformitarianism
2019:Sex-determination
1524:Sexual dimorphism
1519:Natural selection
1423:Unit of selection
1389:Signalling theory
583:Uniformitarianism
455:Yucatán Peninsula
299:uniformitarianism
216:French Revolution
199:faunal succession
64:uniformitarianism
2490:
2483:Geology theories
2440:
2430:
2429:
2229:Modern synthesis
1989:Multicellularity
1984:Mosaic evolution
1869:auditory ossicle
1551:Social selection
1534:Flowering plants
1529:Sexual selection
1182:
1175:
1168:
1159:
1158:
1124:Impact Tectonics
1076:
1055:
1033:
1031:
995:
994:
966:
960:
959:
921:
915:
914:
912:
911:
906:. September 2009
901:
893:
887:
886:
860:
858:astro-ph/0405372
851:(3): 1724–1745.
838:
832:
831:
823:
817:
816:
814:
813:
801:
795:
786:
780:
774:
768:
767:
758:(6th ed.).
748:
742:
736:
730:
724:
718:
712:
706:
700:
694:
688:
682:
676:
670:
664:
655:
649:
640:
639:
609:
478:Shoemaker-Levy 9
406:geomorphological
265:sedimentary rock
247:in favor of the
232:William Buckland
228:natural theology
91:geological epoch
18:Neocatastrophism
2500:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2418:
2345:Group selection
2318:
2243:
2147:
2074:
2036:Tempo and modes
2030:
1885:
1789:
1606:
1565:
1441:
1434:
1411:Species complex
1224:
1215:History of life
1191:
1186:
1120:
1083:
1081:Further reading
1073:
1052:
1003:
998:
967:
963:
922:
918:
909:
907:
899:
895:
894:
890:
839:
835:
824:
820:
811:
809:
802:
798:
787:
783:
775:
771:
750:
749:
745:
737:
733:
725:
721:
713:
709:
701:
697:
689:
685:
677:
673:
665:
658:
650:
643:
610:
606:
602:
597:
588:Volcanic winter
528:
508:Donald R. Davis
492:
486:
470:mass extinction
420:
414:
401:
360:
354:
292:Earth's history
269:geological time
261:
180:
174:
153:universal flood
137:
131:
126:
42:(pictured), by
24:
21:
12:
11:
5:
2498:
2497:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2444:
2434:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2298:
2297:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2257:
2251:
2249:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2185:Charles Darwin
2182:
2181:
2180:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2123:Non-ecological
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2084:
2082:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2063:
2054:
2040:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1896:
1894:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1874:nervous system
1871:
1866:
1861:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1800:
1798:
1791:
1790:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1755:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1694:
1684:
1679:
1678:
1677:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1640:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1623:
1617:
1615:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1499:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1446:
1444:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1420:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1408:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1374:Origin of life
1371:
1366:
1361:
1359:Microevolution
1356:
1354:Macroevolution
1351:
1346:
1341:
1340:
1339:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1292:Common descent
1289:
1288:
1287:
1277:
1272:
1270:Baldwin effect
1267:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1234:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1223:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1170:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1119:
1118:External links
1116:
1115:
1114:
1091:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1071:
1056:
1050:
1034:
1029:10.1086/271929
1022:(8): 449–470.
1008:King, Clarence
1002:
999:
997:
996:
961:
916:
888:
875:10.1086/427539
833:
830:. p. 709.
818:
804:Krystek, Lee.
796:
781:
769:
766:on 2006-06-24.
743:
731:
719:
707:
695:
683:
671:
656:
654:, pp. 3–6
641:
603:
601:
598:
596:
595:
593:Zanclean flood
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
529:
527:
524:
488:Main article:
485:
484:Moon-formation
482:
416:Main article:
413:
410:
400:
397:
362:In the 1950s,
356:Main article:
353:
350:
330:J Harlen Bretz
260:
257:
236:Robert Jameson
191:Georges Cuvier
188:paleontologist
173:
170:
133:Main article:
130:
127:
125:
122:
118:Georges Cuvier
103:became extinct
97:and the rapid
44:Georges Cuvier
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2496:
2495:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2463:Catastrophism
2461:
2460:
2458:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2433:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2387:Phylogenetics
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2291:
2290:Structuralism
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2265:Catastrophism
2263:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2246:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2224:Neo-Darwinism
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2183:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2173:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2150:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2138:Reinforcement
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2071:
2070:Catastrophism
2067:
2064:
2062:
2061:Macromutation
2058:
2057:Micromutation
2055:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1964:Immune system
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1888:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1824:symbiogenesis
1822:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1568:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1492:Kin selection
1490:
1488:
1487:Genetic drift
1485:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1437:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1178:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1112:
1111:0-905488-20-2
1108:
1104:
1103:0-9514307-1-8
1100:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1084:
1074:
1072:0-7382-0282-7
1068:
1064:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1051:0-226-73103-0
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
965:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
928:
920:
905:
898:
892:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
859:
854:
850:
846:
845:
837:
829:
822:
807:
800:
794:
790:
785:
778:
773:
765:
761:
757:
753:
747:
740:
735:
728:
723:
717:, p. 135
716:
711:
704:
699:
693:, p. 131
692:
687:
681:, p. 450
680:
675:
668:
663:
661:
653:
648:
646:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
616:
608:
604:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
538:Clarence King
536:
534:
531:
530:
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
491:
481:
479:
474:
471:
467:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
433:
429:
425:
419:
409:
407:
396:
394:
390:
386:
382:
377:
373:
370:is a former "
369:
365:
359:
358:Velikovskyism
349:
347:
343:
342:Penrose Medal
339:
338:Lake Missoula
335:
331:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
295:
293:
289:
288:
282:
281:Charles Lyell
278:
274:
270:
266:
256:
254:
253:Louis Agassiz
250:
246:
245:flood geology
242:
237:
233:
229:
224:
221:
220:stratigraphic
217:
213:
212:Enlightenment
209:
204:
200:
196:
192:
189:
185:
179:
169:
167:
166:Ogygian flood
163:
159:
154:
150:
146:
142:
136:
121:
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
56:catastrophism
53:
45:
41:
40:
39:Anoplotherium
35:
34:
33:Palaeotherium
28:
19:
2399:Polymorphism
2382:Astrobiology
2330:Biogeography
2285:Saltationism
2275:Orthogenesis
2264:
2260:Alternatives
2189:
2175:
2108:Cospeciation
2103:Cladogenesis
2069:
2052:Saltationism
2009:Mating types
1932:Color vision
1917:Avian flight
1839:mitochondria
1577:Canalisation
1455:Biodiversity
1200:Introduction
1149:
1094:
1093:Palmer, T.;
1087:
1061:
1041:
1019:
1015:
974:
970:
964:
934:(2): 53–76.
931:
925:
919:
908:. Retrieved
891:
848:
842:
836:
827:
821:
810:. Retrieved
799:
784:
777:Rudwick 1972
772:
764:the original
755:
746:
739:Rudwick 1972
734:
727:Rudwick 1972
722:
715:Rudwick 1972
710:
703:Rudwick 1972
698:
691:Rudwick 1972
686:
674:
667:Rudwick 1972
652:McGowan 2001
619:
613:
607:
578:Supervolcano
543:Flood basalt
512:planetesimal
499:
493:
475:
463:
435:struck Earth
428:Luis Alvarez
421:
402:
361:
327:
306:
296:
285:
277:James Hutton
262:
240:
225:
208:Noah's flood
181:
138:
115:
111:Noah's flood
88:
55:
49:
37:
31:
2473:Creationism
2409:Systematics
2280:Mutationism
2098:Catagenesis
2026:Snake venom
1959:Eusociality
1937:in primates
1927:Cooperation
1855:In animals
1675:butterflies
1648:Cephalopods
1638:Brachiopods
1570:Development
1544:Mate choice
1297:Convergence
1280:Coevolution
1238:Abiogenesis
1086:Lewin, R.;
977:: 271–315.
826:Goudie, A.
563:Megatsunami
311:earthquakes
109:account of
2457:Categories
2270:Lamarckism
2248:Philosophy
2171:David Hume
2133:Peripatric
2128:Parapatric
2113:Ecological
2093:Anagenesis
2088:Allopatric
2080:Speciation
2044:Gradualism
1969:Metabolism
1829:chromosome
1819:Eukaryotes
1597:Modularity
1514:Population
1440:Population
1401:Speciation
1379:Panspermia
1332:Extinction
1327:Exaptation
1302:Divergence
1275:Cladistics
1263:Reciprocal
1243:Adaptation
1088:Complexity
910:2010-03-01
897:"Moonwalk"
812:2007-12-14
600:References
466:extinction
439:Cretaceous
323:miraculous
303:gradualism
249:glaciation
195:extinction
76:geological
68:gradualism
2478:Disasters
2404:Protocell
2255:Darwinism
2143:Sympatric
1892:processes
1780:Tetrapods
1729:Kangaroos
1655:Dinosaurs
1592:Inversion
1561:Variation
1482:Gene flow
1475:Inclusive
1285:Mutualism
1230:Evolution
956:122622374
679:King 1877
502:in 1975,
451:Chicxulub
443:dinosaurs
422:In 1980,
273:deep time
184:anatomist
145:Christian
2432:Category
2307:Vitalism
2302:Theistic
2295:Spandrel
1979:Morality
1974:Monogamy
1849:plastids
1814:Flagella
1770:Reptiles
1751:sea cows
1734:primates
1643:Molluscs
1621:Bacteria
1509:Mutation
1442:genetics
1418:Taxonomy
1364:Mismatch
1344:Homology
1258:Cheating
1253:Altruism
1040:(1972).
1010:(1877).
927:The Moon
883:12983980
526:See also
432:asteroid
393:Atlantis
319:religion
162:Plutarch
151:and the
149:Creation
107:Biblical
2323:Related
2153:History
2014:Meiosis
1949:Empathy
1944:Emotion
1844:nucleus
1785:Viruses
1775:Spiders
1687:Mammals
1670:Insects
1470:Fitness
1406:Species
1205:Outline
1001:Sources
979:Bibcode
936:Bibcode
863:Bibcode
624:Bibcode
453:in the
385:plagues
376:Jupiter
141:geology
124:History
80:erosion
72:erosion
52:geology
2442:Portal
2118:Hybrid
1954:Ethics
1796:organs
1758:Plants
1744:lemurs
1739:humans
1724:horses
1714:hyenas
1702:wolves
1697:canids
1631:origin
1109:
1105:(SIS)
1101:
1069:
1048:
954:
881:
500:Icarus
459:Mexico
424:Walter
344:; the
203:fossil
158:Greeks
95:floods
1905:Death
1900:Aging
1879:brain
1665:Fungi
1626:Birds
1539:Fungi
1337:Event
1220:Index
952:S2CID
900:(PDF)
879:S2CID
853:arXiv
389:Egypt
381:orbit
372:comet
368:Venus
60:Earth
2392:Tree
1864:hair
1804:Cell
1707:dogs
1692:cats
1682:Life
1660:Fish
1613:taxa
1107:ISBN
1099:ISBN
1067:ISBN
1046:ISBN
516:Moon
506:and
496:moon
426:and
234:and
197:and
186:and
36:and
1890:Of
1859:eye
1809:DNA
1794:Of
1611:Of
1024:doi
987:doi
944:doi
871:doi
849:129
632:doi
457:of
387:of
50:In
2459::
1020:11
1018:.
1014:.
985:.
975:15
973:.
950:.
942:.
932:11
930:.
902:.
877:.
869:.
861:.
847:.
754:.
659:^
644:^
630:.
620:26
618:.
313:,
168:.
113:.
54:,
2068:/
2059:/
2050:/
2046:/
1181:e
1174:t
1167:v
1152::
1075:.
1054:.
1032:.
1026::
993:.
989::
981::
958:.
946::
938::
913:.
885:.
873::
865::
855::
815:.
638:.
634::
626::
305:(
20:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
