431:(PBS) interview, the historian Martha Smith argued: "In Japan, it becomes a huge issue in terms of not just the government and its protest against the United States, but all different groups and all different peoples in Japan start to protest. It becomes a big issue in the media. There are all kinds of letters and protests that come from, not surprisingly, Japanese fishermen, the fishermen's wives; there are student groups, all different types of people; that protest against the Americans' use of the Pacific for nuclear testing. They're very concerned about, first of all, why the United States even has the right to be carrying out those kinds of tests in the Pacific. They're also concerned about the health and environmental impact." The Prime Minister of India "voiced the heightened international concern" when he called for the elimination of all nuclear testing worldwide.
911:, hydrogen is created by reaction of iron and other metals from the nuclear device and surrounding equipment. The amount of carbonates and water in the soil and the available iron have to be considered in evaluating the test site containment; water-saturated clay soils may cause structural collapse and venting. Hard basement rock may reflect shock waves of the explosion, also possibly causing structural weakening and venting. The noncondensible gases may stay absorbed in the pores in the soil. Large amount of such gases can however maintain enough pressure to drive the fission products to the ground.
678:
1148:
54:
915:
1084:
1122:
1136:
1072:, and distinguish between the seismic signatures of an underground nuclear explosion and an earthquake. Additionally, eighty radionuclide stations detect radioactive particles vented by underground explosions. Certain radionuclides constitute clear evidence of nuclear tests; the presence of noble gases can indicate whether an underground explosion has taken place. Finally, eleven hydroacoustic stations and sixty infrasound stations monitor underwater and atmospheric tests.
473:
584:
31:
3980:
1108:
638:
627:
876:
1096:
3968:
808:
780:. The shock-induced motion and high internal pressure cause this cavity to expand outwards, which continues over several tenths of a second until the pressure has fallen sufficiently, to a level roughly comparable with the weight of the rock above, and can no longer grow. Although not observed in every explosion, four distinct zones (including the melt cavity) have been described in the surrounding rock. The
3992:
653:
explosive force will seal off the non-curved portion of tunnel nearest the detonation before gases and fission fragments can be vented around the curve of the tunnel's hook". This test would become the prototype for larger, more powerful tests. Rainier was announced in advance, so that seismic stations could attempt to record a signal.
601:' (ADM). It was detonated 20.4 m (67 ft) underground, in a shaft lined with corrugated steel, which was then back-filled with sandbags and dirt. Because the ADM was buried underground, the explosion blew tons of earth upwards, creating a crater 91 m (300 ft) wide and 39 m (128 ft) deep. The resulting
552:
1039:(TTBT) which banned underground tests with yields greater than 150 kilotons. By the 1990s, technologies to monitor and detect underground tests had matured to the point that tests of one kiloton or over could be detected with high probability, and in 1996 negotiations began under the auspices of the
1031:
Signed in Moscow on August 5, 1963, by representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United
Kingdom, the Limited Test Ban Treaty agreed to ban nuclear testing in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater. Due to the Soviet government's concern about the need for on-site inspections,
1056:
In the late 1940s, the United States began to develop the capability to detect atmospheric testing using air sampling; this system was able to detect the first Soviet test in 1949. Over the next decade, this system was improved, and a network of seismic monitoring stations was established to detect
1047:
was signed in 1996 by the United States, Russia, United
Kingdom, France, and China. However, following the United States Senate decision not to ratify the treaty in 1999, it is still yet to be ratified by 8 of the required 44 'Annex 2' states and so has not entered into force as United Nations law.
652:
was detonated at 899 ft (274 m) underground on 19 September 1957. The 1.7 kt explosion was the first to be entirely contained underground, producing no fallout. The test took place in a 1,600 – 2,000 ft (488 – 610 m) horizontal tunnel in the shape of a hook. The hook "was designed so
458:
signed the
Limited Test Ban Treaty, forbidding testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater. Agreement was facilitated by the decision to allow underground testing, eliminating the need for on-site inspections that concerned the Soviets. Underground testing was allowed,
818:
Several minutes to days later, once the heat dissipates enough, the steam condenses, and the pressure in the cavity falls below the level needed to support the overburden, the rock above the void falls into the cavity. Depending on various factors, including the yield and characteristics of the
344:
The first underground test took place in 1951. Further tests soon led scientists to conclude that even notwithstanding environmental and diplomatic considerations, underground testing was of far greater scientific value than all other forms of testing. This understanding strongly influenced the
1068:(IMS) consists of a network of 321 monitoring stations, and 16 radionuclide laboratories. Fifty "primary" seismic stations send data continuously to the International Data Center, along with 120 "auxiliary" stations which send data on request. The resulting data is used to locate the
656:
Analysis of samples collected after the test enabled scientists to develop an understanding of underground explosions that "persists essentially unaltered today". The information would later provide a basis for subsequent decisions to agree to the
Limited Test Ban Treaty.
968:
composition differs by the type of releases; large prompt venting releases significant fraction (up to 10%) of fission products, while late-time seeps contain only the most volatile gases. Soil absorbs the reactive chemical compounds, so the only
1491:
Some sources identify later tests as the "first". Adushkin (2001) defines such a test as "the near-simultaneous detonation of one or more nuclear charges inside one underground excavation (a tunnel, shaft or borehole)", and identifies
693:, with no venting of gases or other contaminants to the environment. In contrast, if the device is buried at insufficient depth ("underburied"), then rock may be expelled by the explosion, forming a subsidence crater surrounded by
579:
weapon. The explosion resulted in a cloud that rose to 3,500 m (11,500 ft), and deposited fallout to the north and north-northeast. The resulting crater was 79 m (260 ft) wide and 16 m (53 ft) deep.
800:. A few seconds later the molten rock starts collecting on the bottom of the cavity and the cavity content begins cooling. The rebound after the shock wave causes compressive forces to build up around the cavity, called a
955:
is performed; the gases are filtered, diluted by air and released to atmosphere when the winds will disperse them over sparsely populated areas. Small activity leaks resulting from operational aspects of tests are called
446:. Talks between the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, and the Soviet Union began in May 1955 on the subject of an international agreement to end nuclear tests. On August 5, 1963, representatives of the
898:
level), rockfalls, and ground slump. Most of the gas in the cavity is composed of steam; its volume decreases dramatically as the temperature falls and the steam condenses. There are however other gases, mostly
1019:
arising as a result of underground tests, there is no evidence that this has occurred. However, fault movements and ground fractures have been reported, and explosions often precede a series of
827:, 95 percent of tests conducted at a scaled depth of burial (SDOB) of less than 150 caused surface collapse, compared with about half of tests conducted at a SDOB of less than 180. The radius
697:, and releasing high-pressure gases to the atmosphere (the resulting crater is usually conical in profile, circular, and may range between tens to hundreds of metres in diameter and depth).
1057:
underground tests. Development of the
Threshold Test Ban Treaty in the mid-1970s led to an improved understanding of the relationship between test yield and resulting seismic magnitude.
2743:
623:!" As compared with an above-ground test, the radioactive debris released to the atmosphere was reduced by a factor of ten. Theoretical work began on possible containment schemes.
1277:"Monitoring distant fallout: The role of the Atomic Energy Commission Health and Safety Laboratory during the Pacific tests, with special attention to the events following Bravo"
459:
provided that it does not cause "radioactive debris to be present outside the territorial limits of the State under whose jurisdiction or control such explosion is conducted".
3329:
1060:
When negotiations began in the mid-1990s to develop a comprehensive test ban, the international community was reluctant to rely upon the detection capabilities of individual
947:
are releases of noncondensable gases days or weeks after the blast, by diffusion through pores and crack, probably assisted by a decrease of atmospheric pressure (so called
619:
was detonated at the bottom of a 148 m (486 ft) shaft. According to one description, it "ushered in the era of underground testing with a magnificent pyrotechnic
1023:, thought to be a result of cavity collapse and chimney formation. In a few cases, seismic energy released by fault movements has exceeded that of the explosion itself.
870:
768:. In the following few microseconds, the test hardware and surrounding rock are vaporised, with temperatures of several million degrees and pressures of several million
571:, which detonated 5.2 m (17 ft) beneath ground level. The test was designed as a scaled-down investigation of the effects of a 23-kiloton ground-penetrating
2082:"The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions", Project Director Gregory E van der Vink, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-ISC-414, (Oct 1989).
3523:
776:, a bubble of high-pressure gas and steam is formed. The heat and expanding shock wave cause the surrounding rock to vaporise, or be melted further away, creating a
1324:
2931:
1791:"Nuclear Flashback: Report of a Greenpeace Scientific Expedition to Amchitka Island, Alaska – Site of the Largest Underground Nuclear Test in U.S. History"
1790:
1004:
are concentrated in the milk of grazing cows; cow milk is therefore a convenient, sensitive fallout indicator. Soft tissues of animals can be analyzed for
2120:
2086:
329:
The extreme heat and pressure of an underground nuclear explosion causes changes in the surrounding rock. The rock closest to the location of the test is
2458:
2753:
186:
337:
rock. Following the explosion, the rock above the cavity may collapse, forming a rubble chimney. If this chimney reaches the surface, a bowl-shaped
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2161:
2098:
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258:
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435:
192:
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was initially selected for these tests in 1950, but the site was later deemed unsuitable and the tests were moved to the Nevada Test Site.
253:
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1692:
242:
17:
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1032:
underground tests were excluded from the ban. 108 countries would eventually sign the treaty, with the significant exception of China.
823:
is created. Such a crater is usually bowl-shaped, and ranges in size from a few tens of metres to over a kilometre in diameter. At the
263:
1468:
3029:
294:
3268:
2047:
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237:
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2029:
439:
3399:
1877:
3224:
2011:
541:
207:
197:
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1993:
1711:
1044:
350:
223:
212:
202:
1375:
3275:
1444:
127:
3996:
3192:
2738:
2133:
1061:
176:
1834:
McEwan, A. C. (1988). "Environmental effects of underground nuclear explosions". In
Goldblat, Jozef; Cox, David (eds.).
712:
of the yield in kilotons. It is estimated that, in order to ensure containment, this figure should be greater than 100.
3890:
3474:
2121:
https://web.archive.org/web/20041218041325/http://www.ingv.it/~roma/SITOINGLESE/research_projects/CTBTO/explosions.html
1147:
1206:
689:, as well as the nature of the surrounding rock. If the test is conducted at sufficient depth, the test is said to be
2554:
2433:
1977:
1843:
1328:
517:
1393:
3784:
3649:
2184:
929:. Massive, prompt, uncontrolled releases of fission products, driven by the pressure of steam or gas, are known as
349:
in 1963, which banned all nuclear tests except for those performed underground. From then until the signing of the
3727:
3561:
3163:
3041:
2698:
2559:
1065:
1797:
3717:
3566:
3024:
2162:
https://web.archive.org/web/20090227073933/http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml
2099:
https://web.archive.org/web/20060908032343/http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/pdf/3_3-4Adushkin.pdf
1184:
3491:
3324:
2748:
2676:
491:
287:
105:
784:, about two times the radius of the cavity, consists of rock that has lost all of its former integrity. The
365:
Public concern about fallout from nuclear testing grew in the early 1950s. Fallout was discovered after the
3834:
3571:
3280:
3034:
2531:
788:, about three times the cavity radius, consists of rock with radial and concentric fissures. Finally, the
402:
had "scientific, political and social implications that have continued for more than 40 years". The multi-
4023:
3984:
3897:
3869:
3826:
3791:
3629:
3456:
3394:
3219:
3123:
3009:
2477:
2177:
428:
268:
3818:
3677:
3356:
2874:
2831:
2683:
1209:. The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
907:, which do not condense and remain gaseous. The carbon dioxide is produced by thermal decomposition of
598:
536:
in 1946, inquiries were made regarding the possible military value of an underground explosion. The US
228:
73:
1566:
1083:
665:, the last test at the facility on Amchitka, was detonated on 6 November 1971. At approximately five
3972:
3654:
3263:
3046:
1598:
1036:
424:(Lucky Dragon). Prior to this test, there was "insufficient" appreciation of the dangers of fallout.
1064:(especially the United States), and instead wanted an international detection system. The resulting
3902:
3744:
3644:
3556:
2765:
2651:
2611:
2423:
609:
drifted in an easterly direction, travelling as far as 225 km (140 mi) from ground zero.
499:
280:
93:
3807:
3774:
3749:
3363:
3140:
2946:
2869:
2826:
2809:
2770:
2693:
1174:
1164:
1135:
685:
The effects of an underground nuclear test may vary according to factors including the depth and
620:
572:
567:
346:
311:
122:
88:
3732:
2156:
2147:
1414:
1307:
846:
544:(AEC) to perform experiments on both surface and sub-surface detonations. The Alaskan island of
3639:
2926:
2470:
1749:
1415:
Amchitka Island, Alaska: Potential U.S. Department of Energy site responsibilities (DOE/NV-526)
371:
test, the first ever atomic bomb test, in 1945. Photographic film manufacturers later reported
318:
that is performed underground. When the device being tested is buried at sufficient depth, the
1696:
1121:
3933:
3669:
3624:
3086:
3014:
2941:
2936:
2901:
2688:
2656:
2443:
2370:
1395:
For the Record – A History of the
Nuclear Test Personnel Review Program, 1978–1986 (DNA 601F)
1232:
1179:
887:
769:
537:
385:
372:
334:
162:
147:
83:
1475:
420:
3844:
3619:
3604:
2921:
2879:
2715:
2621:
2549:
2087:
IAEA review of the 1968 book: The constructive uses of nuclear explosions by Edward Teller.
1244:
1113:
532:
323:
110:
98:
1668:
1529:, but the AEC merged the plans into a single operation on 19 June 1951. See Gladeck, 1986.
943:; these have little to no energy, are not visible and have to be detected by instruments.
8:
3943:
3754:
3539:
3133:
3001:
2979:
2804:
2661:
2428:
2390:
2223:
2081:
1925:
1635:
1542:
1107:
793:
606:
152:
2051:
1618:
1248:
333:, forming a cavity. Farther away, there are zones of crushed, cracked, and irreversibly
3923:
3659:
3496:
3423:
3234:
2884:
2854:
2838:
2821:
2465:
2355:
2303:
2253:
2200:
2142:
1355:"Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water"
614:
562:
The first underground nuclear test was conducted on 29 November 1951. This was the 1.2
2115:
2033:
375:; this was traced to packaging materials sourced from Indiana crops, contaminated by
2991:
2784:
2671:
2646:
2584:
2541:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2218:
1973:
1884:
1839:
1299:
1295:
1169:
820:
677:
338:
319:
157:
142:
137:
132:
68:
2065:
2015:
1469:"USGS Open File Report 01-312: Containment of Soviet underground nuclear explosions"
1448:
3839:
2894:
2859:
2616:
2606:
2494:
2482:
2323:
2318:
2308:
2298:
2293:
1775:
1720:
1418:
1412:
1291:
1256:
1252:
989:
872:; an 8 kiloton explosion will create a cavity with radius of 110 feet (34 m).
824:
380:
353:
in 1996, most nuclear tests were performed underground, which prevented additional
35:
2125:
1997:
1095:
3737:
3697:
3151:
2965:
2889:
2864:
2710:
2503:
2405:
2395:
2360:
2238:
2228:
2137:
935:
891:
792:
consists of rock deformed by the pressure. The following layer undergoes only an
354:
78:
3229:
1943:
1354:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3432:
3339:
3308:
3290:
2814:
2720:
2666:
2631:
2564:
2511:
2365:
2258:
2243:
2233:
1040:
900:
666:
602:
455:
443:
411:
407:
403:
315:
167:
115:
45:
3712:
2130:
1559:
Shots Sugar and Uncle: The final tests of the Buster-Jangle series (DNA 6025F)
914:
708:(SDOB) This figure is calculated as the burial depth in metres divided by the
4012:
3877:
3168:
2574:
2415:
1649:
1005:
961:
939:
test. Slow, low-pressure uncontrolled releases of radioactivity are known as
700:
One figure used in determining how deeply the device should be buried is the
686:
597:, on 23 March 1955. The one-kiloton explosion was an operational test of an '
576:
447:
399:
3443:
2579:
2521:
2448:
2400:
2270:
1591:
Shots Ess through Met and Shot
Zucchini: The final Teapot tests (DNA 6013F)
1210:
1127:
997:
965:
797:
451:
394:
367:
1303:
383:, over 1,000 miles (≈1600 kilometres) away. Intense fallout from the 1953
3854:
3501:
3091:
2598:
2569:
1399:
1001:
960:; they may occur e.g. during drilling into the explosion location during
895:
773:
765:
583:
30:
3207:
1020:
1016:
993:
978:
637:
626:
551:
875:
807:
3849:
3212:
3202:
2330:
2283:
2248:
2169:
1970:
Technical Issues
Related to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
1413:
U.S. Department of Energy, Nevada
Operations Office (December 1998).
1069:
1009:
982:
974:
908:
832:
709:
330:
3707:
2050:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
2032:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
2014:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
1996:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
1447:. The Center for the Study of Technology and Society. Archived from
681:
Relative crater sizes and shapes resulting from various burst depths
3938:
3581:
3576:
3516:
3185:
3113:
3096:
3081:
3056:
2799:
2288:
1423:
904:
661:
545:
3907:
3859:
3722:
3702:
3101:
3076:
2516:
2347:
2335:
2313:
2278:
1474:. US Department of the Interior Geological Survey. Archived from
970:
605:
rose to a height of 3,700 m (12,000 ft) and subsequent
563:
3511:
3506:
3486:
3466:
3451:
3334:
3071:
3051:
3019:
819:
burial, this collapse may extend to the surface. If it does, a
694:
530:
Following analysis of underwater detonations that were part of
1012:, and blood, urine and soft tissues are analyzed for tritium.
3928:
3885:
3548:
3404:
3197:
3061:
2148:
http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1215_web.pdf
1207:"History of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)"
482:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
415:
345:
governments of the first three nuclear powers to sign of the
53:
1967:
3409:
3298:
3108:
3066:
1035:
In 1974, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the
714:
2153:
The Soviet Program for Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Explosions
1231:
Ortmeyer, Pat; Makhijani, Arjun (November–December 1997).
575:
that was then being considered for use as a cratering and
38:
in the 1990s as the diagnostic cables are being installed.
3382:
3246:
2107:
1774:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from
1669:"Field Testing: The Physical Proof of Design Principles"
1652:
is described as "slight", but was approximately 55 tons.
764:
The energy of the nuclear explosion is released in one
462:
1944:"The Making of the Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1958–1963"
1467:
Adushkin, Vitaly V.; Leith, William (September 2001).
1466:
2068:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.
1521:
were initially conceived as separate operations, and
886:
Other surface features may include disturbed ground,
849:
669:, it was the largest underground test in US history.
2143:
http://www.atomictraveler.com/UndergroundTestOTA.pdf
925:
Escape of radioactivity from the cavity is known as
2116:
http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications.html
1043:to develop a comprehensive test ban. The resulting
406:test caused fallout to occur on the islands of the
34:Preparation for an underground nuclear test at the
2932:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
1378:. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
973:filtered through soil into the atmosphere are the
864:
1926:The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions
1687:
1685:
1230:
964:, or during the sampling of explosion gases. The
796:; the strain and subsequent release then forms a
4010:
1883:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from
1836:Nuclear Weapon Tests: Prohibition Or Limitation?
427:The test became an international incident. In a
389:test was documented as far as Albany, New York.
2126:http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/ugt.htm
1907:Hawkins and Wohletz specify a figure of 90–125.
1662:
1660:
1658:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1325:"Martha Smith on: The Impact of the Bravo Test"
831:(in feet) of the cavity is proportional to the
1682:
1648:According to the Nuclear Weapons Archive, the
1391:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
27:Test detonation of nuclear weapons underground
3635:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
2185:
1719:. Centers for Disease Control. Archived from
1583:
1581:
1579:
1387:
1385:
1327:. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from
480:The examples and perspective in this article
288:
1713:ORAU Team: NIOSH Dose Reconstruction Project
1655:
1455:
1406:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1349:
1347:
1345:
951:). When the test tunnel has to be accessed,
2131:https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/ugt-nts.htm
2048:"Verification Technologies: Hydroacoustics"
1838:. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–79.
1766:
1764:
1762:
1588:Ponton, Jean; et al. (November 1981).
1263:
1217:
894:, water movement (including changes to the
2192:
2178:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1863:
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1855:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1576:
1445:"Today in Technology History: November 29"
1382:
295:
281:
52:
2030:"Verification Technologies: Radionuclide"
1878:"Visual Inspection for CTBT Verification"
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1630:
1628:
1613:
1611:
1549:
1537:
1535:
1422:
1376:"JFK in History: Nuclear Test Ban Treaty"
1361:
1342:
1026:
1015:Although there were early concerns about
558:, the first underground nuclear explosion
518:Learn how and when to remove this message
3547:
1994:"An Overview of the Verification Regime"
1986:
1759:
1666:
1597:. Defense Nuclear Agency. Archived from
1565:. Defense Nuclear Agency. Archived from
1398:. Defense Nuclear Agency. Archived from
1274:
913:
874:
806:
676:
636:
625:
582:
550:
29:
2066:"Verification Technologies: Infrasound"
2012:"Verification Technologies: Seismology"
1910:
1875:
1852:
1737:
1709:
1556:Ponton, Jean; et al. (June 1982).
1201:
1199:
1190:
14:
4011:
3562:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
2199:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1833:
1814:
1695:. Department of Energy. Archived from
1625:
1608:
1587:
1555:
1532:
542:United States Atomic Energy Commission
3804:
3567:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
2976:
2963:
2173:
2109:The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1968:National Academy of Sciences (2002).
1437:
1045:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
351:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
322:may be contained, with no release of
3991:
2964:
1513:(e.g., DOE/NV-526, 1998). Operation
1196:
1008:, bones and liver for strontium and
933:; an example of such failure is the
466:
463:Early history of underground testing
440:concern about the global environment
4019:Underground nuclear weapons testing
3572:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1950:
1946:. The George Washington University.
1931:
1667:Campbell, Bob; et al. (1983).
1153:Nevada Test Site subsidence craters
540:thus obtained the agreement of the
357:from entering into the atmosphere.
24:
3381:
2532:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
2075:
1928:. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
1788:
1505:Some sources refer to the test as
988:The released nuclides can undergo
25:
4035:
2555:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
2454:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
2092:
1755:. Los Alamos National Laboratory.
1392:Gladeck, F.; Johnson, A. (1986).
1237:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
3990:
3979:
3978:
3966:
3655:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
1417:(Report). Department of Energy.
1296:10.1097/00004032-199707000-00002
1146:
1134:
1120:
1106:
1094:
1082:
471:
392:The fallout from the March 1954
2744:Historical stockpiles and tests
2058:
2040:
2022:
2004:
1901:
1782:
1703:
1642:
1499:
1485:
1066:International Monitoring System
3645:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
2527:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
1772:"Accomplishments in the 1950s"
1638:. The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
1621:. The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
1545:. The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
1317:
1275:Eisenbud, Merril (July 1997).
1257:10.1080/00963402.1997.11456789
1185:List of induced seismic events
593:The next underground test was
13:
1:
3973:Nuclear technology portal
1051:
918:Radioactivity release during
360:
3835:Field-reversed configuration
3445:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
992:. Radioactive isotopes like
811:Subsidence crater formed by
7:
3792:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
2977:
2739:States with nuclear weapons
1158:
790:zone of irreversible strain
755:Zone of irreversible strain
494:, discuss the issue on the
429:Public Broadcasting Service
308:Underground nuclear testing
18:Underground nuclear testing
10:
4040:
3805:
3630:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
2754:Tests in the United States
1509:(e.g., Adushkin, 2001) or
1075:
865:{\displaystyle {\sqrt{y}}}
672:
599:Atomic Demolition Munition
418:fishing boat known as the
3960:
3916:
3868:
3825:
3815:
3767:
3755:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
3668:
3650:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
3615:
3598:
3538:
3465:
3457:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
3431:
3422:
3374:
3354:
3307:
3289:
3245:
3150:
3132:
3000:
2987:
2972:
2959:
2914:
2847:
2792:
2783:
2731:
2639:
2630:
2597:
2540:
2502:
2493:
2414:
2346:
2269:
2211:
2207:
1876:Hawkins, Wohletz (1996).
1543:"Operation Buster-Jangle"
1357:. US Department of State.
1037:Threshold Test Ban Treaty
953:controlled tunnel purging
717:Zones in surrounding rock
3660:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
3276:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
2612:Electron-beam processing
2112:, September/October 2003
3775:Organic nuclear reactor
2947:Nuclear power phase-out
2870:Nuclear decommissioning
2810:Reactor-grade plutonium
2560:Targeted alpha-particle
2439:Accidents and incidents
1175:Tired mountain syndrome
1165:Nuclear weapons testing
879:Rubble mound formed by
802:stress containment cage
573:gun-type fission weapon
436:fallout and its effects
379:and later tests at the
347:Limited Test Ban Treaty
1972:. National Academies.
1750:"Plumbbob Photographs"
1710:Rollins, Gene (2004).
1525:was at first known as
1062:nuclear weapons states
1027:International treaties
922:
883:
866:
815:
804:, sealing the cracks.
702:scaled depth of burial
687:yield of the explosion
682:
646:
634:
590:
559:
39:
2937:Anti-nuclear movement
1803:on September 28, 2006
1180:Nuclear bunker buster
917:
878:
867:
810:
680:
640:
629:
586:
554:
538:Joint Chiefs of Staff
324:radioactive materials
33:
3845:Reversed field pinch
3640:Traveling-wave (TWR)
3124:Supercritical (SCWR)
2622:Gemstone irradiation
2157:UCRL-ID-12441O Rev 2
1693:"Operation Plumbbob"
1636:"Operation Plumbbob"
1313:on October 14, 2006.
1233:"Worse Than We Knew"
1191:Notes and references
958:operational releases
847:
533:Operation Crossroads
500:create a new article
492:improve this article
177:Nuclear-armed states
3010:Aqueous homogeneous
2805:Reprocessed uranium
2478:Safety and security
1249:1997BuAtS..53f..46O
1089:Buster-Jangle Uncle
949:atmospheric pumping
927:containment failure
794:elastic deformation
719:
607:radioactive fallout
568:Buster-Jangle Uncle
556:Buster-Jangle Uncle
326:to the atmosphere.
4024:1951 introductions
3924:Dense plasma focus
2839:Actinide chemistry
2304:Isotope separation
2201:Nuclear technology
2136:2015-04-09 at the
1676:Los Alamos Science
1619:"Operation Teapot"
923:
884:
862:
816:
715:
683:
647:
635:
591:
560:
438:grew, and with it
421:Daigo Fukuryū Maru
40:
4006:
4005:
3956:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3903:Magnetized-target
3800:
3799:
3763:
3762:
3594:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3534:
3533:
3418:
3417:
3350:
3349:
2955:
2954:
2910:
2909:
2779:
2778:
2766:Weapon-free zones
2593:
2592:
2585:Radiopharmacology
2155:, M. D. Nordyke,
1511:Project Windstorm
1170:Subsidence crater
860:
821:subsidence crater
762:
761:
612:On 26 July 1957,
528:
527:
520:
502:, as appropriate.
339:subsidence crater
320:nuclear explosion
305:
304:
69:Nuclear explosion
16:(Redirected from
4031:
3994:
3993:
3982:
3981:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3881:
3840:Levitated dipole
3810:
3802:
3801:
3750:Helium gas (GFR)
3613:
3612:
3608:
3545:
3544:
3429:
3428:
3379:
3378:
3372:
3371:
3367:
3366:
3148:
3147:
3144:
3143:
2982:
2974:
2973:
2966:Nuclear reactors
2961:
2960:
2860:High-level (HLW)
2790:
2789:
2637:
2636:
2617:Food irradiation
2607:Atomic gardening
2500:
2499:
2483:Nuclear meltdown
2309:Nuclear material
2299:Fissile material
2294:Fertile material
2209:
2208:
2194:
2187:
2180:
2171:
2170:
2104:Nuclear Pursuits
2070:
2069:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1965:
1948:
1947:
1940:
1929:
1923:
1908:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1889:
1882:
1873:
1850:
1849:
1831:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1808:
1802:
1796:. Archived from
1795:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1768:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1746:
1735:
1734:
1732:
1731:
1725:
1718:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1689:
1680:
1679:
1673:
1664:
1653:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1632:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1596:
1585:
1574:
1573:
1571:
1564:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1539:
1530:
1503:
1497:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1480:
1473:
1464:
1453:
1452:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1402:on May 22, 2011.
1389:
1380:
1379:
1372:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1312:
1306:. Archived from
1281:
1272:
1261:
1260:
1228:
1215:
1214:
1203:
1150:
1141:Bowline Schooner
1138:
1124:
1110:
1098:
1086:
990:bio-accumulation
871:
869:
868:
863:
861:
859:
851:
825:Nevada Test Site
720:
650:Plumbbob Rainier
643:Plumbbob Rainier
632:Plumbbob Rainier
523:
516:
512:
509:
503:
475:
474:
467:
434:Knowledge about
381:Nevada Test Site
297:
290:
283:
234:
128:Target selection
56:
42:
41:
36:Nevada Test Site
21:
4039:
4038:
4034:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4029:
4028:
4009:
4008:
4007:
4002:
3967:
3965:
3948:
3912:
3879:
3864:
3821:
3811:
3806:
3796:
3759:
3664:
3609:
3602:
3601:
3586:
3530:
3461:
3436:
3414:
3386:
3368:
3361:
3360:
3359:
3346:
3312:
3303:
3285:
3250:
3241:
3155:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3128:
3042:Natural fission
2996:
2995:
2983:
2978:
2968:
2951:
2927:Nuclear weapons
2906:
2865:Low-level (LLW)
2843:
2775:
2727:
2626:
2589:
2536:
2489:
2410:
2342:
2265:
2203:
2198:
2167:
2138:Wayback Machine
2095:
2078:
2076:Further reading
2073:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2046:
2045:
2041:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1966:
1951:
1942:
1941:
1932:
1924:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1874:
1853:
1846:
1832:
1815:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1787:
1783:
1770:
1769:
1760:
1752:
1748:
1747:
1738:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1691:
1690:
1683:
1671:
1665:
1656:
1647:
1643:
1634:
1633:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1609:
1601:
1594:
1586:
1577:
1569:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1541:
1540:
1533:
1504:
1500:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1471:
1465:
1456:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1429:
1427:
1411:
1407:
1390:
1383:
1374:
1373:
1362:
1353:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1332:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1310:
1279:
1273:
1264:
1229:
1218:
1205:
1204:
1197:
1193:
1161:
1154:
1151:
1142:
1139:
1130:
1125:
1116:
1111:
1102:
1099:
1090:
1087:
1078:
1054:
1029:
945:Late-time seeps
888:pressure ridges
881:Whetstone Sulky
855:
850:
848:
845:
844:
839:(in kilotons),
675:
630:Dust raised by
524:
513:
507:
504:
489:
476:
472:
465:
363:
355:nuclear fallout
316:nuclear weapons
312:test detonation
301:
252:
232:
222:
191:
46:Nuclear weapons
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4037:
4027:
4026:
4021:
4004:
4003:
4001:
4000:
3988:
3976:
3961:
3958:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3934:Muon-catalyzed
3931:
3926:
3920:
3918:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3894:
3893:
3883:
3874:
3872:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3831:
3829:
3823:
3822:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3789:
3788:
3787:
3782:
3771:
3769:
3765:
3764:
3761:
3760:
3758:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3674:
3672:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3625:Integral (IFR)
3622:
3616:
3610:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3553:
3551:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3489:
3484:
3483:
3482:
3471:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3440:
3438:
3434:
3426:
3420:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3391:
3389:
3384:
3376:
3369:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3316:
3314:
3310:
3305:
3304:
3302:
3301:
3295:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3266:
3255:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3216:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3195:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3160:
3158:
3153:
3145:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3044:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3012:
3006:
3004:
2998:
2997:
2989:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2970:
2969:
2957:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2942:Uranium mining
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2892:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2824:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2815:Minor actinide
2812:
2807:
2796:
2794:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2741:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2713:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2701:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2680:
2679:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2643:
2641:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2546:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2512:Autoradiograph
2508:
2506:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2420:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2352:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2327:
2326:
2321:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2275:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2234:Atomic nucleus
2231:
2226:
2221:
2215:
2213:
2205:
2204:
2197:
2196:
2189:
2182:
2174:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2101:
2094:
2093:External links
2091:
2090:
2089:
2084:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2071:
2057:
2054:on 2003-02-19.
2039:
2036:on 2004-06-10.
2021:
2018:on 2003-06-21.
2003:
2000:on 2008-05-09.
1985:
1978:
1949:
1930:
1909:
1900:
1851:
1844:
1813:
1781:
1778:on 2004-12-05.
1758:
1736:
1702:
1699:on 2006-09-25.
1681:
1654:
1641:
1624:
1607:
1604:on 2007-07-10.
1575:
1572:on 2007-07-10.
1548:
1531:
1517:and Operation
1498:
1484:
1481:on 2013-05-09.
1454:
1451:on 2002-04-21.
1436:
1424:10.2172/758922
1405:
1381:
1360:
1341:
1316:
1284:Health Physics
1262:
1216:
1213:on 2007-03-03.
1194:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1155:
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1133:
1131:
1126:
1119:
1117:
1112:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1053:
1050:
1041:United Nations
1028:
1025:
1006:gamma emitters
901:carbon dioxide
858:
854:
760:
759:
758:800–1100 m/kt
756:
752:
751:
748:
744:
743:
740:
736:
735:
732:
728:
727:
724:
674:
671:
641:Layout of the
603:mushroom cloud
526:
525:
486:of the subject
484:worldwide view
479:
477:
470:
464:
461:
456:United Kingdom
444:genetic damage
442:and long-term
414:atolls, and a
373:'fogged' films
362:
359:
303:
302:
300:
299:
292:
285:
277:
274:
273:
272:
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266:
261:
256:
246:
245:
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216:
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210:
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203:United Kingdom
200:
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119:
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63:
62:
58:
57:
49:
48:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4036:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4016:
4014:
3999:
3998:
3989:
3987:
3986:
3977:
3975:
3974:
3963:
3962:
3959:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3892:
3891:electrostatic
3889:
3888:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3867:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3814:
3809:
3803:
3793:
3790:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3773:
3772:
3770:
3766:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3671:
3670:Generation IV
3667:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3620:Breeder (FBR)
3618:
3617:
3614:
3611:
3606:
3597:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3525:
3522:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3421:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3388:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3370:
3365:
3358:
3353:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3306:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3244:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3149:
3146:
3142:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3017:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2993:
2986:
2981:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2922:Nuclear power
2920:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2903:
2902:Transmutation
2900:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2699:high-altitude
2697:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2689:Proliferation
2687:
2685:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2575:Brachytherapy
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2371:Cross section
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2345:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2190:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2067:
2061:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2017:
2013:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1989:
1981:
1979:0-309-08506-3
1975:
1971:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1945:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1927:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1904:
1890:on 2008-10-30
1886:
1879:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1847:
1845:0-19-829120-5
1841:
1837:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1799:
1792:
1789:Miller, Pam.
1785:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1751:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1726:on 2006-06-25
1722:
1715:
1714:
1706:
1698:
1694:
1688:
1686:
1677:
1670:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1651:
1645:
1637:
1631:
1629:
1620:
1614:
1612:
1600:
1593:
1592:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1568:
1561:
1560:
1552:
1544:
1538:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1502:
1496:as the first.
1495:
1488:
1477:
1470:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1450:
1446:
1440:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1388:
1386:
1377:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1356:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1331:on 2016-08-01
1330:
1326:
1320:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1200:
1195:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1149:
1144:
1137:
1132:
1129:
1123:
1118:
1115:
1109:
1104:
1097:
1092:
1085:
1080:
1079:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1049:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
986:
984:
980:
976:
972:
967:
963:
962:core sampling
959:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
937:
932:
928:
921:
916:
912:
910:
906:
902:
897:
893:
889:
882:
877:
873:
856:
852:
842:
838:
835:of the yield
834:
830:
826:
822:
814:
809:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
757:
754:
753:
749:
746:
745:
741:
738:
737:
733:
730:
729:
725:
722:
721:
718:
713:
711:
707:
703:
698:
696:
692:
688:
679:
670:
668:
664:
663:
658:
654:
651:
644:
639:
633:
628:
624:
622:
618:
616:
610:
608:
604:
600:
596:
589:
585:
581:
578:
577:bunker-buster
574:
570:
569:
565:
557:
553:
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
534:
522:
519:
511:
508:December 2010
501:
497:
493:
487:
485:
478:
469:
468:
460:
457:
453:
449:
448:United States
445:
441:
437:
432:
430:
425:
423:
422:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
400:Pacific Ocean
397:
396:
390:
388:
387:
382:
378:
374:
370:
369:
358:
356:
352:
348:
342:
340:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
298:
293:
291:
286:
284:
279:
278:
276:
275:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
251:
248:
247:
244:
241:
239:
236:
230:
227:
225:
221:
218:
217:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
193:United States
190:
188:
184:
183:
182:
181:
178:
175:
174:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
148:Proliferation
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
120:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
103:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
66:
65:
64:
60:
59:
55:
51:
50:
47:
44:
43:
37:
32:
19:
3995:
3983:
3964:
3944:Pyroelectric
3898:Laser-driven
3678:Sodium (SFR)
3605:fast-neutron
3444:
2990:
2880:Reprocessing
2761:WMD treaties
2703:
2580:Radiosurgery
2550:Fast-neutron
2522:Scintigraphy
2166:
2152:
2108:
2060:
2052:the original
2042:
2034:the original
2024:
2016:the original
2006:
1998:the original
1988:
1969:
1903:
1892:. Retrieved
1885:the original
1835:
1805:. Retrieved
1798:the original
1784:
1776:the original
1728:. Retrieved
1721:the original
1712:
1705:
1697:the original
1675:
1644:
1599:the original
1590:
1567:the original
1558:
1551:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1507:Jangle Uncle
1506:
1501:
1493:
1487:
1476:the original
1449:the original
1439:
1428:. Retrieved
1408:
1400:the original
1394:
1333:. Retrieved
1329:the original
1319:
1308:the original
1290:(1): 21–27.
1287:
1283:
1243:(6): 46–50.
1240:
1236:
1211:the original
1128:Sedan Crater
1114:Storax Sedan
1059:
1055:
1034:
1030:
1014:
998:strontium-90
987:
977:, primarily
966:radionuclide
957:
952:
948:
944:
940:
934:
930:
926:
924:
919:
885:
880:
840:
836:
828:
817:
812:
801:
798:seismic wave
789:
786:cracked zone
785:
782:crushed zone
781:
777:
774:milliseconds
763:
750:80–120 m/kt
747:Cracked zone
739:Crushed zone
716:
705:
701:
699:
690:
684:
660:
659:
655:
649:
648:
642:
631:
621:roman candle
613:
611:
594:
592:
587:
566:
561:
555:
531:
529:
514:
505:
481:
452:Soviet Union
433:
426:
419:
398:test in the
393:
391:
384:
376:
366:
364:
343:
328:
307:
306:
254:South Africa
249:
233:(undeclared)
219:
185:
3855:Stellarator
3819:confinement
3713:Superphénix
3540:Molten-salt
3492:VHTR (HTGR)
3269:HW BLWR 250
3235:R4 Marviken
3164:Pressurized
3134:Heavy water
3118:many others
3047:Pressurized
3002:Light water
2704:underground
2662:Disarmament
2570:Tomotherapy
2565:Proton-beam
2429:Power plant
2391:Temperature
2224:Engineering
1021:aftershocks
1017:earthquakes
1002:caesium-137
975:noble gases
896:water table
778:melt cavity
770:atmospheres
766:microsecond
742:30–40 m/kt
731:Melt cavity
243:North Korea
153:Disarmament
4013:Categories
3880:(acoustic)
3497:PBR (PBMR)
2885:Spent fuel
2875:Repository
2855:Fuel cycle
2822:Activation
2599:Processing
2466:Propulsion
2424:by country
2356:Activation
1894:2008-05-05
1807:2006-10-09
1730:2017-09-17
1430:2006-10-09
1335:2017-09-03
1101:Teapot Ess
1052:Monitoring
994:iodine-131
979:krypton-85
909:carbonates
813:Huron King
734:4–12 m/kt
595:Teapot Ess
588:Teapot Ess
454:, and the
361:Background
341:may form.
264:Kazakhstan
189:recognized
163:Opposition
61:Background
3850:Spheromak
3549:Fluorides
3213:IPHWR-700
3208:IPHWR-540
3203:IPHWR-220
2992:Moderator
2672:Explosion
2647:Arms race
2434:Economics
2386:Reflector
2381:Radiation
2376:Generator
2331:Plutonium
2284:Deuterium
2249:Radiation
2219:Chemistry
1527:Windstorm
1070:epicentre
1010:plutonium
983:xenon-133
936:Baneberry
920:Baneberry
833:cube root
772:. Within
710:cube root
691:contained
496:talk page
331:vaporised
158:Terrorism
143:Espionage
138:Blackmail
133:Arms race
3985:Category
3939:Polywell
3870:Inertial
3827:Magnetic
3582:TMSR-LF1
3577:TMSR-500
3557:Fuji MSR
3517:THTR-300
3357:Graphite
3220:PHWR KWU
3186:ACR-1000
3114:IPWR-900
3097:ACPR1000
3092:HPR-1000
3082:CPR-1000
3057:APR-1400
2848:Disposal
2800:Actinide
2793:Products
2652:Delivery
2495:Medicine
2324:depleted
2319:enriched
2289:Helium-3
2254:ionizing
2134:Archived
1159:See also
971:nuclides
905:hydrogen
667:megatons
662:Cannikin
617:Pascal-A
615:Plumbbob
546:Amchitka
490:You may
416:Japanese
412:Rongelap
408:Rongerik
335:strained
259:Belarus
238:Pakistan
123:Arsenals
94:Delivery
3997:Commons
3908:Z-pinch
3878:Bubble
3860:Tokamak
3723:FBR-600
3703:CFR-600
3698:BN-1200
3364:coolant
3291:Organic
3176:CANDU 9
3173:CANDU 6
3141:coolant
3102:ACP1000
3077:CAP1400
3015:Boiling
2980:Fission
2827:Fission
2771:Weapons
2711:Warfare
2694:Testing
2684:History
2677:effects
2632:Weapons
2542:Therapy
2517:RadBall
2504:Imaging
2396:Thermal
2361:Capture
2348:Neutron
2336:Thorium
2314:Uranium
2279:Tritium
2259:braking
2239:Fission
2229:Physics
2212:Science
1304:9199215
1245:Bibcode
1076:Gallery
931:venting
843:= 55 *
726:Radius
673:Effects
564:kiloton
404:megaton
377:Trinity
368:Trinity
310:is the
269:Ukraine
111:Workers
106:Effects
89:Testing
79:Warfare
74:History
3808:Fusion
3768:Others
3708:Phénix
3693:BN-800
3688:BN-600
3683:BN-350
3512:HTR-PM
3507:HTR-10
3487:UHTREX
3452:Magnox
3447:(UNGG)
3340:Lucens
3335:KS 150
3072:ATMEA1
3052:AP1000
3035:Kerena
2915:Debate
2667:Ethics
2657:Design
2640:Topics
2471:rocket
2449:Fusion
2444:Policy
2406:Fusion
2366:Poison
2244:Fusion
1976:
1842:
1523:Jangle
1519:Jangle
1515:Buster
1302:
892:faults
706:-burst
695:ejecta
645:tunnel
450:, the
250:Former
231:
229:Israel
220:Others
208:France
198:Russia
168:Winter
116:Ethics
84:Design
3929:Migma
3917:Other
3886:Fusor
3785:Piqua
3780:Arbus
3738:PRISM
3480:MHR-T
3475:GTMHR
3405:EGP-6
3400:AMB-X
3375:Water
3320:HWGCR
3259:HWLWR
3198:IPHWR
3169:CANDU
3030:ESBWR
2785:Waste
2749:Tests
2732:Lists
2716:Yield
2459:MMRTG
2416:Power
1888:(PDF)
1881:(PDF)
1801:(PDF)
1794:(PDF)
1753:(PDF)
1724:(PDF)
1717:(PDF)
1672:(PDF)
1650:yield
1602:(PDF)
1595:(PDF)
1570:(PDF)
1563:(PDF)
1494:Uncle
1479:(PDF)
1472:(PDF)
1311:(PDF)
1280:(PDF)
941:seeps
723:Name
704:, or
498:, or
395:Bravo
386:Simon
224:India
213:China
99:Yield
3745:Lead
3728:CEFR
3718:PFBR
3600:None
3410:RBMK
3395:AM-1
3325:EL-4
3299:WR-1
3281:AHWR
3225:MZFR
3193:CVTR
3182:AFCR
3109:VVER
3067:APWR
3062:APR+
3025:ABWR
2895:cask
2890:pool
2832:LLFP
2721:TNTe
2401:Fast
2271:Fuel
1974:ISBN
1840:ISBN
1300:PMID
1000:and
981:and
903:and
410:and
3817:by
3733:PFR
3524:PMR
3502:AVR
3424:Gas
3362:by
3330:KKN
3264:ATR
3179:EC6
3139:by
3087:EPR
3020:BWR
1419:doi
1292:doi
1253:doi
996:,
314:of
187:NPT
4015::
3467:He
3433:CO
3309:CO
3230:R3
2106:,
1952:^
1933:^
1912:^
1854:^
1816:^
1761:^
1739:^
1684:^
1674:.
1657:^
1627:^
1610:^
1578:^
1534:^
1457:^
1384:^
1363:^
1344:^
1298:.
1288:73
1286:.
1282:.
1265:^
1251:.
1241:53
1239:.
1235:.
1219:^
1198:^
985:.
890:,
3607:)
3603:(
3435:2
3387:O
3385:2
3383:H
3311:2
3251:O
3249:2
3247:H
3156:O
3154:2
3152:D
2193:e
2186:t
2179:v
1982:.
1897:.
1848:.
1810:.
1733:.
1678:.
1433:.
1421::
1338:.
1294::
1259:.
1255::
1247::
857:3
853:y
841:r
837:y
829:r
521:)
515:(
510:)
506:(
488:.
296:e
289:t
282:v
20:)
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