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Colorado
Plateau was known to contain veins of carnotite ore, which contains both vanadium and uranium. The AEC developed its program in accordance with the principle of free enterprise. Rather than discovering, mining, and processing the ore itself, the federal government provided geological information, built roads, and set a fixed rate for purchasing ore through one of the mills in the area. This prompted individuals to discover and produce the ore, which the government would then buy. The AEC was the only legal buyer of uranium from the beginning of the program in 1947 through 1966. From 1966 to the end of the program in 1970, the AEC continued to buy uranium to support the market until private industry could develop sufficiently.
38:
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978:. Through their support of nuclear testing, the AEC gave ecologists a unique opportunity to study the effects of radiation on whole populations and entire ecological systems in the field. Prior to 1954, no one had investigated a complete ecosystem with the intent to measure its overall metabolism, but the AEC provided the means as well as the funding to do so. Ecological development was further spurred by environmental concerns about radioactive waste from nuclear energy and postwar atomic weapons production. In the 1950s, such concerns led the AEC to build a large ecology research group at their
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1023:. The excavation project was to involve a series of underground nuclear detonations that would create an artificial harbor, consisting of a channel and circular terminal basin, which would fill with water. This would have allowed for enhanced ecological research of the area in conjunction with any nuclear testing that might occur, as it essentially would have created a controlled environment where levels and patterns of radioactive fallout resulting from weapons testing could be measured. The proposal never went through, but it evidenced the AEC's interest in Arctic research and development.
986:. A wide variety of research efforts in biology and medicine took place under the umbrella of the AEC at national laboratories and at some universities with agency sponsorship and funding. As a result of increased funding as well as the increased opportunities given to scientists and the field of ecology in general, a plethora of new techniques were developed which led to rapid growth and expansion of the field as a whole. One of these techniques afforded to ecologists involved the use of radiation, namely in ecological dating and to study the effects of stresses on the environment.
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1960s, to portray their efforts as being geared toward peaceful uses of atomic energy, criticism of the agency grew. The AEC was chiefly held responsible for the health problems of people living near atmospheric test sites from the early 1960s, and there was a strong association of nuclear energy with the radioactive fallout from these tests. Around the same time, the AEC was also struggling with opposition to nuclear power plant siting as well as nuclear testing. An organized push was finally made to curb the power held by the AEC, and in 1970 the AEC was forced to prepare an
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409:. The AEC's regulatory programs sought to ensure public health and safety from the hazards of nuclear power without imposing excessive requirements that would inhibit the growth of the industry. This was a difficult goal to achieve, especially in a new industry, and within a short time the AEC's programs stirred considerable controversy.
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from the Arctic, but few or none of them were supported solely on that basis. While the development of ecology and other sciences was not always the primary objective of the AEC, support was often given to research in these fields indirectly as an extension of their efforts for peaceful applications of nuclear energy.
1044:), AEC-HASL (Health and Safety Laboratory), AEC-HW (Hanford Works), AEC-IDO (Idaho Operations Office), AEC-LA (Los Alamos), AEC-MDCC (Manhattan District), AEC-TID (Technical Information Division), and others. Today, these reports can be found in library collections that received government documents, through the
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was held on April 22, 1970. Along with rising environmental awareness came a growing suspicion of the AEC and public hostility for their projects increased. In the public eye, there was a strong association between nuclear power and nuclear weapons, and even though the AEC had made a push in the late
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The AEC developed a program for sourcing uranium domestically. Before 1947, the main sources for the mineral had been Canada and (what was then) the
Belgian Congo, though the Manhattan Project also secretly processed uranium from the tailings of vanadium plants in the US West during World War II. The
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The simplicity of biotic compositions and ecological processes in the arctic regions of the globe made ideal locations in which to pursue ecological research, especially since at the time there was minimal human modification of the landscape. All investigations conducted by the AEC produced new data
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For many years, the AEC provided the most conspicuous example of the benefit of atomic age technologies to biology and medicine. Shortly after the Atomic Energy
Commission was established, its Division of Biology and Medicine began supporting diverse programs of research in the life sciences, mainly
360:
Because the government itself was not producing ore, it claimed that it had no obligation to regulate miner safety. A congressional report published in 1995 concluded that, "The government failed to act to require the reduction of the hazard by ventilating the mines, and it failed to adequately warn
254:
as chief of the Armed Forces
Special Weapons Project (AFSWP); previously Lilienthal had opposed his appointment. Lilienthal was told to "forgo your desire to place a bottle of milk on every doorstop and get down to the business of producing atomic weapons." Nichols became General Manager of the AEC
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in South
Carolina. Odum, a professor at the University of Georgia, initially submitted a proposal requesting annual funding of $ 267,000, but the AEC rejected the proposal and instead offered to fund a $ 10,000 project to observe local animal populations and the effects of secondary succession on
521:
in 1945), and the experiments were designed to ascertain the detailed effect of radiation on human health. In Oregon, 67 prisoners with inadequate consent to vasectomies had their testicles exposed to irradiation. In
Chicago, 102 volunteers with unclear consent received injections of strontium and
480:
In 1973, the AEC predicted that, by the turn of the century, one thousand reactors would be needed producing electricity for homes and businesses across the United States. However, after 1973, orders for nuclear reactors declined sharply as electricity demand fell and construction costs rose. Some
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investigations for all scientists or industrial contractors who wished to have access to any AEC controlled nuclear information. The signing was the culmination of long months of intensive debate among politicians, military planners and atomic scientists over the fate of this new energy source and
217:
as the first
Chairman of the AEC. Congress gave the new civilian AEC extraordinary power and considerable independence to carry out its mission. To provide the AEC exceptional freedom in hiring its scientists and engineers, AEC employees were exempt from the civil service system. The AEC's first
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along with
Lilienthal. Subsequently, Lilienthal left the AEC at the White House's request in 1950 and Oppenheimer's appointment to the board was not renewed in 1952. With them removed, President Truman announced his decision to develop and produce the hydrogen bomb. The first test firing of an
966:
established the
Technical Analysis Branch (to be directed by Hal Hollister) to study the long-term biological and ecological effects of nuclear war. Throughout the early 1960s, this group of scientists conducted several studies to determine nuclear weapons' ecological consequences and their
237:
was one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a contractor-operated facility dedicated to fulfilling the new AEC's missions. Argonne was the first of the regional laboratories to involve universities in the
Chicago area. Others were the Clinton (CEW) labs and the
129:
on August 1, 1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands, effective on January 1, 1947. This shift gave the members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, and personnel assembled during the war to produce the atomic bomb.
417:
the AEC had become an oligarchy controlling all facets of the military and civilian sides of nuclear energy, promoting them and at the same time attempting to regulate them, and it had fallen down on the regulatory side ... a growing legion of critics saw too many inbuilt conflicts of
463:
During the 1960s and early 1970s, the Atomic Energy Commission came under fire from opposition concerned with more fundamental ecological problems such as the pollution of air and water. Under the Nixon Administration, environmental consciousness grew exponentially and the first
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babies differently from full-term babies. In the experiment, researchers from Harper Hospital in Detroit orally administered iodine-131 to 65 premature and full-term infants who weighed from 2.1 to 5.5 pounds (0.95 to 2.49 kg). In another AEC study, researchers at the
484:
By 1974, the AEC's regulatory programs had come under such strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. Supporters and critics of nuclear power agreed that the promotional and regulatory duties of the AEC should be assigned to different agencies. The
989:
In 1969, the AEC's relationship with science and the environment was brought to the forefront of a growing public controversy that had been building since 1965. In search for an ideal location for a large-yield nuclear test, the AEC settled upon the island of
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through their technical information service and other channels. These had many numbering schemes, often associated with the lab from which the report was issued. AEC report numbers included AEC-AECU (unclassified), AEC-AECD (declassified), AEC-BNL
249:
were summoned to the White House where Truman told them "I know you two hate each other’s guts". He directed that "the primary objective of the AEC was to develop and produce atomic weapons", Nichols was appointed a major general and replaced
998:
National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska. The main public concern was about their location choice, as there was a large colony of endangered sea otters in close proximity. To help defuse the issue, the AEC sought a formal agreement with the
500:
Lasting through the mid-1970s, the AEC, along with other entities including the Department of Defense, National Institutes of Health, the American Cancer Society, the Manhattan Project, and various universities funded or conducted
1015:. From 1959 to 1962, the Commission's interest in this type of research peaked. For the first time, extensive effort was placed by a national agency on funding bio-environmental research in the Arctic. Research took place at
380:
The AEC's far-reaching powers and control over a subject matter which had far-reaching social, public health, and military implications made it an extremely controversial organization. One of the drafters of the McMahon Act,
361:
the miners of the hazard to which they were being exposed." The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 sought to compensate miners and families who developed cancer as a result of exposure to radon gas in uranium mines.
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possible, and resolved a number of other outstanding problems in implementing the first Atomic Energy Act. The act assigned the AEC the functions of both encouraging the use of nuclear power and regulating its
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implications for human life. As a result, during the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. government placed emphasis on the development and potential use of "clean" nuclear weapons to mitigate these effects.
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In later years, the AEC began providing increased research opportunities to scientists by approving funding for ecological studies at various nuclear testing sites, most notably at
950:
the fields of genetics, physiology, and ecology. Specifically concerning the AEC's relationship with the field of ecology, one of the first approved funding grants went to
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2016:
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which created the AEC also gave it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and technology. It furthermore explicitly prevented
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An increasing number of critics during the 1960s charged that the AEC's regulations were insufficiently rigorous in several important areas, including
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in 1951. This grant sought to observe and document the effects of radiation emission on the environment from a recently built nuclear facility on the
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226:
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Creager, Angela N.H. (2006). "Nuclear Energy in the Service of Biomedicine: The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission's Radioisotope Program, 1946–1950".
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voiced strong opinions to the AEC, as chairman of its general advisory board of nuclear scientists, against development of the "super" or
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industry was not interested. The first experimental nuclear power plant was started in Pennsylvania under President Eisenhower in 1954.
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in Washington. In 1953, the AEC ran several studies on the health effects of radioactive iodine in newborns and pregnant women at the
2934:
385:, famously concluded that the bill made "the field of atomic energy island of socialism in the midst of a free-enterprise economy".
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in the western United States. While the AEC also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its early budget was devoted to
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fed iodine-131 to 28 healthy infants through a gastric tube to test the concentration of iodine in the infants' thyroid glands.
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order of business was to inspect the scattered empire of atomic plants and laboratories to be inherited from the U.S. Army.
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266:, devoted primarily to weapons development, and in 1952, the creation of new second weapons laboratory in California, the
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and the U.S. state of Alaska to help transplant the colony of sea otters to other former habitats along the West Coast.
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partially completed nuclear power plants in the U.S. were stricken, and many planned nuclear plants were canceled.
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exercised congressional oversight over the AEC and had considerable power in influencing AEC decisions and policy.
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The AEC was in charge of developing the U.S. nuclear arsenal, taking over these responsibilities from the wartime
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1392:
392:(NRC) was created, nuclear regulation was the responsibility of the AEC, which Congress first established in the
2109:– historic technical reports from the Atomic Energy Commission (& other Federal agencies) are available here
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Elements of Controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and Radiation Safety in Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1947–1974
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would be government-owned, while all technical information and research results would be under AEC control. The
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to the atmosphere which contaminated a 500,000-acre (2,000 km) area containing three small towns near the
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Niehoff, Richard (1948). "Organization and Administration of the United States Atomic Energy Commission".
200:, improve the public welfare and strengthen free competition in private enterprise. At the same time, the
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1976:
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1977:"National Agency Programs and Support of Arctic Biology in the United States: Atomic Energy Commission"
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In creating the AEC, Congress declared that atomic energy should be employed not only in the form of
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1955:""Atomic Energy Commission, Studies of Biological Consequences of Nuclear War" 13 December 1961"
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as the Chairman of the AEC, to carry out the military development and production of the H-bomb.
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Injected! Book review:The Plutonium Files: America's Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War
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1814:"Human Radiation Experiments: The Department of Energy Roadmap to the Story and the Records"
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to foster and control the peacetime development of atomic science and technology. President
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473:(EIS) for a nuclear test in northwestern Colorado as part of the initial preparation for
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Rebecca S. Lowen. "Entering the Atomic Power Race: Science, Industry, and Government,"
749: : November 12, 1946 – April 15, 1950; Chairman : July 2, 1953 – June 30, 1958
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Rebecca S. Lowen, "Entering the Atomic Power Race: Science, Industry, and Government."
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493:(NRC), which began operations on January 19, 1975. Promotional functions went to the
446:. Also in 1953, the AEC sponsored a study to discover if radioactive iodine affected
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Nuclear America: military and civilian nuclear power in the United States, 1940–1980
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The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made
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in the Northeast, although a similar lab in Southern California did not eventuate.
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By 1974, the AEC's regulatory programs had come under such strong attack that the
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Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission.
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FBI memo, Mr. Tolson to L.B. Nichols, "Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, 8 Jun. 1954,
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on the northwest coast of Alaska, and was tied to an excavation proposal named
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505:. The government covered up most of these radiation mishaps until 1993, when
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1779:(Report). U. S. Government Accountability Office. May 7, 1979. p. 20.
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The Clinch River Breeder Reactor--Should the Congress Continue To Fund It?
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which was later incorporated into the United States Department of Energy.
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Lilienthal wanted to give high priority to peaceful uses, especially with
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U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Glossary: "Atomic Energy Commission"
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2003:
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Technicalreports.org: TRAIL—Technical Report Archive and Image Library
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Because of the great need for security, all production facilities and
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Controlling the atom: The beginnings of nuclear regulation, 1946–1962
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The Atomic Energy Commission under Nixon: adjusting to troubled times
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the means by which it would be regulated. President Truman appointed
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Diary of T. Keith Glennan, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
1995:
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1048:(NTIS), and through public domain digitization projects such as the
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Papers of John A. McCone, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
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was known to be dangerous and deadly (from the atomic bombings of
274:(H-bomb), and the AEC played a key role in the prosecution of the
113:) was an agency of the United States government established after
2151:
1858:"Advisory Committee On Human Radiation Experiments Final Report"
1617:"Advisory Committee On Human Radiation Experiments Final Report"
618:
422:
The AEC had a history of involvement in experiments involving
400:, which for the first time made the development of commercial
270:. The AEC also carried out the "crash program" to develop the
1278:(Chief Scientist, Office of Naval Reactors from 1950 to 1972)
197:
3012:
Defunct independent agencies of the United States government
208:
between the United States and other countries, and required
2113:
Briefing Book: "Clean" Nukes and the Ecology of Nuclear War
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University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1969.
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University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962.
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transferred the regulatory functions of the AEC to the new
458:
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on November 1, 1952, under President Truman. Furthermore,
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1400:
396:. Eight years later, Congress replaced that law with the
209:
148:
decided to abolish the AEC. The AEC was abolished by the
1692:
In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age
1154:
in 1959. Seaborg succeeded McCone as AEC chair in 1961.
262:. In its first decade, the AEC oversaw the operation of
152:, which assigned its functions to two new agencies: the
1935:
1741:
Seaborg, Glenn Theodore & Benjamin S. Loeb (1993).
1420:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
1418:
A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
351:
731:, Chairman : November 1, 1946 – February 15, 1950
229:
was established from the facilities created under the
1516:
1482:. New York: William Morrow and Company. p. 232.
172:. The new agency assumed the responsibilities of the
2885:
Unethical human experimentation in the United States
2246:
Nuclear weapons tests conducted by the United States
1883:
1416:
Hewlett, Richard G. & Oscar E. Anderson (1962).
1312:"U.S. Department of Energy: Germantown Site History"
911:, Chairman : August 17, 1971 – January 26, 1973
196:
for the nation's defense, but also to promote world
141:
safety, plant siting, and environmental protection.
2992:
Nuclear weapons infrastructure of the United States
1938:
An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology
1641:"Guide to House Records: Chapter 23 Atomic Energy"
1380:
1095:, who chaired the AEC from its creation until 1950
821:, Chairman : July 14, 1958 – January 20, 1961
522:cesium solutions to simulate radioactive fallout.
845:, Chairman : March 1, 1961 – August 16, 1971
27:Independent federal government agency (1947–1975)
2963:
2017:Hathitrust search for "Atomic Energy Commission"
1940:. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
1760:
1597:Inside Adams: Science, Technology & Business
1338:
1256:List of anti-nuclear groups in the United States
1011:The AEC played a role in expanding the field of
2060:Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
1765:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
1685:
1271:Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act
982:, which was instrumental in the development of
1654:Newman, James R. and Miller, Byron S. (1948).
1464:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy.
1454:
495:Energy Research and Development Administration
364:
178:Energy Research and Development Administration
154:Energy Research and Development Administration
76:Energy Research and Development Administration
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2137:
2032:Clarfield, Gerard H., and William M. Wiecek.
1974:
1957:. National Security Archive. August 30, 2017.
1949:
1947:
959:abandoned farmland around the nuclear plant.
1668:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1050:Technical Report Archive & Image Library
939:
743: : November 5, 1946 – December 21, 1948
725: : October 31, 1946 – December 15, 1951
3007:1975 disestablishments in the United States
1706:
1704:
1702:
184:(FPC), and various other federal agencies.
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2223:
2144:
2130:
2073:Mazuzan, George T., and J. Samuel Walker.
1944:
1879:
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1237:Anti-nuclear movement in the United States
809: : September 12, 1957 – June 30, 1962
803: : October 31, 1955 – August 31, 1959
773: : October 2, 1950 – November 1, 1952
453:University of Nebraska College of Medicine
2935:Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie
1756:
1754:
1752:
1458:A History of the Atomic Energy Commission
1411:
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935: : August 6, 1973 – January 18, 1975
917: : August 17, 1971 – August 17, 1974
905: : September 2, 1969 – June 30, 1974
899: : June 12, 1969 – November 25, 1970
833: : March 22, 1960 – January 31, 1964
797: : March 15, 1955 – February 8, 1957
785: : July 27, 1953 – November 30, 1954
779: : February 25, 1952 – June 30, 1954
761: : May 30, 1949 – September 30, 1954
344:. However, coal was still cheap, and the
3002:1946 establishments in the United States
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1968:
1966:
1964:
1931:
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1791:"Farewell ERDA, Hello Energy Department"
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1242:Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
929: : June 12, 1973 – January 18, 1975
373:by a "Military Liaison Committee"'. The
281:The AEC also began a program of regular
2997:Government agencies established in 1946
2890:International Day against Nuclear Tests
1874:
1729:
1522:
1510:
1474:
1249:, administrator and researcher for the
1110:, who chaired the AEC from 1950 to 1953
893: : October 1, 1968 – June 30, 1969
887: : August 1, 1966 – August 1, 1967
863: : August 31, 1962 – June 30, 1973
857: : August 31, 1962 – June 30, 1966
827: : August 13, 1959 – June 30, 1960
815: : October 1, 1957 – June 23, 1960
791: : October 5, 1954 – June 30, 1959
737: : November 1, 1946 – May 10, 1949
718:Atomic Energy Commission Commissioners
459:Public opinion and abolition of the AEC
14:
2972:United States Atomic Energy Commission
2964:
2153:United States Atomic Energy Commission
1749:
1571:"The Uranium Boom and Free Enterprise"
1450:
1448:
1424:
1406:
1329:
1046:National Technical Information Service
881: : August 1, 1966 – June 30, 1972
869: : July 15, 1963 – April 30, 1969
851: : April 17, 1961 – June 30, 1963
268:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
107:United States Atomic Energy Commission
31:United States Atomic Energy Commission
2218:
2125:
1961:
1920:
1844:The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1808:
1806:
1804:
1676:
1217:, last person to chair the AEC, with
875: : June 29, 1964 – June 30, 1965
839: : June 23, 1960 – June 30, 1962
166:Department of Energy Organization Act
2987:Nuclear history of the United States
2929:Reactor-grade plutonium nuclear test
2854:Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy
2049:Richard G. Hewlett; Francis Duncan.
352:Domestic uranium procurement program
2982:Nuclear energy in the United States
2910:Radiation Exposure Compensation Act
1831:
1445:
767: : May 9, 1950 – June 30, 1957
24:
3017:United States Department of Energy
2977:Governmental nuclear organizations
2056:Richard G. Hewlett; Jack M. Holl.
2026:
1801:
1385:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1316:United States Department of Energy
426:. In a 1949 operation called the "
25:
3028:
2085:
2077:(Univ of California Press, 1985)
1886:Journal of the History of Biology
1035:The AEC issued a large number of
1006:
487:Energy Reorganization Act of 1974
333:was appointed in 1953 by the new
300:After serving as director of the
150:Energy Reorganization Act of 1974
1936:Hagen, Joel Bartholemew (1992).
1715:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
1591:Burclaff, Natalie (2021-09-16).
1573:. Utah Division of State History
1207:
1179:
1159:
1135:
1115:
1100:
1085:
1066:
691:
669:
639:
617:
595:
569:
547:
375:Joint Committee on Atomic Energy
264:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
245:On 11 March 1948 Lilienthal and
36:
2951:Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll
2067:102#3 (1987), pp. 459–479
2010:
1850:
1783:
1769:
1745:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
1647:
1633:
1609:
1584:
1563:
1542:
1528:
1434:. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
369:The AEC was connected with the
160:. On August 4, 1977, President
2848:National Atomic Testing Museum
2752:Nevada Test and Training Range
1468:
1369:
1304:
471:Environmental impact statement
240:Brookhaven National Laboratory
69:Superseding Independent agency
13:
1:
1847:, Nov/Dec 1999, 55(6): 58–61.
1297:
980:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
491:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
390:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
174:Federal Energy Administration
158:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
81:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
18:U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
1656:The Control of Atomic Energy
1455:Buck, Alice L. (July 1983).
1342:Public Administration Review
525:
509:ordered a change of policy.
297:development and production.
94:Washington, D.C. (1947–1957)
7:
2065:Political Science Quarterly
1550:Political Science Quarterly
1229:
1223:Argonne National Laboratory
503:human radiation experiments
365:Regulations and experiments
235:Argonne National Laboratory
48:Independent agency overview
10:
3033:
1432:"Atomic Energy Commission"
1059:
1052:, which are available via
1030:
1001:Department of the Interior
944:
371:U.S. Department of Defense
321:") was carried out in the
227:National Laboratory system
187:
2838:
2813:
2792:
2776:
2760:
2709:
2683:
2674:
2252:
2162:
2117:National Security Archive
2051:Atomic Shield, 1947–1952.
2044:The New World, 1939–1946.
1898:10.1007/s10739-006-9108-2
1761:Hacker, Barton C (1994).
1711:Goliszek, Andrew (2003).
1593:"Prospecting for Uranium"
1376:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
1079:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
940:Relationship with science
398:Atomic Energy Act of 1954
394:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
127:McMahon/Atomic Energy Act
90:
68:
60:
52:
47:
35:
2895:Nevada Desert Experience
2019:. Accessed May 23, 2013.
974:, which was part of the
182:Federal Power Commission
2900:Nuclear weapons testing
2821:Pacific Proving Grounds
1552:102.3 (1987): 459–479.
1042:Brookhaven National Lab
287:Pacific Proving Grounds
283:nuclear weapons testing
2701:Carson National Forest
2036:(Harpercollins, 1984).
1975:Wolfe, John N (1964).
1713:In The Name of Science
1290:We Almost Lost Detroit
962:In 1961, AEC chairman
507:President Bill Clinton
420:
317:experimental H-bomb ("
285:, both in the faraway
2880:Desert Rock exercises
2042:; Oscar E. Anderson.
891:Francesco Costagliola
415:
310:J. Robert Oppenheimer
306:Los Alamos Laboratory
2197:James R. Schlesinger
1283:The Cult of the Atom
1188:James R. Schlesinger
1124:Dwight D. Eisenhower
927:William E. Kriegsman
909:James R. Schlesinger
813:John Forrest Floberg
807:John Stephens Graham
771:Thomas Keith Glennan
677:James R. Schlesinger
633:Dwight D. Eisenhower
611:Dwight D. Eisenhower
589:Dwight D. Eisenhower
542:President(s) served
430:", the AEC released
342:nuclear power plants
335:President Eisenhower
255:on 2 November 1953.
170:Department of Energy
168:, which created the
164:signed into law the
135:radiation protection
97:Germantown, Maryland
2167:David E. Lilienthal
2115:, published by the
1513:, pp. 257–259.
1476:Nichols, Kenneth D.
1266:Operation Plowshare
1093:David E. Lilienthal
729:David E. Lilienthal
555:David E. Lilienthal
206:technology transfer
32:
2747:Sand Springs Range
2040:Richard G. Hewlett
1643:. August 15, 2016.
1221:, director of the
1148:Enrico Fermi Award
903:Clarence E. Larson
879:Wilfrid E. Johnson
759:Henry DeWolf Smyth
741:William W. Waymack
475:Project Rio Blanco
444:University of Iowa
424:radioactive iodine
413:has written that:
30:
2959:
2958:
2905:Project Plowshare
2834:
2833:
2212:
2211:
1722:978-0-312-30356-3
1251:Manhattan Project
1037:technical reports
933:William A. Anders
897:Theos J. Thompson
849:Leland J. Haworth
777:Eugene M. Zuckert
716:
715:
659:Lyndon B. Johnson
511:Nuclear radiation
302:Manhattan Project
260:Manhattan Project
231:Manhattan Project
103:
102:
16:(Redirected from
3024:
2717:Nevada Test Site
2681:
2680:
2239:
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2225:
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2215:
2191:Glenn T. Seaborg
2146:
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1183:
1168:Glenn T. Seaborg
1163:
1152:Glenn T. Seaborg
1139:
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1104:
1089:
1070:
996:Aleutian Islands
976:Marshall Islands
964:Glenn T. Seaborg
885:Samuel M. Nabrit
843:Glenn T. Seaborg
831:Robert E. Wilson
825:John H. Williams
795:John von Neumann
789:Willard F. Libby
765:Thomas E. Murray
747:Lewis L. Strauss
735:Robert F. Bacher
695:
673:
647:Glenn T. Seaborg
643:
621:
599:
573:
551:
530:
529:
331:Lewis W. Strauss
291:Nevada Test Site
223:nuclear reactors
215:David Lilienthal
40:
33:
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21:
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3026:
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2916:The Atomic Cafe
2860:Alvin C. Graves
2840:
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2651:Upshot–Knothole
2644:Tumbler–Snapper
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2150:
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2029:
2027:Further reading
2024:
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2015:
2011:
1996:10.2307/1293192
1979:
1973:
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1862:ehss.energy.gov
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1276:Alvin Radkowsky
1232:
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1219:Robert G. Sachs
1212:
1203:
1194:and First Lady
1190:with President
1184:
1175:
1172:John F. Kennedy
1170:with President
1164:
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1140:
1131:
1126:with AEC chair
1120:
1111:
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1075:Harry S. Truman
1071:
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1021:Project Chariot
1009:
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942:
915:William O. Doub
873:Mary I. Bunting
855:John G. Palfrey
801:Harold S. Vance
783:Joseph Campbell
655:John F. Kennedy
585:Harry S. Truman
563:Harry S. Truman
528:
461:
411:Stephanie Cooke
383:James R. Newman
367:
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323:Central Pacific
295:nuclear weapons
278:for espionage.
247:Kenneth Nichols
194:nuclear weapons
190:
139:nuclear reactor
123:Harry S. Truman
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42:Seal of the AEC
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1007:Arctic ecology
1005:
994:, part of the
956:Savannah River
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2941:Vela Uniform
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2923:Radio Bikini
2921:
2914:
2870:Chuck Hansen
2852:
2732:Rainier Mesa
2203:Dixy Lee Ray
2152:
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2057:
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2033:
2012:
1990:(5): 22–25.
1987:
1983:
1937:
1889:
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1865:. Retrieved
1861:
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1833:
1822:. Retrieved
1820:. 1995-02-01
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1794:
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1771:
1762:
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1712:
1695:. Black Inc.
1691:
1658:. p. 4.
1655:
1649:
1635:
1624:. Retrieved
1620:
1611:
1600:. Retrieved
1596:
1586:
1575:. Retrieved
1565:
1549:
1544:
1536:
1530:
1523:Nichols 1987
1518:
1511:Nichols 1987
1506:
1479:
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1457:
1436:. Retrieved
1426:
1417:
1371:
1346:
1340:
1319:. Retrieved
1306:
1288:
1281:
1247:Harold Hodge
1215:Dixy Lee Ray
1200:Hanford Site
1034:
1025:
1010:
988:
984:radioecology
969:
961:
948:
921:Dixy Lee Ray
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699:Dixy Lee Ray
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483:
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440:Hanford site
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359:
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308:, physicist
299:
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244:
220:
191:
180:(ERDA), the
165:
162:Jimmy Carter
143:
132:
115:World War II
110:
106:
104:
91:Headquarters
2865:Reed Hadley
2768:Salmon Site
2761:Mississippi
2727:Pahute Mesa
2553:Quicksilver
2454:Hardtack II
2324:Cornerstone
2173:Gordon Dean
1108:Gordon Dean
952:Eugene Odum
753:Gordon Dean
723:Sumner Pike
711:Gerald Ford
577:Gordon Dean
388:Before the
289:and at the
202:McMahon Act
176:(FEA), the
137:standards,
125:signed the
99:(1958–1975)
2966:Categories
2737:Yucca Flat
2691:Alamogordo
2684:New Mexico
2630:Touchstone
2542:Project 57
2537:Project 56
2531:Praetorian
2438:Hardtack I
2403:Greenhouse
2338:Crossroads
2317:Charioteer
2253:Operations
1984:BioScience
1867:2019-11-22
1824:2019-11-22
1795:Energy.gov
1626:2022-11-15
1602:2022-11-15
1577:2022-11-15
1438:2009-11-16
1399:, enacted
1391:, 60
1298:References
1186:AEC chair
1166:AEC chair
1142:AEC chair
1122:President
1077:signs the
1073:President
1054:HathiTrust
703:1973–1975
681:1971–1973
651:1961–1971
629:1958–1961
607:1953–1958
581:1950–1953
559:1946–1950
432:iodine-131
276:Rosenbergs
2800:Parachute
2658:Whetstone
2616:Tinderbox
2581:Sandstone
2496:Musketeer
2410:Grenadier
2382:Flintlock
1664:cite book
1321:March 13,
1196:Pat Nixon
526:AEC Chair
515:Hiroshima
466:Earth Day
448:premature
436:xenon-133
428:Green Run
418:interest.
327:U.S. Navy
61:Dissolved
2793:Colorado
2784:Amchitka
2696:Carlsbad
2524:Plumbbob
2475:Latchkey
2431:Guardian
2423:Cannikin
2396:Fusileer
2375:Fishbowl
2345:Crosstie
2268:Aqueduct
2069:in JSTOR
1914:24740379
1906:17575955
1689:(2009).
1537:FBI FOIA
1498:15223648
1478:(1987).
1230:See also
992:Amchitka
972:Eniwetok
519:Nagasaki
329:Admiral
319:Ivy Mike
156:and the
2839:Related
2637:Trinity
2602:Sunbeam
2588:Sculpin
2567:Redwing
2517:Phalanx
2503:Niblick
2489:Mandrel
2417:Grommet
2389:Fulcrum
2352:Dominic
2331:Cresset
2296:Bowline
2289:Bedrock
2004:1293192
1558:2151403
1381:Pub. L.
1202:in 1971
1174:in 1961
1130:in 1954
1060:Gallery
1031:Reports
945:Ecology
188:History
117:by the
2841:topics
2777:Alaska
2710:Nevada
2665:Wigwam
2623:Toggle
2609:Teapot
2595:Storax
2560:Ranger
2510:Nougat
2310:Castle
2205:(1973)
2199:(1971)
2193:(1961)
2187:(1958)
2181:(1953)
2175:(1950)
2169:(1946)
2156:Chairs
2079:online
2002:
1912:
1904:
1719:
1556:
1496:
1486:
1395:
1389:79–585
1387:
1363:972379
1361:
533:Image
407:safety
78:(ERDA)
53:Formed
2814:Other
2805:Rifle
2677:areas
2468:Julin
2368:Emery
2282:Argus
2275:Arbor
2261:Anvil
2000:JSTOR
1980:(PDF)
1910:S2CID
1554:JSTOR
1462:(PDF)
1393:Stat.
1359:JSTOR
539:Term
536:Name
198:peace
83:(NRC)
2675:Test
1902:PMID
1717:ISBN
1670:link
1494:OCLC
1484:ISBN
1323:2012
517:and
434:and
105:The
64:1975
56:1946
2461:Ivy
1992:doi
1894:doi
1397:755
1351:doi
1150:to
304:'s
210:FBI
111:AEC
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1988:14
1986:.
1982:.
1963:^
1946:^
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1908:.
1900:.
1890:39
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1816:.
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