Ottoman Tunisia - Knowledge

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appointed leader, known as the Dey, was elected by his fellow deys and assumed control over law enforcement and military affairs in the capital, effectively becoming the de facto ruler of the country. Although this change challenged the authority of the Ottoman Empire, from the Tunisian perspective, political power remained in the hands of foreigners. The existing state council, known as the diwan, was dissolved, but to placate local sentiments, some Tunisian Maliki jurists were appointed to key positions, although Hanafi jurists of Ottoman origin continued to dominate. The janissary Dey enjoyed considerable discretion in exercising his authority, although initially, his jurisdiction was primarily confined to Tunis and other urban centers.

2668:"he religious mood of the Muslims in the Maghrib at the turn of the sixteenth century was one of intolerance towards non-Muslims; and as their rulers could not protect them against the Christians, they welcomed outside Muslim help. By exploiting the religious sentiments of the Maghriban Muslims, the Barbarossa brothers were able to establish a foothold in the Maghrib from which they gradually extended into the interior their control, as well as the authority of the Ottoman sultan, which they came to accept. But it would be wrong to assume that the Turks were readily or voluntarily accepted as rulers in any of the eastern and central Maghrib countries they came to control." Abun-Nasr (1971) at 162–163. 1246:

islands, he developed an excellent harbor for the city. Khayr al-Din continued to orchestrate large-scale raids on Christian shipping and the coastal regions of Mediterranean Europe, amassing considerable wealth and taking numerous captives. He emerged victorious in several naval battles, earning widespread renown. In 1533, Khayr al-Din was summoned to Constantinople, where the Ottoman sultan appointed him Pasha and admiral of the Turkish navy (Kapudan-i Derya). With this title, he gained command over many more ships and soldiers. In 1534, capitalizing on a revolt against the Hafsid ruler al-Hasan, Khayr al-Din launched a naval invasion and captured the city of Tunis from Spain's allies.

1865:: "master"). Junior officers, known as deys ("maternal uncle"), led units of about 100 soldiers each. Following this, the Ottoman Porte did not maintain the janissary ranks in Tunis but appointed a pasha for Tunisia to oversee recruitment from various regions. The janissaries, also called "yeni-cheri" or "new troops," constituted an elite institution unique to the Ottoman state, though with historical antecedents. The devshirme practice involved impressing Christian youth, often from Greece and the Balkans, into military service and obliging them to convert to Islam. These recruits underwent rigorous training and lived under strict regulations, regimented by the tenets of the 1412:, to prominence, effectively supplanting the pasha and assuming ruling authority in Tunis. While the pasha's role diminished, they continued to be appointed intermittently by the Ottoman Porte. Over the following decades, however, the bey of Tunis began to incorporate the title of pasha into his office, and subsequently, the bey's authority eclipsed that of the dey. Eventually, the bey of Tunis emerged as the sole ruling authority, maintaining a distinct separation from Ottoman attempts to challenge their political dominance. The beys of Tunis, like the deys, held the esteemed title of pasha, which carried religious significance as it was directly associated with the Ottoman 1250: 1962: 174: 2184: 2172: 1838: 1433: 143: 822: 1685:

Tunisian government was particularly affected due to its monopoly positions in many export sectors. Credit was obtained to weather the deficits, but eventually, the debt grew to unmanageable levels. Tunisia had sought to modernize its commerce and trade, but various foreign business interests began to exert increasing control over domestic markets. Imports of European manufactures often altered consumer pricing, adversely affecting Tunisian artisans whose goods struggled to compete. Foreign trade became a conduit for entrenching European influence.

1924:. However, Ottoman supremacy was effectively broken at Lepanto, although Ottoman sea power remained formidable. In the early 17th century, corsair activity again peaked. Afterward, Algiers began to rely more on "tribute" from European nations in exchange for safe passage rather than attacking merchant ships individually. The Ottoman Empire's treaties with European states added a layer of conflicting diplomacy. Lastly, during the wars following the French Revolution (1789–1815), Barbary corsair activity briefly spiked before abruptly ending. 2014: 157: 1385:'head, chief') was an Ottoman imperial title denoting a high-ranking official with civil or military authority, typically the governor of a province. When Uluj Ali, the beylerbey of Algiers, passed away in 1587, the Ottoman sultan abolished the position, signifying the normalization of administration in the Maghrebi provinces after the prolonged conflict with Spain. Instead, for each province (present-day Algeria, Libya, Tunisia), the office of pasha was established to oversee provincial governance. 1286: 1928: 1231: 5028: 1806:

tribes rather than alleviate their grievances, fostering an image of Turkish dominance and Tunisian subordination." The rural economy remained largely beyond the effective reach of central authority. Government revenues relied heavily on Barbary corsair raids against Mediterranean shipping, which proved more profitable than trade. With the Spanish-Ottoman accord in 1581, Spain shifted its focus, leading to increased corsair activity and a decline in peaceful trade and commerce.

5617: 3143:(Madrid: Juan de la Cuesta 1605; reprint Barcelona: Editorial Ramón Sopena 1981), at chapters XXXIX and XL. El Uchalí's escape from the Ottoman defeat at Lepanto in 1571 is mentioned, and his later 1574 capture of Tunis is described by Cervantes, who was once his captive. About el Uchalí the Spanish author writes, "Era calabrés de nación, y moralmente fue hombre de bien, y trataba con mucha humanidad a sus cautivos... ." Chapter XL, first page of prose. 2082: 1753: 1116: 1363: 1982:(and auctioning cargo) was the primary source of private wealth in Algiers. Payment for captives was financed and negotiated by religious societies. The conditions of captivity varied, with most captives being employed as slave labor. Muslim masters sometimes granted these Christian captives religious privileges. In Algiers during the early 17th century, more than 20,000 Christian prisoners were held from various countries. 36: 5627: 1329:

to potential reconquest from the north. The emergence of another powerful foreign entity, the well-armed Ottoman Turks, proved pivotal. Their intervention shifted the balance in the Maghreb, sustaining centuries of Muslim rule under reformed institutions influenced by the Turks. Additionally, the controversial tactic of corsairs raiding European shipping aligned with the Mediterranean strategy pursued by the

5637: 2987:(3d ed., 1986), edited by Nelson. "The Hafsid sultan, Hassan, took refuge in Spain, where he sought the Habsburg king-emperor Charles V's aid to restore him to his throne. Spanish troops and ships recaptured Tunis in 1535 and reinstalled Hassan. Protected by a large Spanish garrison at La Goulette, the harbor of Tunis, the Hafsids became the Muslim ally of Catholic Spain in its struggle with the Turks... ." 833: 448: 1460:

Constantinople also exerting influence to some extent. Throughout the 1620s and 1630s, the local Turkish Bey successfully enlisted these social forces, thereby bolstering his own authority and eventually surpassing the Dey. The waning political power of the Dey and his janissaries became evident when their attempted uprising in 1673 failed to regain power.

1337:"Turkey was frequently combated by native North African rulers and never gained any hold over Morocco. But the Turks were nonetheless a powerful ally for Barbary, diverting Christian energies into eastern Europe, threatening Mediterranean communications, and absorbing those forces which might otherwise have turned their attention to reconquest in Africa." 1936:

corps, peer review systems, both private and public financing, trades, and material support, as well as coordinated operations and markets for resale and ransom. The policies established in Algiers served as an exemplary model of Corsair business, often referred to as the "life reisi," or "board of captains." This model was later adopted by Tunis and

1912:) and a pirate based on the former operating under explicit government authority, while the latter lacks official authorization. The Mediterranean region during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance witnessed widespread piracy (and privateering) practiced by both Christians (targeting Muslim shipping in the east) and Muslims (more active along the 1957:"Because of the potential profits from Corsair prizes, the underwriting of expeditions was an attractive proposition. Shareholding was organized like that of a modern stock company, with the return to individuals dependent on their investment. This type of private investment peaked in the seventeenth century, the 'golden age.'" 1242:

later 22 notables, control of Algiers fell into the hands of the Barbarossa brothers. The Turkish siblings were already allies of the Ottoman Empire. In 1518, during an assault led by Aruj against Tlemcen, which was then under the control of a Spanish ally since 1511, Aruj was killed by Muslim tribal forces and the Spanish.

1277:, comprising mainly Italians, Germans, and Spaniards, which recaptured Tunis in 1535. Subsequently, the Hafsid sultan Mawlay Hasan was reinstated. However, Khayr al-Din managed to escape. Subsequently, as the supreme commander of Ottoman naval forces, Khayr al-Din was primarily engaged in affairs outside the Maghrib. 1164: 1456:. They successfully quelled rebellious tribes, bringing an end to an extended period of social unrest in Tunisia. The resulting peace and order facilitated a degree of prosperity. The authority of the Dey was reinforced by the Qaptan of the Corsair fleet and the Bey, who were responsible for tax collection. 1452:(r. 1610–1637). These capable administrators exhibited tact, thereby enhancing the dignity of their office. Neither inclined toward luxury, they directed treasury funds toward public projects and infrastructure development, including the construction of mosques, fortresses, barracks, and the repair of 1703:

later that year, a French protectorate was imposed over the country, lasting until 1956. Although the Ottoman sultan officially rejected the Bardo Treaty, no attempt was made to stop the French takeover. During this period of colonial rule, the beylical institution was retained, with the Husaynid Bey

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in 1815, Britain and France secured the Bey's agreement to halt sponsoring or permitting corsair raids, which had resumed during the Napoleonic conflict. Although there was a brief resurgence of raids, they eventually ceased. In the 1820s, economic activity in Tunisia experienced a sharp decline. The

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Berber, managed to do so during the later years of the corsair era. Captains were selected by the ship's owners from a list compiled by a select few Riesi, an authoritative council consisting of all active Corsair captains. Residence locations were also regulated, with captains, crews, and suppliers

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jurists into administrative and judicial roles. Nevertheless, governance remained in the hands of a foreign elite. In the countryside, Turkish troops efficiently controlled the tribes without compromising alliances, but their rule was unpopular. "Ottomans' military prowess enabled them to subdue the

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Under Murad II Bey (reigned 1666–1675), the Diwan resumed its role as a council of notables. In 1673, the Janissaries rose in revolt, sensing a decline in their power. During the ensuing conflict, the Janissaries and urban forces, led by the Deys, clashed with the Muradid Beys. They received support

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In the absence of Turkish intervention in the western Mediterranean, the political landscape favored the Christian north. European powers, led by Spain, continued to strengthen their dominance. Meanwhile, the local Maghrebi states faced declining trade and internal divisions, leaving them vulnerable

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His younger brother, Khayr al-Din, assumed control of Algiers but temporarily relocated eastward for several years. Upon his return to Algiers in 1529, he seized the offshore island Peñón de Argel from Spain, which controlled the city's port with its guns. By constructing a causeway connecting these

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The younger but more renowned Khizr received the epithet 'kheireddin' ("gift of God"). Aruj was known to his crew as 'baba Aruj' ("father Aruj"), which might be the origin of the nickname 'Barbarossa'. They were raised Muslim. Their father may have been either a pirate, a renegade, or a janissary,

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Private capital typically funded Corsair activity. Investors purchased shares in specific Corsair business ventures, drawn from various levels of society, including merchants, officials, janissaries, shopkeepers, and artisans. This financing provided the necessary funds for the capital and expenses

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In 16th-century Algiers, under the new Ottoman regime, the customs and practices of the pre-existing Barbary corsairs underwent significant transformation, evolving into impressive institutions. The activity became highly developed, featuring modes of recruitment, hierarchical structures within the

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Early Husaynid policy necessitated a delicate equilibrium among several disparate factions: the distant Ottomans, the Turkish-speaking elite in Tunisia, and local Tunisians (including urban and rural dwellers, notables, clerics, landowners, and remote tribal leaders). To avoid entanglement with the

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The Spanish-Ottoman truce of 1581 eased the Mediterranean rivalry between these two global powers. Spain retained some of its Maghrebi presidios and ports, such as Melilla and Oran. Both the Spanish and Ottoman Empires had shifted their focus elsewhere. Despite claiming suzerainty over Tunisia for

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since his youth. After Ramadan's death in 1613, Murad succeeded him as Bey, serving effectively from 1613 to 1631. Eventually, he was also appointed as Pasha, though by then it was a ceremonial role, with his position as Bey remaining subordinate to the Dey. His son Hamuda Bey, ruling from 1631 to

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For the first time, the Ottomans ventured into the Maghreb, eventually establishing their governing authority, albeit indirectly, along most of the southern coast of the Mediterranean. Throughout the 16th and subsequent centuries, their empire held a prominent position as the foremost Muslim state

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doctrine. went to the extent of pronouncing infidels the Andalusians who thought that life in Spain was preferable to... the Magrhib, because a true Muslim should always prefer to live under a Muslim prince. Muslim theologians would have condemned these standpoints during periods of strength and

1619:(religious scholars), and local tribes, despite being a Turkish-speaking outsider. By mobilizing native loyalties against the Turkish soldiery, he emerged victorious. As ruler, he aimed to portray himself as a popular Muslim leader invested in local welfare and prosperity. He appointed a Tunisian 1529:

later intervened on behalf of one faction in this domestic turmoil, prolonging their stay even after the fighting subsided, which proved unpopular. Tunisia remained embroiled in civil discord and faced interference from Algeria. The last Muradid Bey was assassinated in 1702 by Ibrahim Sharif, who

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In 1516, Aruj and his brother Khayr al-Din, accompanied by Turkish soldiers, ventured further west to Algiers, where they seized control from the shaykh of the Tha'aliba tribe, who had made a treaty with Spain. Through political machinations, which involved the elimination of the tribal chief and

4672:(Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 308. "Important though piracy was to the economy of Tunis, it never acquired such exclusive importance as at Algiers." Julien (1970) at 308. Slave markets, where mute human captives are auctioned, now appear inherently indecent, whether in the East or the West. 1974:

captured at sea. First, Algiers received its share as the state representative of Allah; next came the port authorities, customs brokers, and sanctuary keepers; then, the portion due to the ship owners, captain, and crew followed. The seized merchant cargo was typically sold at auction or, more

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for decoration, a characteristic feature of this period. These tiles, typically produced in the Qallalin district of Tunis, are adorned with motifs of vases, plants, and arches, and are distinguished by their predominant use of blue, green, and ochre-like yellow colors, setting them apart from

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Sufi order. Initially akin to slavery in the 15th century, janissaries later gained privileges and could ascend to high positions. Symbolized by the massive "Kazan" (kettle) where they congregated, janissaries evolved into a powerful caste, numbering over 130,000 by the 19th century before the

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and deference from notables. While janissaries continued to be recruited, tribal forces were increasingly relied upon. Although Turkish remained the language of the elite, Arabic gained prominence in government affairs. Kouloughlis (offspring of mixed Turkish and Tunisian parentage) and native

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Until 1591, the corps of janissaries in Tunisia was under the authority of the local Ottoman Pasha. However, in that year, junior officers of the janissaries, known as deys, revolted against their senior officers, compelling the Pasha to recognize the leadership of one of their own. This newly

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since 1227, experiencing periods of prestige as the leading state of the Maghreb, as well as times of struggle. Over the centuries, extensive trade with European merchants persisted, leading to the establishment of state treaties. However, the Hafsids also harbored corsairs who raided merchant

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However, during Yusuf Dey's reign, various interest groups emerged and worked to undermine his governing strategies. Many of these groups were Tunisian, including the local military, urban notables (including those from the disbanded diwan), and most rural tribes, with the distant Sultan in

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This Ottoman influence enriched Tunisia with its distinct culture and institutions, which diverged notably from the conventional Arab world. Over more than half a millennium, Islamic principles melded with Turkish experiences, rooted in Central Asia, yielding unique developments and fresh

1664:, who also occupied elite roles. The dynasty maintained its Ottoman identity and associated privileges. Nevertheless, local ulama were courted, with funding allocated for religious education and support for clerics. Local Maliki jurists were integrated into government service, while rural 1151:. As an indirect result of Spain's African policy, some Muslim rulers encouraged Turkish forces to enter the region to counter the Spanish presence. The Hafsid rulers of Tunis viewed the Turks and their corsair allies as a greater threat and formed an alliance with the Spanish, as did the 1894:

which protected their group interests. Being Turkish, they enjoyed a privileged position in the state: they were not subject to the regular system of justice in the regency and were entitled to rations of bread, meat, and oil, to a regular salary, and a proportion of the yields of

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In Tunisian practice, non-Muslim slave youths were purchased in Ottoman markets, educated with royal scions in high government service and in the Muslim religion, converted, given high echelon posts, and often married to royal daughters. Mamluks would number about 100. Perkins,

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were appeased. Tribal shaykhs received recognition and were invited to conferences. At the apex, a select few prominent families, predominantly Turkish-speaking, were favored with business opportunities, land grants, and key government positions, contingent upon their loyalty.

1588:, which effectively governed Tunisia as a hereditary monarchy from 1705 to 1881. Although formally considered vassals of the Ottoman Empire until the 19th century, the beys of Tunis enjoyed a significant degree of independence and often conducted their own foreign affairs. 1631:

preferred by the Ottomans and curtailed the legal authority of the janissaries and the Dey. During his reign as Bey of Tunis, Husayn b. Ali supported agriculture, particularly the cultivation of olive orchards, and initiated public works projects, including mosques and

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The cross-cultural Hafsid alliance with Spain wasn't as uncommon as it might appear, given the numerous Muslim-Christian treaties, notwithstanding recurrent hostilities. Indeed, during the early 16th century, France allied with the Ottomans against the Spanish Emperor

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Turks, and later by the Ottomans. It began with the treatment of captured enemy soldiers. "A Ghulam was a slave highly trained for service in the ruler's palace and state structure." Eventually, instead of captured enemy soldiers, the recruits were taken from the

1651:(r. 1755–1759), who contested his cousin's claim. A bitter civil war ensued, culminating in 1740 with Ali's tenuous triumph. However, in 1756, after another decade of conflict, Muhammad ultimately prevailed, albeit not without continued interference from Algeria. 1943:

Crews were sourced from three main groups: Christian renegades, which included many famous or notorious captains, foreign Muslims, primarily Turkish, and a small number of native Maghrebis. It was rare for a native to achieve high rank, although Reis Hamida, a

4638:(University of Wisconsin 1983). Captive prisoners might enjoy "exceptional" religious privileges , including churches and liturgies, although sometimes the permitted clergy were subjected to retaliation for reports of anti-Muslim actions in Spain . Later, the 1155:

of Morocco. Nevertheless, many Maghrebi Muslims strongly preferred Islamic rule, and the Hafsid's decades-long Spanish alliance was generally unpopular and even anathema to some. On the other hand, the Saadi dynasty sultans of Morocco successfully played off

1882:. Additionally, the janissaries were regarded with suspicion by local tribal forces and the Maghreb militias as potential enemy combatants. Collectively known as the "ojaq" (Trk: "hearth"), the janissary corps maintained a strong sense of unity and élan. 1537:

pressure. This period saw a rise in commercial trading focused on agricultural products, primarily grains, facilitated by the integration of the rural population into regional networks. However, Mediterranean trade continued to be dominated by European

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had reignited this dichotomy in linguistic culture. Consequently, Arabic gained dominance, leading to the gradual erosion of Berber usage. The presence of a Turkish-speaking elite appeared to accelerate the decline of Berber speech in Tunisia.

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remained the language of administration. With the establishment of permanent Ottoman rule in 1574, the government of Tunis gained a degree of stability, contrasting with the insecurity and uncertainty brought by the previous periods of war.

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leaders and Tunisian notables, leading to the reinstatement of Arabic as the official language. However, the Muradids maintained the use of Turkish in the central government, reinforcing their elite status and ties to the Ottoman Empire.

980:. While Algiers occasionally contested this autonomy, Tunisia successfully maintained its status. Throughout this period, the governing councils in Tunisia were composed mainly of foreign elite, conducting state affairs primarily in the 4764: 2716:(Atlantides 1952) at 120–124. The Ottoman efforts to control Morocco failed when the sultan they backed, although successful in gaining power, quickly entered into a Spanish alliance to counter Turkish designs. Terrasse (1952) at 121. 1672:

The French Revolution and its repercussions disrupted European economic activity, causing shortages that created business opportunities for Tunisia. With goods in high demand but scarce supply, substantial profits could be generated.

4440:(Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973) at 873. Later, in the 17th century, Protestant renegades (Dutch and English) assisted Algiers in acquiring pirate vessels capable of striking merchant ships in the Atlantic. Braudel (1973) at 884–885 2156:(public bath), and a market adjacent to the palace. Subsequent beys further modified and expanded the palace complex, a process that continued into the early 21st century. Today, it serves as the home of the national museum and the 1472:

commander) in Tunisia held the foremost position overseeing internal administration and tax collection. Specifically, the Bey was responsible for managing and gathering taxes in the tribal rural areas. Biannually, armed expeditions

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Employed mostly in hard and difficult work (e.g., rowing oars in galleys , mining , and general slave labor ). A few managed better positions (trades, even management) ; wealthy captives might offer bribes . Ellen G. Friedman,

1477:) traversed the countryside, demonstrating central authority. To aid in this task, the Bey organized rural cavalry (sipahis) as an auxiliary force, primarily composed of Arabs recruited from what became known as "government" ( 2474:(Cambridge University 1971) at 148 (14th-century corsairs: Christian and Muslim), 148–149 (15th-century Hafsid's suzerainty over Tlemcen), 163–165 (early Spanish treaties), 177 (last three Hafsid sultans in the 16th century). 1096:(1510). Spain also established treaty relations with half a dozen others. These agreements included Algiers (1510), which granted Spain occupation of the off-shore island of Peñón de Argel. Spain also reached agreements with 1010:. Inspired by these reforms and the Turkish model, the Bey of Tunis embarked on modernizing institutional and economic reforms. However, Tunisia's mounting international debt provided a reason or pretext for French forces to 1222:

to North Africa, especially Tunisia, earning praise and attracting many Muslim recruits. Twice, Aruj joined the Hafsids in unsuccessful assaults on Bougie, held by Spain. Then the brothers established an independent base in

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After the pirate "golden age," the state of Algiers, primarily under the control of its Turkish janissaries, came to own many of the Corsair vessels and finance their expeditions. Strict rules governed the division of the

4543:(Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973) at 884, which describes the foreign population (the source of renegade crews) in 16th-century Algiers, and a brief view of the city's business life, it is dependent on corsair activity. 2588:

More than merely anti-Spain provisions were included in the Franco-Ottoman agreements. France also gained trading privileges in the East and a protectorate over Christian pilgrimage destinations there. Lucien Romier,

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In the 16th century, control of the western Mediterranean was contested between the Spaniards and the Turks, both confident due to recent triumphs and subsequent expansion. In 1492, Spain completed its centuries-long

1677:(r. 1782–1813), the fifth Bey of Tunis, was highly capable and respected, presiding over this period of prosperity. He successfully repelled an Algerian invasion in 1807 and suppressed a janissary revolt in 1811. 4267:(Princeton: C. Van Nostrand 1965) at 30–33, 135–138, quotations herein are found at 137 and 138 (taken from Panzer). Vucinich at 135–138 provides a descriptive excerpt on the Janissaries taken from N. M. Penzer, 2504:

in the 11th century was known to have fought alongside Muslims, even siding with Muslims against Christians, like for Almutamiz against García Ordóñez. His title "El Cid," meaning "lord," originates from the

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The first "great age of the Barbary corsairs" occurred in the 16th century, between 1538 and 1571. Ottoman sea power in the Mediterranean was supreme during these decades following their naval victory at the

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judged the moment suitable to bring the African conquests within the normal framework of the Ottoman organization, and he transformed Tripolitania, Tunisia, and Algeria into three regencies administered by

1782:, Turkish stands as the third language of Islam and has "played a vital role in the intellectual life" of Muslim culture for centuries. Moreover, the Turks introduced their popular customs, including their 1660:

Tunisian notables gained greater access to higher positions and decision-making processes. Unlike intermarrying with Tunisians, the Husaynid Beys often sought marriage alliances through the institution of

2010:, particularly in the coastal cities where Ottoman influence was strongest. Additionally, some European influences were introduced, notably through the importation of materials such as marble from Italy. 1877:

In the Maghreb under Ottoman rule, the janissaries were initially Turkish or Turkish-speaking. There was some rivalry between the janissaries and the pirates, who were predominantly composed of Christian

4685:(1961) at 86: "The capture of Christian ships and the enslavement of Christian crews was not only a profitable enterprise but also a holy war against the infidel who had driven the Moors out of Spain." 1640:

arrived in Tunis with a new governor to replace him; however, Husayn Bey convened a council comprising local civil and military leaders who rallied behind him, prompting the Ottoman Empire to relent.

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Pasha, a renegade corsair, advanced with Turkish forces from the west and seized the Spanish presidio Goletta and the Hafsid capital, Tunis. After the key naval victory of the Christian armada at the

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Piracy, often considered "an ancient if not always honorable activity," has been widely practiced by various peoples throughout different times and locations. A distinction can be made between a

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Ottoman Empire, which could encroach on the Bey's authority, religious connections to the Ottoman Caliphate were cultivated, bolstering the prestige of the Beys and garnering approval from local

4756: 2152:, the traditional residence of Tunisian rulers dating back to the 15th century. He transformed it into an expansive complex enclosed by a fortified wall, which included a mosque, a madrasa, a 4094:(New York: Washington Square 1963) at xi–xii. "Each of the three languages of the Islamic world belongs to a different language group. Turkish is a Ural-Altaic language." Ullah (1963) at 370. 3675:

Murad Curso's name indicates his Corsican origin . A Spanish intelligence report in 1568 estimated that there were 10,000 renegades in Algiers, of whom 6,000 were Corsicans. Fernand Braudel,

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to regulate transactions between local producers and foreign merchants. Consequently, the rulers and their foreign-connected business associates, who were part of the Turkish-speaking ruling

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and Moriscos expelled from Spain could be "uncompromising in their hatred of the Christians" and often "engaged in piracy against the Christians, especially the Spaniards." Cf., Abun-Nasr,

5197: 3346:(Paris: 1949, 1966; New York 1973, 1976) at 1161–1165. Braudel opines that Spain did not walk out on her allies by this treaty, as Spain continued to protect Italy. Braudel at 1165. 4317:(1976) at 21–22. The janissary ruling class in Algiers was strictly organized to retain power in their hands alone. Spencer here describes an aspect of their government leadership: 1809:

The arrival of a Turkish-speaking ruling elite in Tunisia, whose institutions held sway over governance for centuries, indirectly influenced the enduring linguistic divide between

5202: 4324:(literally, "hearth" in Turkish) the military garrison.... Not only were native North Africans excluded from positions in the military government, but equally excluded were the 2686:

This enmity continued due to a bitter combination of European attacks, corsair raiding, and by linking it to Ottoman championing of the cause of Islam (Abun-Nasr, 1971, p. 158).

2032:, built or begun around 1614–15 by Yusuf Dey (r. 1610–1637), is one of the earliest and most important examples that incorporated Ottoman elements into local architecture. Its 1404:

However, the tenure of the new Ottoman Pasha in Tunisia proved to be short-lived. Just four years later, in 1591, a revolt among the occupying Turkish forces, particularly the

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During this long back-and-forth contest, the two powerful Empires were also otherwise engaged. The Spanish contended with an ongoing Protestant challenge, including the later

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of Spain (r. 1556–1598) "for his part had always maintained diplomatic relations with the Turks." This Spanish King eventually treated the Ottoman Empire. Braudel at 1143.

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on a three-year posting. The Barbary provinces ceased to be a bastion of the Turkish Empire against the Spanish Empire: they became ordinary, only more remote provinces."

1191:(c. 1483–1546). Both were known as Barbarossa ("red beard"). The Muslim brothers hailed from obscure origins in the Greek island of Medelli or Mytilene (ancient Lesbos). 5387: 3305:, before he died in 1538, bequeathed "his title and rights to the sultan of Turkey." The legitimacy of it has been questioned, but "the sultans of Turkey have been the 5370: 1210:(1493–1526). Under the agreement, the 'prizes' (ships, cargoes, and captives) were to be shared. The brothers operated from Goletta ; they ran similar operations from 1179:

In this naval struggle, the Ottoman Empire supported many Barbary pirates who raided European commercial shipping in the Mediterranean. The corsairs later established

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to Spanish forces and its consequences, including the immigration of Moorish Andalusians and the loss of the 'buffer state' of Granada (Abun-Nasr, 1971, p. 157–158).

2336:(New York: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 29–31. After the reconquest, several such port cities, e.g., Oran, were favorable to Spanish influence. Kamen (2003), pp. 29–30. 1797:

The infusion of Turkish rule brought new vigor to Tunis and other cities, welcomed by the clerical ulama for the regime's stability. While the Ottomans favored the

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of the Iberian Peninsula, followed by the establishment of the first Spanish settlements in America. Spain then devised an African policy, establishing a series of

4963: 4491:(Philadelphia: Lippincott 1910; Alden's revised edition 1927) at 43 (1793), 61–92 (1800–1805), 204–206 (1807, 1812–1815); 61, 206 (treaties with Tunis mentioned). 1607:

descent, ascended to power in 1705. His military units were part of the Tunisian forces that repelled an Algerian invasion at the time. Subsequently, the Turkish

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The Ottomans initially stationed 4,000 janissaries in Tunis, drawn from their occupying forces in Algiers, primarily consisting of Turkish troops recruited from

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Turkish was written in an Arabic script and incorporated words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. "634 words of Turkish origin used today in Algeria." Spencer,

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were considered a source of greater profit than looted merchandise in Barbary, while in Tunis, corsair activity never reached the prominence it did in Algiers.

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institution was dissolved. They wielded considerable influence and were prone to riot and looting if not satisfied, leading to the downfall of several Sultans.

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globally, serving as Islam's primary focal point. The Ottoman Empire earned recognition as "the leader of all Islam for nearly half a millennium." The Turkish

7812: 5355: 2778:

is the style used by Prof. M. H. Cherif of the Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales, Tunis. Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya", 120–133, at 123, in

1505:. In 1640, upon the Dey's death, Hamuda Bey maneuvered to control appointments to that office, consolidating his authority as the supreme ruler of Tunisia. 7762: 5256: 4642:

set up hospitals to care for the sick and dying . In 1620, the Spanish founded a hospital with the help of the ruling Bey of Tunis . Ellen G. Friedman,

2183: 2101:

or "Mosque of the Barber" in Kairouan, starting in 1629. This complex, which underwent further modifications, exemplifies the use of underglaze-painted

994:. However, after a prolonged period of diminishing raids, the increasing power of European states eventually brought an end to the practice through the 7822: 7797: 2725:

Thus, Ottoman corsairs were denied use of Morocco's ports on the Atlantic. Later, the English approached Morocco, seeking an anti-Span treaty. Julien,

1214:

in the south, where Aruj served as governor. During these years in Spain, non-Christians, including Muslims, were required to leave, according to the

6551: 7772: 4386:(in European law) issued by a sovereign state which here grants the recipient limited right to capture a specified class of vessels. Cf., Braudel, 7807: 7304: 5912: 2445: 2058:

reflects the influence of the "pencil"-shaped Ottoman minarets. During this period, octagonal minarets often characterized mosques following the

1741:

empires of Central Asia. The Turkish jurist Ebu us-Suud Efendi (c.1490–1574) was credited with harmonizing the regulations of the secular state (

1533:

During the Muradid era (circa the 1630s–1702), there was a gradual economic shift characterized by a decline in corsair raiding due to increased

1493:

1666, secured both titles with the backing of local Tunisian dignitaries. As Pasha, the Bey gained social standing through his connection to the

5863: 2050:

complexes and marked the first example of a "funerary mosque" in Tunis, with the founder's mausoleum (dated to 1639) attached to it. While the

1729:

of Central Asia. Due to the challenges of governance and its extensive geographical reach, the Ottoman state played a pivotal role in shaping

7405: 5666: 5261: 4513:

Abdullah Laroui voices the common complaint that, in light of their importance, too often too much is made of the Barbary Corsairs. Larouri,

2157: 750: 7563: 6623: 861: 2113:

It wasn't until the late 17th century that Tunisia saw the construction of its first and only mosque featuring an Ottoman-style dome: the

2044:, fountains, latrines, and even a café, many of which provided revenues for the upkeep of the complex. This arrangement resembles Ottoman 7587: 7340: 7166: 2274:

The Regency of Tunis and the Ottoman Porte, 1777-1814: Army and Government of a North-African Eyâlet at the End of the Eighteenth Century

2439: 2141:

in the transition areas between the semi-domes. Inside, the mosque features marble paneling and decorative tiles reminiscent of Ottoman

7663: 7101: 6735: 3523:(1992, 1999). Stripped of real power by the military, the Tunisian pasha remained as a symbolic figure representing Ottoman allegiance. 2892:(New York: Henry Holt 1992) at 166–169. The Muslim corsair raids long afflicting Spain's coastal residents led Spaniards to view their 2054:

form of the mosque and the pyramidal roof of the mausoleum reflect traditional architecture in the region, the octagonal shaft of the

1975:

commonly, to European commercial representatives residing in Algiers, through whom it might even reach its original destination port.

1100:(1511), a city about 40 km inland, and with Tunis, whose Spanish alliance lasted on and off for decades. Near Tunis, the port of 7817: 1712:, Tunisia declared itself a republic in 1957, leading to the termination of the beylical office and the end of the Husaynid dynasty. 760: 1321:

retook Tunis for Spain in 1573, restoring Hafsid's rule. However, in 1574, a large Ottoman expedition returned under the command of

5811: 5659: 5278: 4848: 1725:

sagas of frontier warfare, drawing inspiration from Islamic traditions of early Arab conquests, yet infused with legends from the

1530:

subsequently ruled for several years with Algerian support. Consequently, the reign of the Muradid Beys lasted from 1640 to 1702.

7202: 5115: 5000: 943: 2738:

Piracy was then almost common across the entire Mediterranean, there being both Muslim and Christian corsairs. Fernand Braudel,

2562:(New York: Harper & Row 1973, 1976) at II: 1144–1165. This flexible Spanish attitude continued into the 16th century, e.g., 1886:"They possessed a high sense of group solidarity and egalitarian spirit in the ranks, and elected their commander-in-chief, the 7802: 7545: 7510: 7493: 5343: 1774:. Turkish became the language of state affairs in Tunisia, infusing its distinctive flavors throughout Tunisian society. After 1207: 1194:

After gaining combat experience in the eastern Mediterranean (during which Aruj was captured and spent three years rowing in a

1325:

and captured Tunis permanently. The last ruler of the Hafsid dynasty was then sent by ship to the Ottoman sultan, imprisoned.

7611: 5748: 2309: 2282: 2255: 6618: 530: 7722: 7605: 5268: 1562:. The social stratification persisted, with prominent families in Tunisia being recognized as part of the "Turkish" ruling 1521:

At the death of Murad II Bey, internal strife erupted within the Muradid family, leading to an armed conflict known as the

740: 3197:) met and defeated the Turkish fleet off the coast of western Greece. Algerian ships under Uluj Ali escaped. J. Beeching, 1611:

corps appointed their own Dey as the new ruler. However, Husayn ibn Ali defied the Dey and garnered support from Tunisian

173: 7777: 7457: 7381: 1139:, as bodyguards. By the 16th century, Hafsid rule weakened, often confined to Tunis alone. The last three Hafsid sultans— 7328: 4273:

The Harem. An account of the institution as it existed in the Palace of the Turkish Sultans with a history of the Grand

780: 7451: 7416: 6612: 5180: 2121:

and completed under his successor, Ramadan ibn Murad, between 1696 and 1699, showcases a dome system characteristic of

2006:

After the establishment of Ottoman authority in the region, architecture in both Tunisia and Algeria was influenced by

7581: 5452: 4861: 4795: 4740: 4706: 4476: 3769: 2803:(University of Oklahoma 1976) at 17–19. Other Muslim sailors also were attracted by the opportunities in the Maghrib. 1396:, composed of senior Turkish military officials (buluk-bashis) and local dignitaries, provided counsel to the pasha. 79: 61: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7539: 4985: 3997:(Cambridge University 1976) at I: 103–104, 134–139, 146. Shaw discusses earlier Ottoman law-making at 22–27 and 62. 1140: 854: 580: 3727:

Government control over economic wealth was prevalent in the region during the 16th century. See Fernand Braudel,

2332:

ultimately decided on limited objectives: constructing strong forts in a string of port cities. See: Henry Kamen,

2171: 1733:

developments for centuries. Imperial law drew from various sources, including Islamic fiqh, Roman-Byzantine legal

947: 7516: 7487: 7316: 6921: 3301:

Muslim Egypt was conquered by the Ottomans in 1516–1517. The figurehead caliph of Egypt, Mutawekkil, last of the

545: 4990: 2388:(New York: HarperCollins 2003) at 30–31 (Mers-el-Kebir), 32–33 (Oran), 31–32 (Bougie and Tripoli), 32 (Algiers). 2097:

Hammuda Pasha (r. 1631–1664), one of the Muradid Beys, initiated a significant restoration and expansion of the

1995: 770: 7575: 6728: 5771: 5511: 4948: 4926: 4023:(Stanford University 1997) at 269. Ebu us-Suud Efendi's legal writings are in both Arabic and Turkish, but his 2122: 1694: 1202:

before being ransomed), the two brothers arrived in Tunis as corsair leaders. By 1504, they had entered into a

386: 320: 46: 3984:(Santiago de Chile: Editorial Zig-Zag 1954, 1972), edited by Juan Luveluk, text established by Menéndez Pidal. 3731:(1949, 1966, 1973) at I: 449–451. This systematic policy in practice laid the foundation for the emergence of 7657: 7645: 7599: 7593: 7569: 7557: 7481: 7469: 7463: 7434: 5651: 5630: 5462: 5360: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5168: 5108: 4958: 2531: 2149: 2090: 1827: 1758: 1148: 1011: 1937: 1249: 1104:

was later occupied by Spanish forces, who built a large and strong presidio there. They also constructed an

7707: 5224: 4841: 4786:

Binous, Jamila; Baklouti, Naceur; Ben Tanfous, Aziza; Bouteraa, Kadri; Rammah, Mourad; Zouari, Ali (2002).

3000:(London: Macmillan 1937; reprint NY: Harper 1961) at 92–102, 105 (versus the Ottomans), 94–97 (Tunis 1535). 2678:"his situation infused into Magriban theology an uncompromising strain comparable to the strictness of the 1979: 1644: 1592: 503: 17: 6871: 2671:

The author earlier attributed this Maghriban mood of intolerance, both popular and scholarly, to the 1492

998:. During the Ottoman Empire's rule, Tunisia experienced territorial contraction, losing land to the west ( 7717: 7527: 7256: 7196: 6467: 5423: 5401: 4921: 2448:

was occupied by the Spanish long after its use by the Turkish brothers Aruj and Khayr al-Din (see below).

1961: 1131: 1065:

in port cities along the African coast. The Ottoman Turks achieved their long-term ambition of capturing

847: 637: 428: 972:

forces. However, Tunisia quickly gained autonomy and operated as an autonomous province under the local

7669: 7551: 7522: 7440: 7286: 7131: 7121: 7116: 6479: 6322: 5523: 5120: 4953: 3363:, and of course, with America. The Ottomans were entangled in intermittent warfare elsewhere, e.g., in 1234: 156: 142: 7375: 7262: 7172: 7054: 6721: 6348: 6041: 5375: 5175: 5056: 4407:

or "the course", a reference to the act of running down a merchant ship to capture it. Cf., Spencer,

3070:). At the top of the drawing, the city of Tunis spreads out in the back of the lake and green fields. 2780: 2433: 1709: 1392:, who was responsible for the collection of state revenue. From 1574 to 1591, a council known as the 731: 3290:

A Short History of North Africa. Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco from Pre-Roman days to the present

1388:

Thus, in 1587, a pasha assumed the role of Ottoman governor of Tunisia. The pasha was assisted by a

1354:

the next three centuries, the Ottomans' effective political control in the Maghreb was short-lived.

7757: 7651: 7411: 7352: 7232: 7214: 7208: 7126: 7111: 6643: 5985: 5640: 4877: 1699:

In 1881, the French invaded Tunisia, using a border skirmish as a pretext. With the signing of the

1290: 1049: 1045: 1041: 981: 939: 935: 919: 467: 265: 216: 123: 4611:, "favor, grace, mercy") were two prominent religious orders, among others—Friedman (1983) at 106. 3974:

Stories of such intermittent warfare may compare to those of the Spanish medieval frontier, i.e.,

7533: 7310: 7274: 7268: 7096: 7091: 7059: 6796: 6363: 5832: 5596: 5591: 5506: 5474: 5311: 5192: 5125: 5061: 5051: 5027: 5015: 4834: 2148:

Husayn ibn Ali (r. 1705–1735), the founder of the Husaynid dynasty, oversaw the expansion of the

2098: 1453: 1157: 1105: 508: 162: 57: 2491:), 15 (piracy: European and North African), 17 (Hafsid early hub facilitating Turkish corsairs). 7827: 7280: 7190: 7178: 6972: 6638: 6406: 6332: 5479: 5418: 5328: 5010: 5005: 3493:

M. H. Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya: The Ottomans and their heirs", 120–133, at 124, in

2329: 2118: 1135:

shipping. In the 15th century, the Hafsids employed a Christian force, primarily consisting of

534: 4142:

M. H. Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya: the Ottomans and their heirs" 120–133, at 124, in

7617: 7399: 7226: 6694: 6684: 6633: 6222: 6174: 5467: 5447: 5442: 5251: 5229: 4975: 4120:(1965) at 76–77, 65–66, 122–123. Coffee derived from Turkish Yemen, ultimately from Ethiopia. 3759: 3519:

Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya: The Ottomans and their heirs," 120–133, at 126–127, in

2033: 1858: 220: 4818: 7446: 7393: 7334: 7298: 7250: 7238: 6967: 6886: 6861: 6816: 6653: 6290: 6036: 5924: 5707: 5430: 5413: 5365: 5273: 5163: 5086: 5036: 2535: 2007: 2001: 1837: 1734: 1648: 1522: 1513:, as well as from prominent city figures. As the Beys emerged victorious, so did the rural 1188: 1003: 999: 991: 923: 1432: 1370:

After Tunisia fell to the Ottoman Empire, the Porte appointed a pasha to govern. "Pasha" (

8: 7702: 5566: 5554: 5496: 5489: 5457: 5151: 5103: 4995: 3134: 2885: 1983: 1551: 1534: 1380: 1318: 1199: 790: 559: 484: 53: 6806: 3495:

General History of Africa, volume V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century

1770:

Ottoman popular literature and much of the learning of its elites were expressed in the

7639: 7422: 6766: 6674: 6648: 6602: 6597: 6395: 6338: 6066: 5806: 5533: 5350: 5321: 5294: 5239: 5091: 5076: 5071: 4980: 4869: 4484: 4271:(Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, n.d.) at 89–93; the full title of Penzer's book being 3313: 3194: 2563: 2215: 2114: 2029: 2017: 1681: 1143:, his son Ahmad, and his brother Muhammad—engaged in inconsistent treaties with Spain. 437: 6111: 1006:). In the 19th century, Tunisian rulers took note of the ongoing political and social 7633: 7428: 7346: 7292: 7244: 7184: 7106: 7049: 6911: 6607: 6570: 6373: 6353: 5970: 5544: 5518: 5333: 5135: 4968: 4791: 4736: 4702: 4639: 4596: 4480: 3980: 3765: 3121:

Uluj Ali's most commonly used epithet, "Uluj" signifies "renegade." Abdallah Laroui,

3097: 2517: 2405:(London: Routledge, Kegan Paul 1970) at 279, 294 (Tlemcen), 282–284, 297–300 (Tunis). 2305: 2278: 2251: 2220: 2210: 2205: 1953:

of ships and crews, including naval stores, supplies, timber, canvas, and munitions.

1921: 1489: 1314: 1160:

against Turk, thus remaining both Muslim-ruled and independent of the Ottoman grasp.

666: 656: 619: 599: 589: 7387: 2130: 7322: 6977: 6931: 6901: 6866: 6744: 6679: 6587: 6436: 6431: 6243: 6162: 6015: 6005: 6000: 5776: 5620: 5573: 5561: 5549: 5501: 5484: 4916: 4904: 4889: 4813: 4604: 4383: 4074: 4028: 3009: 2200: 2013: 1862: 1771: 1585: 1579: 1397: 1371: 1172: 1018: 902: 493: 306: 224: 7220: 4732:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800

4698:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800

3159:(Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973, 1976) at II: 1066–1068. Here Uluj Ali is called 2816:, which was translated into French in 1837. Cited by Spencer (1976) at 20–21, 174. 2461:(1961; 1970) at 148 (corsairs), 153 (Catalan bodyguard), 158 (European merchants). 7018: 7013: 6689: 6582: 6575: 6518: 6441: 6343: 6157: 6131: 6106: 6101: 5975: 5955: 5902: 5821: 5796: 5781: 5766: 5697: 5581: 5435: 5306: 5185: 4936: 4909: 4899: 4882: 4730: 4696: 4433: 3876: 3368: 3240:(Washington, D.C.: American University 3rd ed. 1986), edited by Harold D. Nelson. 3152: 3055: 2672: 2641: 2551: 2506: 2299: 2272: 2245: 1846: 1810: 1775: 1700: 1674: 1575: 1539: 1417: 1215: 987: 977: 713: 694: 458: 292: 212: 148: 109: 1285: 6992: 6462: 6457: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6401: 6327: 6316: 6218: 6181: 6152: 6096: 6091: 5990: 5980: 5965: 5816: 5801: 5791: 5786: 5743: 5728: 5683: 5316: 5081: 4284: 4229: 3410:

In Turkish, the western provinces were called "Garb-Ojaklari". Bohdan Chudoba,

3364: 3360: 3054:

In foreground (by the pictured Ottoman fleet) the Spanish presidio of Goletta (

2328:

for Spain, the clergy argued for attempting a complete conquest; however, King

2102: 2086: 1779: 1763: 1502: 1168: 1127: 1066: 890: 837: 676: 520: 373: 192: 6962: 6061: 5681: 4279:(London: George P. Harrap 1936); reprints, e.g., Dorset 1993; Dover 2005. The 3443:

subject to periodic replacement. These measures involved the abolition of the

2301:

The Regency of Tunis, 1535–1666: Genesis of an Ottoman Province in the Maghreb

1927: 1813:

and Arabic in settled areas. The 11th-century invasion by the Arabic-speaking

1183:

as their principal base. The "architects of Ottoman rule in the Maghrib" were

7751: 7727: 6776: 6528: 6523: 6502: 6497: 6474: 6411: 6368: 6358: 6311: 6306: 6147: 6126: 6071: 6056: 6046: 6020: 5960: 5919: 5907: 5738: 5702: 5586: 5244: 5234: 3063: 2640:

The Spanish alliance with Sa'did Morocco was renewed in 1576, and again with

2628: 2428: 2142: 2107: 1945: 1913: 1783: 1705: 1554:. This hindered the development of local business interests, including rural 1437: 1330: 1269:

The following year, Emperor Charles V (r. 1516–1556) organized a fleet under

1262: 1230: 1152: 1085: 961: 927: 826: 646: 339: 6896: 6271: 6086: 6010: 3185:

The combined fleets of various Christian powers, including Spain as well as

2627:(Princeton University 1977) at 250–251. Spain managed a tacit alliance with 2432: 1949:

all residing in the western quarter of Algiers, along the harbor and docks.

7732: 7358: 6957: 6669: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6202: 6197: 6169: 6121: 6116: 6081: 6051: 5950: 5945: 5733: 4453:(Westview 1986) at 50–51 (1550s), 56 (mid-16th), 59 (late 17th), 64 (1819). 4234: 3732: 3356: 2742:(Librairie Armand Colin 1949, 2d ed. 1966), translated by Siân Reynolds as 1870: 1787: 1270: 1074: 995: 990:

targeted European shipping, primarily originating from Algiers, Tunis, and

931: 1448:

Two highly effective Deys were 'Uthman Dey (1598–1610) and his son-in-law

1163: 7039: 6987: 6926: 6906: 6379: 6076: 5995: 4600: 4595:(University of Wisconsin 1983), "Part 3. The Redemption" at 105–164. The 4541:

The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World during the Age of Philip II

4464:

The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World during the Age of Philip II

4438:

The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World during the Age of Philip II

4422:

The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World during the Age of Philip II

4041: 3139: 3025: 2133:(circa 1548) in Istanbul, consists of a central dome accompanied by four 2110:. The artistic height of these tiles was in the 17th and 18th centuries. 1971: 1742: 1708:, while the French effectively governed the country. Upon achieving full 1542:. To maximize profits from export trade, the Beys established government 1322: 1258: 1101: 1093: 1057: 1023: 234: 2443:. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 392. 7475: 7034: 6936: 6916: 6891: 6881: 4894: 3975: 2247:

Tunisia Since the Arab Conquest: The Saga of a Westernized Muslim State

2138: 2074:, predominant in the Maghreb, continued to feature traditional square ( 1814: 1746: 1636:(schools). His popularity was evident in 1715 when the Ottoman fleet's 1555: 1084:. Spain captured and occupied several ports in North Africa, including 3965:(Cambridge University 1976) at I: 1–9 (history); 139–143 (literature). 3677:

The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.

3414:(University of Chicago 1952) at 66. Cf., Cherif (1992, 1999) at 123: " 2868: 2081: 2046: 1752: 1305:(Turgut), ruling in Tripoli, attacked Tunisia from the east, entering 942:

in 1574 that the Turks permanently acquired the former territories of

914:(Oruç Reis), eventually expanding across the entire region except for 7044: 6997: 6982: 6786: 6628: 5130: 4941: 4388: