Tsetse fly - Knowledge

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geospatial data to simulate the fly's population steady state. An increase in the tsetse suitability index was associated with a statistically significant weakening of the agriculture, levels of urbanization, institutions and subsistence strategies. Results suggest that the tsetse decimated livestock populations, forcing early states to rely on slave labor to clear land for farming, and preventing farmers from taking advantage of natural animal fertilizers to increase crop production. These long-term effects may have kept population density low and discouraged cooperation between small-scale communities, thus preventing stronger nations from forming.

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feeds on an infected vertebrate animal may acquire trypanosomes in its proboscis or gut. These trypanosomes, depending on the species, may remain in place, move to a different part of the digestive tract, or migrate through the tsetse body into the salivary glands. When an infected tsetse bites a susceptible host, the fly may regurgitate part of a previous blood meal that contains trypanosomes, or may inject trypanosomes in its saliva. Inoculation must contain a minimum of 300 to 450 individual trypanosomes to be successful, and may contain up to 40,000 cells.

782: 4206: 4130: 690: 710: 730: 3201:(AAT) causes gradual health decline in infected livestock, reduces milk and meat production, and increases abortion rates. Animals eventually succumb to the disease - annual cattle deaths caused by trypanosomiasis are estimated at 3 million, reducing annual cattle production value by US$ 600m-US$ 1.2b. This has an enormous impact on the livelihood of farmers who live in tsetse-infested areas, as infected animals cannot be used to plough the land, and keeping cattle is only feasible when the animals are kept under constant 1813: 843: 154: 3097:, most of the population – some 5.5 million domestic cattle – died. Pastoralists and farmers were left with no animals – their source of income – and farmers were deprived of their working animals for ploughing and irrigation. The pandemic coincided with a period of drought, causing widespread famine. The starving human populations died of smallpox, cholera, and typhoid, as well as African Sleeping Sickness and other endemic diseases. It is estimated that two-thirds of the Masai died in 1891. 3011:. Feasibility studies indicated that the fly population was confined to very fragmented habitats and a population genetics study indicated that the population was genetically isolated from the main tsetse belt in the south eastern part of Senegal. After completion of the feasibility studies (2006–2010), an area-wide integrated eradication campaign that included an SIT component was started in 2011, and by 2015, the Niayes region had become almost tsetse fly free. This has allowed a change of 3023:

from 40 to 50% before the project started to less than 10% to date in blocks 1 and 2. Although insecticides are being used for fly suppression, they are applied for short periods on traps, nets and livestock, and are not spread into the environment. After the suppression activities are completed, no more insecticide is applied in the area. The removal of trypanosomosis will eliminate the need for constant prophylactic treatments of the cattle with trypanocidal drugs, therefore reducing

3274: 1909:. Mechanical transmission requires the tsetse to feed on an infected host and acquire trypanosomes in the blood meal, and then, within a relatively short period, to feed on an uninfected host and regurgitate some of the infected blood from the first blood meal into the tissue of the uninfected animal. This type of transmission occurs most frequently when tsetse are interrupted during a blood meal and attempt to satiate themselves with another meal. Other flies, such as 132: 1287: 9038: 2792:". Chain clearing drags a chain forward between two heavy vehicles and thereby does the same job much more quickly - but still at some expense. Preventing regrowth of woody vegetation requires continuous clearing efforts which is even more expensive, and only practical where large human populations are present. Also, the clearing of woody vegetation has come to be seen as an environmental problem more than a benefit. 335: 3186: 2685: 2952:

populations, while, on the contrary, sterile males are very effective in finding and mating the last remaining females. Therefore, the integration of the SIT as the last component of an area-wide integrated approach is essential in many situations to achieve complete eradication of the different tsetse populations, particularly in areas of more dense vegetation.

2938:) to sterilize male flies that are mass-produced in special rearing facilities. The sterile males are released systematically from the ground or by air in tsetse-infested areas, where they mate with wild females, which do not produce offspring. As a result, this technique can eventually eradicate populations of wild flies. SIT is among the most 1922:

by trypanosomes during their first few blood meals. Tsetse infected by trypanosomes are thought to remain infected for the remainder of their lives. Because of the adaptations required for biological transmission, trypanosomes that can be transmitted biologically by tsetse cannot be transmitted in this manner by other insects.

1897:. Infected flies have an altered salivary composition which lowers feeding efficiency and consequently increases the feeding time, promoting trypanosome transmission to the vertebrate host. These trypanosomes are highly evolved and have developed a life cycle that requires periods in both the vertebrate and tsetse hosts. 869:. During this time, the female feeds the developing offspring with a milky substance (secreted by a modified gland) in the uterus. In the third larval stage, the tsetse larvae leave the uterus and begin an independent life. The newly-birthed larvae crawl into the ground and develop a hard outer shell (called the 2788:. However, the technique was not widely used and has been abandoned. Tsetse tend to rest on the trunks of trees so removing woody vegetation made the area inhospitable to the flies. Until about 1959 this was done by hand and so was quite time consuming. Glover et al 1959 describes the technique which they call " 3088:

and the tsetse fly. Rinderpest is believed to have originated in Asia, later spreading through the transport of cattle. In 1887, the rinderpest virus was accidentally imported in livestock brought by an Italian expeditionary force to Eritrea. It spread rapidly, reaching Ethiopia by 1888, the Atlantic

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population to be deployed for similarity to the target population. The eradication of the tsetse fly from Unguja Island in 1997 was followed by the disappearance of the AAT which enabled farmers to integrate livestock keeping with cropping in areas where this had been impossible before. The increased

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of the trypanosomes to their tsetse host. In this mode of transmission, trypanosomes reproduce through several generations, changing in morphology at certain periods. This mode of transmission also includes the sexual phase of the trypanosomes. Tsetse are believed to be more likely to become infected

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In addition to this direct impact, the presence of tsetse and trypanosomiasis discourages the use of more productive exotic and cross-bred cattle, depresses the growth and affects the distribution of livestock populations, reduces the potential opportunities for livestock and crop production (mixed

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The land was left emptied of its cattle and its people, enabling the colonial powers Germany and Britain to take over Tanzania and Kenya with little effort. With greatly reduced grazing, grassland turned rapidly to bush. The closely cropped grass sward was replaced in a few years by woody grassland

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Other authors are more skeptical that the tsetse fly had such an immense influence on African development. One conventional argument is that the tsetse fly made it difficult to use draught animals. Hence, wheeled forms of transportations were not used as well. While this is certainly true for areas

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The authors also suggest that under a lower burden of tsetse, Africa would have developed differently. Agriculture (measured by the usage of large domesticated animals, intensive agriculture, plow use and female participation rate in agriculture) as well as institutions (measured by the appearance

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The entire target area (Block 1, 2 and 3) has a total surface of 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi), and the first block (northern part) can be considered free of tsetse, as intensive monitoring has failed to detect since 2012 a single wild tsetse fly. The prevalence of AAT has decreased

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The cycle of biological transmission of trypanosomiasis involves two phases, one inside the tsetse host and the other inside the vertebrate host. Trypanosomes are not passed between a pregnant tsetse and her offspring, so all newly emerged tsetse adults are free of infection. An uninfected fly that

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through the elimination of important populations of major tsetse vectors will be covered several times by the benefits of tsetse-free status. Area-wide interventions against the tsetse and trypanosomosis problem appear more efficient and profitable if sufficiently large areas, with high numbers of

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The tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases affect various vertebrate species including humans, antelopes, bovine cattle, camels, horses, sheep, goats, and pigs. These diseases are caused by several different trypanosome species that may also survive in wild animals such as crocodiles and monitor lizards.

1993:, then into the bloodstream, and eventually into the brain. The disease causes the swelling of the lymph glands, emaciation of the body, and eventually leads to death. Uninfected tsetse may bite the infected animal prior to its death and acquire the disease, thereby closing the transmission cycle. 1926:

The relative importance of these two modes of transmission for the propagation of tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases is not yet well understood. However, since the sexual phase of the trypanosome life cycle occurs within the tsetse host, biological transmission is a required step in the life cycle of

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The main beneficiaries of the project are the many small holder farmers, the larger commercial farms and the consumers of meat and milk. According to a socio-economic survey and benefit cost analysis, after eradication of the tsetse farmers will be able to replace their local breeds with improved

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index (disability-adjusted life years), an indicator to quantify the burden of disease, includes the impact of both the duration of life lost due to premature death and the duration of life lived with a disability. The annual burden of sleeping sickness is estimated at 2 million DALYs. Since the

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The sustainable removal of the tsetse fly is in many cases the most cost-effective way of dealing with the T&T problem resulting in major economic benefits for subsistence farmers in rural areas. Insecticide-based methods are normally very ineffective in removing the last remnants of tsetse

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The larval life stage has a variable duration, generally 20 to 30 days, and the larvae must rely on stored resources during this time. The importance of the richness and quality of blood to this stage can be seen; all tsetse development (prior to emerging from the puparial case as a full adult)

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The use of chemicals as attractants to lure tsetse to the traps has been studied extensively in the late 20th century, but this has mostly been of interest to scientists rather than as an economically reasonable solution. Attractants studied have been those tsetse might use to find food, like

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for areas where the fly is prevalent. A 2012 study used population growth models, physiological data, and ethnographic data to examine pre-colonial agricultural practices and isolate the effects of the fly. A "tsetse suitability index" was developed from insect population growth, climate and

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Biological transmission requires a period of incubation of the trypanosomes within the tsetse host. The term 'biological' is used because trypanosomes must reproduce through several generations inside the tsetse host during the period of incubation (development within the fly is known as the

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Although the colonial powers saw the disease as a threat to their interests, and acted accordingly to bring transmission almost to a halt in the 1960s, this improved situation led to a laxity of surveillance and management by the newly independent governments covering the same areas - and a

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have been used to control tsetse starting initially during the early part of the twentieth century in localized efforts using the inorganic metal-based pesticides, expanding after the Second World War into massive aerial- and ground-based campaigns with organochlorine pesticides such as

2832: 2480:, which causes the disease, has often been subdivided into three subspecies that were identified based either on the vertebrate hosts which the strain could infect or on the virulence of the disease in humans. The trypanosomes infectious to animals and not to humans were named 877:

occurs without feeding, with only the nutrition provided by the mother fly. She must get enough energy for her own survival (in addition to the needs of her developing offspring), as well as for the stored resources that her offspring will require until they emerge as adults.

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livestock and crop productivity and the possibility of using animals for transport and traction significantly contributed to an increase in the quality of people's lives. Surveys in 1999, 2002, 2014, and 2015 have confirmed this success - continued absence of tsetse and

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The head has large eyes, distinctly separated on each side, and a distinct, forward-pointing proboscis attached underneath by a large bulb. The thorax is large, made of three fused segments. Three pairs of legs are attached to the thorax, as are two wings and two

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with high densities of the fly, similar cases outside tsetse-suitable areas exist. While the fly definitely had a relevant influence on the adoption of new technologies in Africa, it has been contended that it does not represent the single root cause.

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Mechanical transmission involves the direct transmission of the same individual trypanosomes taken from an infected host into an uninfected host. The name 'mechanical' reflects the similarity of this mode of transmission to mechanical injection with a

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refers to strains with a more rapid, virulent onset. This characterization has always been problematic but was the best that could be done given the knowledge of the time and the tools available for identification. A recent molecular study using

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or the cultivation of crops and hence increase food production. Only 45 million cattle, of 172 million present in sub-Saharan Africa, are kept in tsetse-infested areas but are often forced into fragile ecosystems like highlands or the

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contents of the fly's head. This may be the reason/a reason for the behavioral changes seen, especially the unnecessarily increased feeding frequency, which increases transmission opportunities. This may be due in part to the altered

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The disease can be managed by controlling the vector and thus reducing the incidence of the disease by disrupting the transmission cycle. Another tactic to manage the disease is to target the disease directly using surveillance and

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farming) through less draught power to cultivate land and less manure to fertilize (in an environment-friendly way) soils for better crop production, and affects human settlements (people tend to avoid areas with tsetse flies).

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The tsetse fly lives in nearly 10,000,000 square kilometres (4,000,000 sq mi) in sub-Saharan Africa (mostly wet tropical forest) and many parts of this large area is fertile land that is left uncultivated—a so-called

3182:, the disease transmitted by tsetse, weakens and often kills these animals. Cattle that do survive produce little milk, pregnant cows often abort their calves, and manure is not available to fertilize the worn-out soils. 5581:

Mdoe, N. S. Y. (2003). Livestock and agriculture development in Zanzibar, post-tsetse eradication: a follow-up socio-economic study (Report). Vienna, Austria: Report prepared for the International Atomic Energy Agency.

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Tsetse flies have an arsenal of immune defenses to resist each stage of the trypanosome infectious cycle, and thus are relatively refractory to trypanosome infection. Among the host flies' defenses is the production of

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regions of east Africa which had been free of tsetse fly were colonised by the pest, accompanied by sleeping sickness, until then unknown in the area. Millions of people died of the disease in the early 20th century.

607:. They have been extensively studied because of their medical, veterinary, and economic importance, because the flies can be raised in a laboratory, and because they are relatively large, facilitating their analysis. 6308: 861:, which may be due to the richness of their blood food source. A female fertilizes only one egg at a time; she will retain each egg within her uterus, the offspring developing internally (during the first three 3256:, human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness. An estimated 60-70 million people in 20 countries are at different levels of risk and only 3-4 million people are covered by active surveillance. The 629:

Tsetse next develops a hard external case, the puparium, and become pupae - small, hard-shelled oblongs with two distinctively small, dark lobes at the tail (breathing) end. Tsetse pupae are under 1 centimetre

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Budd, L. 1999. DFID-funded tsetse and trypanosome research and development since 1980. Vol. 2. Economic analysis. Aylesford, UK, DFID Livestock Production, Animal Health and Natural Resources Systems Research

4468: 3160:. The result, across eastern and southern Africa, is a modern landscape of manmade ecosystems: farmland and pastoral land largely free of bush and tsetse fly; and bush controlled by the tsetse fly. 2637:

poses a considerable constraint on livestock agricultural development in tsetse fly-infested areas of sub-Saharan Africa, especially in West and Central Africa. International research conducted by

1882:. These organisms are about the size of red blood cells. Different species of trypanosomes infect different hosts. They range widely in their effects on the vertebrate hosts. Some species, such as 2843:. These often use blue cloth, either in sheet or biconical form, since this color attracts the flies. The traps work by channeling the flies into a collection chamber, or by exposing the flies to 749: 1972: 2942:

control tactics available, and is usually applied as the final component of an integrated campaign. It has been used to subdue the populations of many other fly species including the medfly,

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Vreysen, Marc J. B.; Saleh, Khalfan M.; Ali, Mashavu Y.; Abdulla, Abdulla M.; Zhu, Zeng-Rong; Juma, Kassim G.; Dyck, V. Arnold; Msangi, Atway R.; Mkonyi, Paul A.; Feldmann, H. Udo (2000).

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Other forms of animal trypanosomiasis are also known from other areas of the globe, caused by different species of trypanosomes and transmitted without the intervention of the tsetse fly.

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breeds and increase their annual income by €2.8 million. In addition, it is expected that the number of cattle will be reduced by 45%, which will result in reduced environmental impacts.

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Most tsetse flies are, physically, very tough. Houseflies, and even horseflies, are easily killed with a flyswatter, for example; a great deal of effort is needed to crush a tsetse fly.

5966:"Simarro PP, Cecchi G, Franco JR, Paone M, Diarra A, Ruiz-Postigo JA, et al. (2012). Estimating and Mapping the Population at Risk of Sleeping Sickness. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 6(10): e1859" 1339:

The tsetse genus is generally split into three groups of species based on a combination of distributional, behavioral, molecular and morphological characteristics. The genus includes:

3124:. Sleeping sickness was dubbed "the best game warden in Africa" by conservationists, who assumed that the land, empty of people and full of game animals, had always been like that. 2716:

of target populations. Tsetse fly eradication programmes are complex and logistically demanding activities and usually involve the integration of different control tactics, such as

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of indigenous slavery and levels of centralization) would have been more like those found in Eurasia. Qualitative support for this claim comes from archaeological findings; e.g.,

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is located in the African highlands where the fly does not occur, and represented the largest and technically most advanced precolonial structure in Southern sub-Sahara Africa.

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context (SARD). The traps are just the entry point, followed by improved farming, human health and marketing inputs. This method is in the final stage of testing (as of 2006).

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FAO. 2003. Economic guidelines for strategic planning of tsetse and trypanosomiasis control in West Africa, by A.P.M. Shaw. PAAT Technical and Scientific Series No. 5. Rome.

2721: 1255:, the true flies. They belong to the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, in which the tsetse's family, the Glossinidae, is one of four families of blood-feeding obligate parasites. 3649:

Vreysen, Marc J.B.; Seck, Momar Talla; Sall, Baba; Bouyer, Jérémy (2013). "Tsetse flies: Their biology and control using area-wide integrated pest management approaches".

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Rogers, D.J.; Hay, S.I.; Packer, M.J. (1996). "Predicting the distribution of tsetse flies in West Africa using temporal Fourier-processed meteorological satellite data".

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called the plains of east Africa "a surviving sector of the rich natural world as it was before the rise of modern man". They created numerous large reserves for hunting

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would be of immense benefit to rural development and contribute to poverty alleviation and improved food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Human African trypanosomosis (

4826: 3213:, counterfeited drugs, and suboptimal dosage. The overall annual direct lost potential in livestock and crop production was estimated at US$ 4.5 billion-US$ 4.75b. 3176:

because they prevent mixed farming. The land infested with tsetse flies is often cultivated by people using hoes rather than more efficient draught animals because

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Many techniques have reduced tsetse populations, with earlier, crude methods recently replaced by methods that are cheaper, more directed, and ecologically better.

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Shaw, A.P.M., 2004. Economics of African trypanosomiasis. In The Trypanosomiases (eds. I. Maudlin, P.H. Holmes & M.A. Miles) CABI Publishing, 2004, pp. 369-402

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not used by humans and cattle. Most of the 38 countries infested with tsetse are poor, debt-ridden and underdeveloped. Of the 38 tsetse-infested countries, 32 are

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Krafsur, E. S.; Ouma, J. O. (2021). "4.1 - Role of Population Genetics in the Sterile Insect Technique". In Dyck, Victor; Hendrichs, J.; Robinson, A. S. (eds.).

1574: 1460: 962: 947: 558:-aged rocks in the United States and Germany. Twenty-three extant species of tsetse flies are known from the African continent as well as the Arabian Peninsula. 5622: 4143:

Simo, Gustave; Kanté, Sartrien Tagueu; Madinga, Joule; Kame, Ginette; Farikou, Oumarou; Ilombe, Gillon; Geiger, Anne; Lutumba, Pascal; Njiokou, Flobert (2019).

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animals. Tsetse has been extensively studied because of their role in transmitting disease. They have a pronounced economic impact in sub-Saharan Africa as the

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coast by 1892 and South Africa by 1897. Rinderpest, a cattle plague from central Asia, killed over 90% of the cattle of the pastoral peoples such as the

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The diseases have different distributions across the African continent, so are transmitted by different species. This table summarizes this information:

1584: 1560: 1546: 1031: 3084:, the depopulated and apparently primevally wild Africa seen in wildlife documentary films was formed in the 19th century by disease, a combination of 2969: 1474: 1355: 928: 2446:. This disease is invariably fatal if left untreated, but can almost always be cured with current medicines if the disease is diagnosed early enough. 6358: 1522: 1008: 1265:. Most classifications place this genus as the sole member of the family Glossinidae. The Glossinidae are generally placed within the superfamily 9205: 5728: 3988:

International Glossina Genome Initiative: Attardo, G. M.; Abila, P. P.; Auma, J. E.; Baumann, A. A.; Benoit, J. B.; et al. (24 April 2014).

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Abro, Zewdu; Kassie, Menale; Muriithi, Beatrice; Okal, Michael; Masiga, Daniel; et al. (20 July 2021). Simuunza, Martin Chtolongo (ed.).

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Simarro, P. P.; Cecchi, G.; Franco, J. R.; Paone, M.; Diarra, A.; Ruiz-Postigo, J. A.; Fèvre, E. M.; Mattioli, R. C.; Jannin, J. G. (2012).

5316:"Polarotactic tabanids find striped patterns with brightness and/or polarization modulation least attractive: An advantage of zebra stripes" 8482: 6391: 5181: 1027:— up to 40% (high variability with geography) from bushpig, up to 36% from hippopotamus, ~25% from Bovidae, especially buffalo and bushbuck 2516:

Other forms of human trypanosomiasis also exist but are not transmitted by tsetse. The most notable is American trypanosomiasis, known as

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is large enough to accommodate a huge increase in size during feeding, as tsetse can take a blood meal equal in weight to themselves. The

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At the end of the pupal stage, tsetse emerges as adult flies. The adults are relatively large flies, with lengths of 0.5–1.5 centimetres (

592: 4674:"Seasonal prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in a tsetse-infested zone and a tsetse-free zone of the Amhara Region, north-west Ethiopia" 2883:

in a half gourd near the trap. For large trapping efforts, additional traps are generally cheaper than expensive artificial attractants.

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because they can survive and grow even when infected with trypanosomes although they also have lower productivity rates when infected.

667:, which makes them easy to distinguish from other flies. Tsetse have large heads, distinctly separated eyes, and unusual antennae. The 4573:"Capanna E. Battista Grassi entomologist and the Roman School of Malariology. Parassitologia. 2008 Dec;50(3-4):201-11. PMID: 20055229" 3140:

went on a safari that brought over 10,000 animal carcasses to America. Later, much of the land was turned over to nature reserves and

1061:— ~3% from wild Suidae, ~20–40% from Bovidae (including domestic cattle) depending on geography, ~10% from waterside birds including 6363: 6143:

Hao Z, Kasumba I, Aksoy S (2003). "Proventriculus (cardia) plays a crucial role in immunity in tsetse fly (Diptera: Glossinidiae)".

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sprayed on the cloth. Early traps mimicked the form of cattle, as tsetse are also attracted to large dark colors like the hides of

2494: 4621:"Trypanosoma brucei Modifies the Tsetse Salivary Composition, Altering the Fly Feeding Behavior That Favors Parasite Transmission" 2859:

have stripes, not as a camouflage in long grass, but because the black and white bands tend to confuse tsetse and prevent attack.

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metabolism observed, causing a perceived need for more calories. (The metabolic change, in turn, being due to complete absence of

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Tsetse first becomes separate from their mothers during the third larval instar, during which they have the typical appearance of

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Tsetse can be distinguished from other large flies by two easily-observed features: Primarily, tsetse fold their wings over their

6084: 4906:"The surface coat of procyclic Trypanosoma brucei: Programmed expression and proteolytic cleavage of procyclin in the tsetse fly" 3308:

played a large role in the first half of the 20th century. Swynnerton did much of the earliest tsetse ecology research. For this

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Bruto da Costa, Bernardo Francisco; Sant' Anna, José Firmino; Correia dos Santos, A.; Araujo Alvares, M. G. de (30 March 1915).

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disease tends to affect economically active adults, the total cost to a family with a patient is about 25% of a year's income.

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Sleeping sickness begins with a tsetse bite leading to an inoculation in the subcutaneous tissue. The infection moves into the

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DFID. 2001. Trypanosomiasis, tsetse and Africa. The year 2001 report. Aylesford, UK, Department for International Development.

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Cook, Samantha M.; Khan, Zeyaur R.; Pickett, John A. (2007). "The Use of Push-Pull Strategies in Integrated Pest Management".

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when available, ~20–40% from Bovidae (including domestic cattle) depending on geography, ~10% from waterside birds including

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Lefèvre, T.; Thomas, F.; Ravel, S.; Patrel, D.; Renault, L.; Le Bourligu, L.; Cuny, G.; Biron, D. G. (17 December 2007). "

626:. However, this life stage is short, lasting at most a few hours, and is almost never observed outside of the laboratory. 544:

completely when they are resting (so that one wing rests directly on top of the other); Secondly, tsetse also have a long

5289: 4500:"Fossil insects from the Late Oligocene Enspel Lagerstätte and their palaeobiogeographic and palaeoclimatic significance" 3101:

and thornbush, ideal habitat for tsetse flies. Wild mammal populations increased rapidly, accompanied by the tsetse fly.

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The discal medial ("middle") cell of the wing has a characteristic hatchet shape, resembling a meat cleaver or a hatchet.

289: 5678:"Ex-ante Benefit-Cost Analysis of the Elimination of a Glossina palpalis gambiensis Population in the Niayes of Senegal" 5598: 4591:

C. A. Hoare (1970). "Systematic Description of the Mammalian Trypanosomes of Africa". In H. Mulligan; W. Potts (eds.).

3766: 3853:"The potential economic benefits of controlling trypanosomiasis using waterbuck repellent blend in sub-Saharan Africa" 2776:

of the fly. While the fly eventually re-invaded in the 1950s, the new population of tsetse was free from the disease.

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STRATEGIC REVIEW OF TRAPS AND TARGETS FOR TSETSE AND AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS CONTROL - Training in Tropical Diseases

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formation, ovulation, fertilization, and development of the egg; following egg development and birth is the three

770:, tsetse flies have an adult body comprising three visibly distinct parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. 9236: 8491: 3710:

Geoffrey M. Attardoa; Claudia Lohs; Abdelaziz Heddi; Uzma H. Alama; Suleyman Yildirim; SerapAksoy (August 2008).

3357: 3233:. Eradicating the tsetse and trypanosomiasis (T&T) problem would allow rural Africans to use these areas for 3230: 1258:

Up to 34 species and subspecies of tsetse flies are recognized, depending on the particular classification used.

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Tsetse have a distinct proboscis, a long and thin structure attached to the bottom of the head, pointing forward.

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generally refers to the disease in cattle and horses it is commonly used for any of the animal trypanosomiases.

1831:, meaning that in the process of feeding, they acquire and then transmit small, single-celled trypanosomes from 8881: 6462: 6422: 6183: 5365: 3592: 2967:), demonstrated that, after suppression of the tsetse population with insecticides, SIT completely removed the 2879:

Synthetic versions of these chemicals can create artificial odor plumes. A cheaper approach is to place cattle

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when available, ~20–40% from Bovidae (including domestic cattle) depending on geography, >7% from porcupines

5778:"Reinventing the Wheel: The Economic Benefits of Wheeled Transportation in Early British Colonial West Africa" 8964: 8557: 6349: 5428: 4857: 4904:

Acosta-Serrano, A.; Vassella, E.; Liniger, M.; Renggli, C. K.; Brun, R.; Roditi, I.; Englund, P. T. (2001).

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Farrar, Jeremy; Hotez, Peter; Junghanss, Thomas; Kang, Gagandeep; Lalloo, David; White, Nicholas J. (2013).

640: in) long. Within the puparial shell, tsetse complete the last two larval instars and the pupal stage. 6369: 4787: 3352: 1239: 1233: 3109: 9310: 9218: 9132: 9127: 9014: 8468: 6214: 5241: 4732: 4301: 3933: 3804: 3545: 3044: 2981:, but future SIT efforts can benefit from such preparation. Population genetics would help to select the 2764:

One early technique involved slaughtering all the wild animals tsetse fed on. For example, the island of

1863:

according to the animal infected and the trypanosome species involved. The usage is not strict and while

1304: 6380: 5361:(Diptera: Glossinidae) Eradicated on the Island of Unguja, Zanzibar, Using the Sterile Insect Technique" 805:

being one of the few genera having relatively reliable information available: Moloo and Kutuza 1970 for

753:

A photograph and diagram of the head of a tsetse illustrating the branched hairs of the antenna's arista

9295: 8994: 8974: 6223: 5437: 5250: 4403: 4310: 3942: 3813: 3554: 1956: 1193: 270: 5751: 9315: 6455: 6396: 6300:. International Series of Monographs on Pure and Applied Biology, No. 20. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press. 6284: 6112: 5897: 5623:"The Tsetse Fly Eradication Project in Senegal Wins Award for Best Sustainable Development Practices" 5161: 5050: 3866: 3226: 3050: 2484:. Strains that infected humans were divided into two subspecies based on their different virulences: 153: 6342:

Programmes and information to assist in the planning and implementation of tsetse control operations

4205: 4129: 8959: 8954: 8451: 3505:

Anti-Submarine Warfare: An Illustrated History, 2007, by David Owen. Page 170. Seaforth Publishing.

2939: 2919: 2740:– SIT). To ensure sustainability of the results, it is critical to apply the control tactics on an 2737: 2681:) are sufficiently important to make virtually any intervention against these diseases beneficial. 5422:

Caragata, E.P.; Dong, S.; Dong, Y.; Simões, M.L.; Tikhe, C.V.; Dimopoulos, G. (8 September 2020).

9320: 8861: 8838: 8751: 6416: 5374: 5138: 4827:"Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology - School of Medicine | University of South Carolina" 4618: 3987: 3543:; Haselton, Aaron T. (7 January 2013). "The Adult Dipteran Crop: A Unique and Overlooked Organ". 3375: 3336: 3285: 3253: 3113: 2903: 2666: 2600: 2439: 2433: 2070: 2032: 1846: 1297: 866: 668: 548:, extending directly forward, which is attached by a distinct bulb to the bottom of their heads. 530: 33: 9262: 6401: 6054: 6046: 5650:"A U.S.-funded nuclear project to zap a killer fly into extinction is saving West Africa's cows" 4619:

Jan Van Den Abbeele; Guy Caljon; Karin De Ridder; Patrick De Baetselier; Marc Coosemans (2010).

1989:

The trypanosomes are injected into vertebrate muscle tissue, but make their way, first into the

9057: 8926: 7630: 5314:

Egri, A.; Blaho, M.; Kriska, G.; Farkas, R.; Gyurkovszky, M.; Akesson, S.; Horvath, G. (2012).

3210: 3198: 2545: 2458: 671:

is quite large, while the abdomen is wider, rather than elongated, and shorter than the wings.

534: 17: 9210: 6281:

The Natural History of Tsetse Flies: An Account of the Biology of the Genus Glossina (Diptera)

5111:

Sleeping sickness - A record of four years' war against it in Principe, Portuguese West Africa

3606: 9272: 9257: 9019: 8911: 8701: 8696: 8547: 4672:

T. Cherenet; R. A. Sani; J. M. Panandam; S. Nadzr; N. Speybroeck; P. van den Bossche (2004).

3365: 2820: 1824: 858: 522: 9249: 5107: 3709: 3479: 1886:, do not seem to cause any health problems except perhaps in animals that are already sick. 9153: 9104: 8866: 8660: 8647: 4917: 4511: 4381: 4011: 3870: 3309: 2973:

Newstead population from the Island. This was carried out without any understanding of the

1986:

eukaryotic parasites of mammals, found in another study by the same team in the same year.

1918: 1752: 1691: 1617: 1514: 1466: 1415: 1401: 1369: 1209: 6231: 5037:"Sleeping Sickness Epidemics and Colonial Responses in East and Central Africa, 1900–1940" 4318: 3950: 8: 9024: 8969: 8851: 8736: 8721: 8605: 6305:

Tsetse Biology and Ecology: Their role in the Epidemiology and Control of Trypanosomiasis

6034: 5817: 5654: 5109: 3129: 3024: 2974: 2839:

Tsetse populations can be monitored and effectively controlled using simple, inexpensive

971: 781: 5594:"Tsetse Free for 20 Years Thanks to a Nuclear Technique: The Island of Unguja, Zanzibar" 5487:

Sterile Insect Technique Principles And Practice In Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management

5446: 5423: 5258: 4921: 4515: 4015: 3874: 3821: 9095: 8542: 8123: 6691: 6261: 6248: 6209: 6125: 5992: 5965: 5937: 5924: 5883: 5822: 5813: 5795: 5704: 5677: 5467: 5424:"Prospects and Pitfalls: Next-Generation Tools to Control Mosquito-Transmitted Disease" 5404: 5216: 5203: 5176: 5090: 5077: 5036: 4764: 4649: 4620: 4480: 4423: 4335: 4296: 4272: 4259: 4220: 4189: 4144: 4113: 4072: 4053: 4040: 3989: 3970: 3901: 3852: 3740: 3711: 3692: 3562: 3398: 3381:

A Naturalist on Lake Victoria, with an Account of Sleeping Sickness and the Tse-tse Fly

3206: 3173: 3137: 3094: 2944: 2927: 2614: 1376: 977: 148: 140: 5139:"STRATEGIC REVIEW OF TRAPS AND TARGETS FOR TSETSE AND AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS CONTROL" 1794:- are definitely present in the very southwest of Saudi Arabia. Although Carter found 1159:. Waterbuck odor volatiles are under testing and development as repellents to protect 9244: 9140: 8746: 8716: 8665: 8655: 8630: 8564: 6976: 6253: 6235: 6210:"Tsetse genetics: Contributions to Biology, Systematics, and Control of Tsetse Flies" 6196: 6188: 6160: 6117: 6066: 6058: 6050: 6042: 5997: 5929: 5911: 5799: 5709: 5563: 5520: 5513: 5504: 5494: 5471: 5459: 5451: 5396: 5388: 5337: 5270: 5262: 5208: 5082: 5064: 4964:"Trypanotolerant livestock in the context of trypanosomiasis intervention strategies" 4945: 4940: 4905: 4886: 4881: 4852: 4756: 4748: 4744: 4695: 4654: 4599: 4529: 4472: 4415: 4340: 4322: 4297:"Tsetse Genetics: Contributions to Biology, Systematics, and Control of Tsetse Flies" 4264: 4246: 4194: 4176: 4118: 4100: 4057: 4045: 4027: 3998: 3962: 3954: 3906: 3888: 3833: 3825: 3745: 3684: 3676: 3610: 3574: 3566: 3486: 3457: 3434: 3379: 3332: 2907: 2745: 1625: 1057: 713:

A photograph of the whole body of a tsetse illustrating the folded wings when at rest

510: 9109: 6265: 5941: 5408: 5220: 5094: 4572: 4484: 4427: 4276: 3974: 3696: 2513:

developed in the surface coating of trypanosomes whilst in their tsetse fly vector.

873:), within which they complete their morphological transformations into adult flies. 8916: 8798: 8691: 8686: 8552: 8351: 8257: 8240: 8118: 7560: 7163: 6920: 6831: 6243: 6227: 6152: 6129: 6107: 6099: 6024:

Clement Gillman, 1882-1946: Biographical Notes on a Pioneer East African Geographer

5987: 5977: 5919: 5901: 5884:"Eliminating Human African Trypanosomiasis: Where Do We Stand and What Comes Next?" 5785: 5743: 5699: 5689: 5553: 5441: 5378: 5327: 5254: 5198: 5190: 5123: 5072: 5054: 4935: 4925: 4876: 4866: 4768: 4740: 4736: 4685: 4644: 4634: 4519: 4407: 4330: 4314: 4254: 4238: 4184: 4168: 4108: 4092: 4035: 4019: 3946: 3896: 3878: 3817: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3668: 3602: 3558: 3430: 3426: 3387: 3313: 3234: 3121: 2823:

in which advanced organic pesticides were applied directly to the backs of cattle.

2813: 2773: 2592: 2450: 1990: 1890: 1695: 1419: 1365: 1156: 952: 778:. The abdomen is short but wide and changes dramatically in volume during feeding. 674:

Four characteristics collectively separate adult tsetse from other kinds of flies:

570: 443: 397: 391: 354: 9145: 8460: 4071:

Kanté Tagueu, Sartrien; Farikou, Oumarou; Njiokou, Flobert; Simo, Gustave (2018).

1900:

Tsetse transmit trypanosomes in two ways, mechanical and biological transmission.

1227:

The salivary gland hypertrophy virus causes abnormal bleeding in the lobes of the

584:

and is easily rendered in other African languages. During World War II, a British

7968: 7963: 7828: 7727: 7676: 7513: 7194: 7059: 6885: 6877: 6699: 6658: 6353: 6103: 5982: 5906: 5694: 5177:"A Note on Sleeping Sickness in Principe Island and Angola, West Coast of Africa" 5059: 4639: 4596: 4385: 4242: 3883: 3540: 3054: 3016: 2899: 2729: 2634: 2551: 2457:. The infection progresses into the blood stream and eventually crosses into the 1845:, an infectious disease. In humans, tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is called 1842: 1812: 1699: 1645: 1631: 1566: 1552: 1538: 1490: 1361: 1261:

All current classifications place all the tsetse species in a single genus named

1228: 1203: 1053:(possibly higher in natural settings, 50% from crocodile in particular locations) 998: 986: 733:

A photograph of the wing of a tsetse illustrating the hatchet shaped central cell

581: 437: 3481:

Encyclopedia of Arthropod-Transmitted Infections of Man and Domesticated Animals

693:

A photograph of the head of a tsetse illustrating the forward pointing proboscis

9042: 8933: 8906: 8832: 8706: 8590: 8523: 8249: 8175: 8089: 8026: 7942: 7877: 7859: 7844: 7750: 7745: 7594: 7372: 7293: 7249: 7210: 6984: 6903: 6844: 6839: 6707: 6605: 6156: 5383: 5356: 5239:

Willett, K. C. (1963). "Trypanosomiasis and the Tsetse Fly Problem in Africa".

5194: 4783: 4625: 4172: 4096: 3775: 3660: 3222: 3157: 3141: 3063: 2864: 2789: 2705: 2517: 1838: 1266: 794: 255: 5852: 5508: 4524: 4499: 4411: 3672: 842: 9289: 9080: 8989: 8534: 8390: 8382: 8373: 8265: 8199: 8191: 8144: 8110: 7926: 7882: 7787: 7779: 7701: 7691: 7635: 7607: 7497: 7356: 7309: 7278: 7030: 7022: 6933: 6813: 6805: 6733: 6715: 6634: 6239: 6200: 6192: 5915: 5888: 5455: 5392: 5266: 5068: 4752: 4533: 4419: 4326: 4250: 4180: 4104: 4031: 3958: 3892: 3829: 3680: 3570: 3125: 3090: 3080: 2875:—which are given off in animals' breath and distributed downwind in an 2785: 2694: 2521: 1270: 967: 881: 798: 615:

Tsetse flies can be seen as independent individuals in three forms: as third-

89: 9223: 4023: 8921: 8886: 8810: 8580: 8421: 8413: 8404: 8346: 8307: 8290: 8165: 8065: 8002: 7910: 7887: 7818: 7763: 7740: 7696: 7686: 7681: 7671: 7650: 7565: 7526: 7489: 7459: 7417: 7396: 7364: 7265: 7215: 7013: 6912: 6823: 6771: 6763: 6666: 6642: 6580: 6522: 6257: 6164: 6121: 6001: 5933: 5713: 5567: 5558: 5537: 5463: 5400: 5341: 5274: 5212: 5086: 4963: 4949: 4930: 4760: 4699: 4690: 4673: 4671: 4658: 4344: 4268: 4198: 4122: 4049: 3966: 3910: 3780: 3749: 3688: 3578: 3245:

zone, which increases overgrazing and overuse of land for food production.

3202: 3012: 2717: 2713: 2698: 2498: 1828: 1816: 1198: 1184: 1084: 1036: 956: 585: 526: 489: 225: 9119: 6447: 6365:

Tsetse in the Transvaal and Surrounding Territories - An Historical Review

6085:"Liaisons dangereuses: sexual recombination among pathogenic trypanosomes" 4989:"Animal genetic resources characterization and conservation research i..." 4890: 4808: 4476: 3837: 3438: 705:

When at rest, tsetse fold their wings completely, one-on-top of the other.

9192: 9089: 8984: 8815: 8786: 8711: 8681: 8635: 8585: 8338: 8317: 8048: 8031: 8007: 7994: 7918: 7897: 7810: 7802: 7792: 7735: 7706: 7666: 7640: 7531: 7505: 7450: 7334: 7301: 7244: 7181: 7138: 6992: 6951: 6943: 6925: 6818: 6800: 6613: 6070: 5747: 4871: 4498:

Wedmann, Sonja; Poschmann, Markus; Hörnschemeyer, Thomas (1 March 2010).

3153: 3005:, livestock keeping was difficult due to the presence of a population of 2844: 2367: 1841:

to uninfected animals. Some tsetse-transmitted trypanosome species cause

1779: 994: 245: 235: 64: 3273: 9184: 8761: 8756: 8613: 8528: 8330: 8273: 8207: 8157: 8102: 7934: 7905: 7872: 7849: 7771: 7658: 7625: 7612: 7586: 7521: 7409: 7236: 7223: 7168: 7118: 7075: 7067: 6784: 6750: 6742: 6589: 6562: 6554: 6538: 5332: 5315: 5157: 4453:

sp. nov. (Diptera: Glossinidae)" [A new tsetse fly from the Congo:

3917: 3149: 3085: 2800: 2529: 1835: 1311: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1118: 1002: 908:

are the most important hosts. By species, bloodmeals are derived from:

604: 551: 518: 215: 109: 74: 4361: 4081:

caught in the Fontem sleeping sickness focus of the southern Cameroon"

334: 9197: 9166: 8979: 8595: 8356: 8312: 8149: 8139: 8073: 8057: 7981: 7973: 7955: 7867: 7854: 7836: 7823: 7602: 7552: 7539: 7476: 7468: 7380: 7283: 7270: 7257: 7202: 7147: 7083: 7043: 6852: 6650: 6510: 6498: 5490: 3145: 2931: 2654: 2533: 2506: 1968: 1910: 1894: 1832: 1778:

is almost entirely restricted to grassland and forested areas of the

1764: 1215: 1160: 1140: 1072: 1062: 1050: 1040: 822: 555: 545: 185: 165: 131: 114: 58: 9051: 6359:

PAN AFRICAN TSETSE AND TRYPANOSOMIASIS ERADICATION CAMPAIGN (PATTEC)

6062: 5776:

Chaves, Isaías; Engerman, Stanley; Robinson, James (November 2013).

5676:

Bouyer, F; Seck, MT; Dicko, AH; Sall, B; Lo, M; et al. (2014).

4903: 3598:

The Mobile Workshop: The Tsetse Fly and African Knowledge Production

1286: 1213:) intercellularly or intracellularly, and the third is some kind of 745:

The antennae have arista with hairs which are, themselves, branched.

9171: 9074: 8876: 8781: 8623: 8618: 8081: 7989: 7714: 7617: 7573: 7425: 7388: 7173: 7155: 6621: 6516: 5882:

Simarro, Pere P; Jannin, Jean; Cattand, Pierre (26 February 2008).

5790: 5777: 4234: 3857: 3664: 3239: 3102: 2964: 2960: 2887: 2852: 2840: 2765: 2631:

The tsetse fly vector ranges mostly in the central part of Africa.

2466: 1964: 1943: 1875: 1871: 1122: 1107: 1096: 1017: 1013: 990: 775: 104: 99: 84: 79: 69: 6346: 5164:/Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. 3802:

Glasgow, J. P. (1967). "Recent Fundamental Work on Tsetse Flies".

3485:. New York: Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International. 2955:

A project that was implemented from 1994 to 1997 on the Island of

2453:, leading to a characteristic swelling of the lymph glands called 8871: 8827: 8793: 8771: 8726: 7347: 6597: 4717:

induces alteration in the head proteome of the tsetse fly vector

3523: 2998: 2895: 2872: 2868: 2809: 2701:

treatments to reduce the number of hosts that carry the disease.

2642: 2599:

The course of the disease in animals is similar to the course of

2575: 2510: 2353: 1948: 1906: 1252: 1126: 1067: 1045: 937: 933: 922: 918: 664: 623: 541: 119: 94: 2744:, i.e. targeting an entire tsetse population that is preferably 8805: 8506: 8495: 8131: 7189: 6504: 6492: 5149: 3185: 3178: 3172:

Tsetse flies are regarded as a major cause of rural poverty in

3133: 2994: 2987: 2956: 2684: 2670: 2559: 2286: 2218: 2160: 2108: 1760: 981:— 30–45% from warthog, 25–40% from various Bovidae, especially 941: 905: 885: 862: 814: 790: 767: 616: 493: 195: 175: 52: 48: 9158: 9037: 5035:

Headrick, Daniel R. (24 April 2014). Büscher, Philippe (ed.).

4070: 3716:: Milk protein production, symbiont populations and fecundity" 3591: 2613:

are the two most important species infecting bovine cattle in

2590:

of the infected animals. Certain species of cattle are called

573:, particularly in the scientific and development communities. 409: 363: 8776: 4784:"Trypanosomiasis page, "Microbiology and Immunology On-line"" 4497: 3914: 3242: 3028: 3002: 2935: 2891: 2880: 2856: 2831: 2769: 2650: 2622: 2587: 2563: 2470: 2462: 2344: 1859: 889: 818: 514: 497: 5538:"Economic impact assessment of rinderpest control in Africa" 3120:

The areas occupied by the tsetse fly were largely barred to

2736:- SAT) and in some situations the release of sterile males ( 789:

The internal anatomy of the tsetse is fairly typical of the

8820: 4357: 3257: 2786:

complete removal of brush and woody vegetation from an area

2638: 2583: 2579: 1857:(a French term which may not be a distinct condition), and 1804:

in southern Yemen, there have been no confirmations since.

1801: 982: 893: 464: 455: 418: 372: 5136: 4390:, Wied.), which apparently disseminates sleeping sickness" 3767:"Tsetse biology, systematics and distribution, techniques" 3535: 3533: 3252:

Tsetse flies transmit a similar disease to humans, called

3053:, the tsetse has been linked to difficulties during early 6479: 5535: 3390:, who conducted early 20th century research on the insect 3343:. These defenses limit the population of infected flies. 3340: 2848: 2805: 2571: 2505:

infective to humans requires a more complex explanation.

1979: 1913:, can also cause mechanical transmission of trypanosomes. 817:, which can become large enough to hold the third-instar 205: 6341: 5963: 4712: 4221:"Tsetse flies: Genetics, evolution, and role as vectors" 3451: 1975:

was induced. This is very similar to the alterations in

6434:(International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology) 4809:"Trypanosoma simiae - CABI Invasive Species Compendium" 4441:

J. P. Gouteux (1987). "Une nouvelle glossine du Congo:

4290: 4288: 4286: 4064: 3530: 2712:

Vector control strategies can aim at either continuous

603:

The biology of tsetse is relatively well understood by

5775: 5421: 5354: 3850: 3456:(23rd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. p. 607. 2704:

Economic analysis indicates that the cost of managing

1849:. In animals, tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases include 1083:— ~3% from wild Suidae, more substantial amounts from 1035:— ~3% from wild Suidae, more substantial amounts from 896:

stage, and the emergence and maturation of the adult.

6313:

Maudlin, I., Holmes, P. H., and Miles, M. A. (2004).

5818:"Virus Deadly in Livestock Is No More, U.N. Declares" 5729:"The Effect of the Tsetse fly on African Development" 5313: 4565: 3648: 3520:

Trypanosomaisis control and African rural development

2768:

off the west coast of Africa was entirely cleared of

1917:

extrinsic incubation period), which requires extreme

813:. The reproductive tract of adult females includes a 473: 461: 452: 427: 415: 406: 381: 369: 360: 5881: 5812: 5536:

Tambi EN, Maina OW, Mukhebi AW, Randolph TF (1999).

4548:"Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness)" 4283: 4142: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3383:; 1920. T.F. Unwin Ltd, London; Biodiversity Archive 3164:

resurgence that became a crisis again in the 1990s.

458: 449: 412: 403: 366: 8490: 5877: 5875: 5873: 5675: 5415: 4008:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

3981: 446: 400: 357: 6291:The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology 5957: 5348: 4706: 3712:"Analysis of milk gland structure and function in 3539: 3478: 2574:, is caused by several trypanosome species. These 1121:, also ~20% from Bovidae, variably up to 12% from 831:" has a diagram of the anatomy of dipteran flies. 6876: 6690: 5586: 5478: 3623: 1599:The 'riverine' and 'lacustrine' flies: (subgenus 809:(including its innervation) and Langley 1965 for 9287: 6975: 6376:Leverhulme Trust Tsetse Research Network (LTTRN) 5870: 5130: 5101: 4295:Gooding, R.H.; Krafsur, Elliot Scoville (2005). 3093:of east Africa. In South Africa, with no native 2497:analysis suggests that the three subspecies are 880:Technically, these insects undergo the standard 7391:(scuttle flies, coffin flies, humpbacked flies) 6187:. Vol. 170, no. 6. pp. 814–833. 6142: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5020: 5018: 4910:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3930: 3924: 3844: 3416: 3368:in 1913 with a dissertation on the tsetse fly ( 6928:(minute black scavenger flies, or dung midges) 6207: 4376: 4374: 4372: 4294: 3362:London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine 496:. Tsetse flies include all the species in the 8476: 8381: 8248: 6902: 6463: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5840: 5290:"Scientists unravel mystery of zebra stripes" 5028: 4853:"History of Sleeping Sickness in East Africa" 4440: 4136: 3761: 3759: 3325: 663: in), and have a recognizable shape, or 32:"Tsetse" redirects here. For other uses, see 8412: 6732: 6553: 6423:"Insect of the Month (October): Tsetse fly, 6136: 6076: 5227: 5182:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 5168: 5015: 4678:Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 4434: 4212: 3795: 3585: 3517: 3419:Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2855:. Some scientists put forward the idea that 2816:rates. Later, more targeted techniques used 2759: 2528:, and transmitted by certain insects of the 1996: 1942:, during this time the parasite changes the 569:without the "fly" has become more common in 7012: 6579: 6477: 6181:Gerster, George (December 1986). "Tsetse". 5484: 4590: 4369: 3019:breeds to higher-producing foreign breeds. 2913: 2586:animals, generally leading to the eventual 2442:, is caused by trypanosomes of the species 2438:Human African trypanosomiasis, also called 1982:vectors' head proteomes under infection by 1183:Tsetse flies have at least three bacterial 8483: 8469: 7137: 6470: 6456: 5837: 4781: 3756: 3476: 1136:— ~6% from various birds excluding ostrich 333: 130: 6347:Programme Against African Trypanosomiasis 6247: 6113:1983/1ecb5cba-da25-4e93-a3cb-b00a0477cb23 6111: 5991: 5981: 5923: 5905: 5789: 5703: 5693: 5557: 5445: 5382: 5331: 5202: 5076: 5058: 4939: 4929: 4880: 4870: 4689: 4648: 4638: 4523: 4504:Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments 4351: 4334: 4258: 4188: 4112: 4039: 3900: 3882: 3739: 1959:synthesis is also altered: Production of 1327:Learn how and when to remove this message 6298:The Distribution and Abundance of Tsetse 5647: 5542:Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'OIE 5034: 4801: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4469:Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft 3513: 3511: 3184: 3108: 2886:A special trapping method is applied in 2830: 2683: 2495:restriction fragment length polymorphism 1811: 841: 780: 588:antisubmarine aircraft was known as the 505:, which are placed in their own family, 8113:(blow-flies: bluebottles, greenbottles) 7116: 6536: 6324:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 6322:Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa 6180: 5806: 5238: 5174: 4850: 4218: 3801: 3607:10.7551/mitpress/9780262535021.001.0001 2894:, BioVision Foundation, BEA, Helvetas, 2501:, so the elucidation of the strains of 2488:was thought to have a slower onset and 1746: 14: 9288: 8767:List of crop plants pollinated by bees 7346: 6331:. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd. 6082: 5850: 5287: 4457:sp. nov. (Diptera: Glossinidae)]. 4386:"A New East African Tsetse-fly (Genus 4380: 4157:from the Democratic Republic of Congo" 3136:. In 1909 the newly retired president 3045:African trypanosomiasis § History 2926:) is a form of pest control that uses 2795: 2539: 9056: 9055: 8464: 7115: 6535: 6451: 6327:Mulligan, H. & Potts, W. (1970). 6232:10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130443 6208:Gooding, R.H.; Krafsur, E.S. (2005). 5726: 5189:(Sect Epidemiol State Med): 191–194. 5137:F.A.S. Kuzoe; C.J. Schofield (2004). 4579: 4319:10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130443 4077:and different trypanosome species in 3994:): Vector of African Trypanosomiasis" 3951:10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407 3508: 3445: 3229:, and 30 or 34 are among the 40 most 2751: 2677:) and animal African trypanosomosis ( 1751:Fossil glossinids are known from the 1075:(possibly higher in natural settings) 5601:(International Atomic Energy Agency) 5580: 3990:"Genome Sequence of the Tsetse Fly ( 3268: 3209:, often with associated problems of 3167: 2772:pigs in the 1930s, which led to the 1432: 1309:adding citations to reliable sources 1280: 1016:, 15% from red river hog, ~12% from 5546:OIE Scientific and Technical Review 5447:10.1146/annurev-micro-011320-025557 5259:10.1146/annurev.en.08.010163.001213 5114:. Translated by Wyllie, John Alfred 3822:10.1146/annurev.en.12.010167.002225 3470: 3264: 1973:α-methyldopa hypersensitive protein 1961:aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase 1953:glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase 884:process of insects, beginning with 828:Parasitic flies of domestic animals 24: 7576:(cactus flies, banana stalk flies) 6174: 5648:Paquette, Danielle (31 May 2019). 4460:Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 4395:Bulletin of Entomological Research 3563:10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153653 3223:low-income, food-deficit countries 3038: 1927:the tsetse-vectored trypanosomes. 1807: 748: 728: 708: 688: 27:Genus of disease-spreading insects 25: 9332: 9301:Insect vectors of human pathogens 6335: 4226:Infection, Genetics and Evolution 3772:Food and Agriculture Organization 3652:Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 3394:Use of DNA in forensic entomology 2784:Another early technique involved 9036: 6028:East African Geographical Review 5970:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5727:Alsan, Marcella (January 2015). 5042:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4745:10.1111/j.1365-2583.2007.00761.x 4204: 4128: 3272: 2890:, where the BioFarm Consortium ( 2779: 2647:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1343:The 'savannah' flies: (subgenus 1285: 1117:— unusually dependant (~60%) on 513:, which lives by feeding on the 442: 396: 353: 152: 62: 9306:Extant Eocene first appearances 6400:. 5 August 2016. Archived from 6017: 6008: 5948: 5851:Pearce, Fred (12 August 2000). 5769: 5720: 5669: 5641: 5615: 5574: 5529: 5320:Journal of Experimental Biology 5307: 5281: 5006: 4981: 4956: 4897: 4844: 4819: 4775: 4665: 4612: 4540: 4491: 3231:heavily indebted poor countries 3078:According to an article in the 1759:of Germany, dating to the late 1387:Glossina morsitans submorsitans 1296:needs additional citations for 1197:), which live within the fly's 554:tsetse has been recovered from 8882:Home-stored product entomology 6372:(Division of Entomology, 1923) 6293:. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. 5366:Journal of Economic Entomology 3732:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2008.06.008 3703: 3593:Clapperton Chakanetsa Mavhunga 3499: 3431:10.1080/00034983.1996.11813049 3410: 2582:productivity, and strength of 2490:Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense 1533:Glossina nigrofusca nigrofusca 1438:The 'forest' flies: (subgenus 1246: 801:is heavily understudied, with 561: 492:that inhabit much of tropical 13: 1: 8965:Decline in insect populations 8558:List of insect-inspired songs 7260:(dagger flies, balloon flies) 6307:. New York: CABI Publishing. 5429:Annual Review of Microbiology 4858:Clinical Microbiology Reviews 4145:"Molecular identification of 3404: 2657:is the most resistant breed. 2621:causes a virulent disease in 837: 610: 6273: 6104:10.1016/j.resmic.2015.05.005 5983:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001859 5907:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050055 5695:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003112 5493:. pp. 529–548/xv+1200. 5060:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002772 4788:University of South Carolina 4719:Glossina palpalis gambiensis 4640:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000926 4455:Glossina (Austenina) frezili 4243:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.09.010 4155:Glossina fuscipes quanzensis 3884:10.1371/journal.pone.0254558 3720:Journal of Insect Physiology 3353:David Bruce (microbiologist) 3189:Tsetse fly from Burkina Faso 3008:Glossina palpalis gambiensis 2734:Sequential Aerosol Technique 2688:Tsetse fly from Burkina Faso 2486:Trypanosoma brucei gambiense 2427: 1717:Glossina palpalis gambiensis 1686:Glossina pallicera newsteadi 1676:Glossina pallicera pallicera 1664:Glossina fuscipes quanzensis 1178: 940:, possibly 10% from various 7: 8452:List of families of Diptera 8084:(house flies, stable flies) 6381:BITING FLIES - The NZI Trap 6329:The African Trypanosomiases 6215:Annual Review of Entomology 5242:Annual Review of Entomology 4733:Royal Entomological Society 4597:George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 4593:The African Trypanosomiases 4302:Annual Review of Entomology 3934:Annual Review of Entomology 3805:Annual Review of Entomology 3546:Annual Review of Entomology 3346: 2826: 2722:impregnated treated targets 2570:when it occurs in domestic 1222: 1166: 865:), in an adaptation called 785:Reproductive anatomy sketch 619:larvae, pupae, and adults. 10: 9337: 8995:Pesticide toxicity to bees 8975:List of endangered insects 6855:(dark-winged fungus gnats) 6847:(long-winged fungus gnats) 6834:(long-beaked fungus gnats) 6320:McKelvey, J., Jr. (1973). 6285:H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd. 6157:10.1016/j.ibmb.2003.07.001 5384:10.1603/0022-0493-93.1.123 5195:10.1177/003591571300601409 4079:Glossina palpalis palpalis 3454:Manson's Tropical Diseases 3326:Resistance to trypanosomes 3073: 3042: 3001:, a coastal area close to 2726:insecticide-treated cattle 2714:suppression or eradication 2660: 2543: 2431: 1957:Monoamine neurotransmitter 1707:Glossina palpalis palpalis 1654:Glossina fuscipes martinii 1640:Glossina fuscipes fuscipes 1276: 1194:Wigglesworthia glossinidia 1187:. The primary symbiont is 761: 598: 31: 9064: 9033: 9005: 8947: 8899: 8850: 8735: 8674: 8646: 8604: 8573: 8516: 8502: 8449: 8403: 8372: 8329: 8298: 8289: 8239: 8235: 8174: 8101: 8056: 8047: 8019: 7954: 7929:(vinegar and fruit flies) 7896: 7839:(lekking, or druid flies) 7801: 7762: 7726: 7649: 7585: 7551: 7488: 7467: 7458: 7449: 7445: 7408: 7355: 7342: 7333: 7292: 7235: 7146: 7133: 7129: 7125: 7111: 7062:(long-bodied crane flies) 7042: 7021: 7008: 6971: 6942: 6911: 6898: 6872: 6783: 6762: 6741: 6728: 6686: 6633: 6588: 6575: 6549: 6545: 6531: 6487: 6397:World Health Organization 6392:"The vector (tsetse fly)" 6145:Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol 5898:Public Library of Science 5782:NBER Working Paper Series 5294:Christian Science Monitor 5175:McCowen, Surgeon (1913). 5051:Public Library of Science 4715:Trypanosoma brucei brucei 4525:10.1007/s12549-009-0013-5 4412:10.1017/s0007485300045417 3867:Public Library of Science 3673:10.1016/j.jip.2012.07.026 3227:least developed countries 3051:environmental determinism 2902:) applies the traps in a 2760:Slaughter of wild animals 2482:Trypanosoma brucei brucei 1997:Disease hosts and vectors 1755:in North America and the 1711:(Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) 1201:. The second symbiont is 341: 332: 302: 297: 149:Scientific classification 147: 138: 129: 43: 8960:Colony collapse disorder 8955:Bees and toxic chemicals 6826:(predatory fungus gnats) 5736:American Economic Review 4724:Insect Molecular Biology 4173:10.1051/parasite/2019005 4097:10.1051/parasite/2018044 3477:M. Service, ed. (2001). 2940:environmentally friendly 2920:sterile insect technique 2914:Sterile insect technique 2738:sterile insect technique 2709:cattle, can be covered. 2578:reduce the growth rate, 2359:Phacochoerus aethiopicus 1870:Trypanosomes are animal 1782:. Only two subspecies - 1770: 1251:Tsetse are in the order 899: 342:Range of the tsetse fly 8862:Insect bites and stings 8839:Drosophila melanogaster 8752:Biological pest control 7717:(black scavenger flies) 7078:(hairy-eyed craneflies) 6995:(primitive crane flies) 6753:(march flies, lovebugs) 5375:Oxford University Press 4060:. NIHMSID: NIHMS591386. 4024:10.1126/science.1249656 3522:. London and New York: 3337:reactive oxygen species 3254:African trypanosomiasis 3114:Serengeti National Park 2904:sustainable agriculture 2434:African trypanosomiasis 1269:, which contains other 1175:was sequenced in 2014. 951:— 65% from bushpig and 867:adenotrophic viviparity 576:The word is pronounced 34:Tsetse (disambiguation) 8927:Rats, Lice and History 8359:(horse and deer flies) 7631:Strongylophthalmyiidae 7542:(picture-winged flies) 7070:(limoniid crane flies) 5802:. Working Paper 19673. 5559:10.20506/rst.18.2.1164 4931:10.1073/pnas.98.4.1513 4691:10.4102/ojvr.v71i4.250 4219:Krafsur, E.S. (2009). 3199:animal trypanosomiasis 3190: 3117: 3027:of these drugs in the 2836: 2689: 2607:Trypanosoma congolense 2546:Animal trypanosomiasis 2459:central nervous system 1820: 857:Tsetse has an unusual 854: 786: 754: 734: 714: 694: 535:animal trypanosomiasis 9258:Paleobiology Database 8912:Alfred Russel Wallace 8697:Entomological warfare 8548:Insects in literature 7945:(frightful hairy fly) 7774:(beetle-backed flies) 7312:(tangle-veined flies) 7197:(hilarimorphid flies) 7158:(flower-loving flies) 6987:(phantom crane flies) 6352:15 April 2021 at the 6037:. Hoyle, Brian S. pp. 3518:A. M. Jordan (1986). 3188: 3112: 3049:In the literature of 3015:from lower producing 2834: 2687: 2081:T. brucei rhodesiense 1815: 1800:in 1903 nearby, near 1575:Glossina tabaniformis 1461:Glossina fuscipleuris 1347:, occasionally named 1151:because they produce 845: 784: 752: 741:Branched arista hairs 732: 712: 692: 480:) (sometimes spelled 326:("riverine" subgenus) 310:("savannah" subgenus) 8867:Insect sting allergy 8661:Cicadas in mythology 8276:(wood soldier flies) 8126:(New Zealand batfly) 8076:(little house flies) 7568:(stilt-legged flies) 7479:(thick-headed flies) 7375:(spear-winged flies) 7304:(small-headed flies) 7033:(winter crane flies) 6608:(frog-biting midges) 6404:on 29 September 2016 6317:. CAB International. 6296:Glasgow, J. (1963). 5814:Donald G. McNeil Jr. 5748:10.1257/aer.20130604 4872:10.1128/CMR.12.1.112 4151:Sodalis glossinidius 4075:Sodalis glossinidius 2963:(United Republic of 2746:genetically isolated 1955:in infected flies.) 1753:Florissant Formation 1747:Evolutionary history 1727:Glossina tachinoides 1499:Glossina longipennis 1451:Glossina fusca fusca 1410:Glossina swynnertoni 1305:improve this article 1210:Sodalis glossinidius 1147:) are unmolested by 1145:Kobus ellipsiprymnus 8970:Habitat destruction 8722:Insects in religion 8341:(water snipe flies) 7862:(upside-down flies) 7399:(flat-footed flies) 7383:(flat-footed flies) 7252:(long-legged flies) 7086:(large crane flies) 6702:(net-winged midges) 6669:(non-biting midges) 6315:The Trypanosomiases 6279:Buxton, P. (1955). 6184:National Geographic 6035:Makerere University 5816:(15 October 2010). 5655:The Washington Post 4922:2001PNAS...98.1513A 4782:R. C. Hunt (2004). 4516:2010PdPe...90...49W 4016:2014Sci...344..380. 3918:0000-0002-6754-2432 3875:2021PLoSO..1654558A 3783:on 30 November 2021 3541:Stoffolano, John G. 3358:G.D. Hale Carpenter 3306:C. F. M. Swynnerton 3130:World Wildlife Fund 2975:population genetics 2796:Pesticide campaigns 2653:has shown that the 2540:In domestic animals 2465:leading to extreme 2455:Winterbottom's sign 2043:T. brucei gambiense 1721:(Vanderplank, 1911) 1603:, previously named 1485:Glossina haningtoni 1442:, previously named 1396:Glossina pallidipes 853:from a 1920 lexicon 821:at the end of each 509:. The tsetse is an 318:("forest" subgenus) 9311:Insects in culture 9043:Insects portal 9015:Insects and humans 8543:Arthropods in film 8492:Human interactions 8010:(freeloader flies) 7813:(leaf miner flies) 7753:(small dung flies) 7597:(stalk-eyed flies) 7420:(big-headed flies) 6878:Perissommatomorpha 6708:Deuterophlebiidae 6692:Blephariceromorpha 6425:Glossina morsitans 5853:"Inventing Africa" 5823:The New York Times 5682:PLOS Negl Trop Dis 5333:10.1242/jeb.065540 5288:Doyle-Burr, Nora. 3992:Glossina morsitans 3714:Glossina morsitans 3399:Horses in Botswana 3284:. You can help by 3207:trypanocidal drugs 3191: 3174:sub-Saharan Africa 3138:Theodore Roosevelt 3118: 2945:Ceratitis capitata 2928:ionizing radiation 2837: 2752:Control techniques 2690: 2619:Trypanosoma simiae 2615:sub-Saharan Africa 2558:when it occurs in 2520:, which occurs in 2478:Trypanosoma brucei 2469:and eventually to 2444:Trypanosoma brucei 1825:biological vectors 1821: 1791:G. m. submorsitans 1757:Enspel Lagerstätte 1612:Glossina caliginea 1509:Glossina medicorum 1377:Glossina morsitans 1173:Glossina morsitans 1133:G. m. submorsitans 997:, most especially 855: 787: 755: 735: 715: 695: 523:biological vectors 488:flies) are large, 141:Glossina morsitans 9296:Diptera of Africa 9283: 9282: 9245:Open Tree of Life 9058:Taxon identifiers 9049: 9048: 8938:Insect Literature 8895: 8894: 8794:Carmine/Cochineal 8747:Beneficial insect 8717:Insects in ethics 8666:Scarab (artifact) 8656:Bees in mythology 8565:Insects on stamps 8458: 8457: 8445: 8444: 8441: 8440: 8437: 8436: 8433: 8432: 8425: 8399: 8398: 8368: 8367: 8360: 8342: 8321: 8285: 8284: 8277: 8269: 8261: 8258:Pantophthalmidae 8231: 8230: 8227: 8226: 8223: 8222: 8219: 8218: 8211: 8203: 8195: 8187: 8161: 8153: 8135: 8127: 8114: 8093: 8085: 8077: 8069: 8043: 8042: 8035: 8011: 7998: 7985: 7977: 7964:Acartophthalmidae 7946: 7938: 7930: 7922: 7914: 7913:(quasimodo flies) 7863: 7840: 7832: 7814: 7783: 7775: 7754: 7718: 7710: 7662: 7621: 7598: 7577: 7569: 7543: 7535: 7517: 7509: 7501: 7480: 7441: 7440: 7437: 7436: 7429: 7421: 7400: 7392: 7384: 7376: 7368: 7329: 7328: 7325: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7313: 7305: 7274: 7261: 7253: 7227: 7219: 7206: 7198: 7185: 7177: 7159: 7107: 7106: 7103: 7102: 7099: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7087: 7079: 7071: 7063: 7053: 7034: 7004: 7003: 6996: 6988: 6977:Ptychopteromorpha 6967: 6966: 6963: 6962: 6955: 6929: 6894: 6893: 6868: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6856: 6848: 6835: 6832:Lygistorrhinidae 6827: 6809: 6794: 6775: 6754: 6724: 6723: 6711: 6710:(mountain midges) 6703: 6682: 6681: 6678: 6677: 6670: 6662: 6654: 6646: 6645:(solitary midges) 6625: 6617: 6609: 6601: 6600:(meniscus midges) 6571: 6570: 6386:Distribution maps 6303:Leak, S. (1998). 6289:Ford, J. (1971). 6083:Gibson W (2015). 5603:. 24 October 2016 5525:978-1-003-03557-2 5518:978-0-367-47434-8 5500:978-1-000-37776-7 4153:in the midgut of 4010:(AAAS): 380–386. 3616:978-0-262-53502-1 3492:978-0-85199-473-4 3463:978-0-7020-5101-2 3376:sleeping sickness 3371:Glossina palpalis 3333:hydrogen peroxide 3302: 3301: 3168:Current situation 3031:, meat and milk. 2908:rural development 2667:sleeping sickness 2611:Trypanosoma vivax 2601:sleeping sickness 2532:, members of the 2526:Trypanosoma cruzi 2440:sleeping sickness 2425: 2424: 2071:Sleeping sickness 2033:Sleeping sickness 1847:sleeping sickness 1743: 1742: 1732: 1722: 1712: 1702: 1681: 1669: 1659: 1649: 1635: 1626:Glossina fuscipes 1621: 1590: 1585:Glossina vanhoofi 1580: 1570: 1561:Glossina schwetzi 1556: 1547:Glossina severini 1542: 1528: 1518: 1504: 1494: 1480: 1470: 1456: 1426: 1405: 1382: 1372: 1337: 1336: 1329: 955:, up to 20% from 847:Glossina palpalis 759: 758: 511:obligate parasite 346: 345: 293: 274: 16:(Redirected from 9328: 9316:Flies and humans 9276: 9275: 9266: 9265: 9253: 9252: 9240: 9239: 9227: 9226: 9214: 9213: 9201: 9200: 9188: 9187: 9175: 9174: 9162: 9161: 9149: 9148: 9136: 9135: 9123: 9122: 9113: 9112: 9100: 9099: 9098: 9085: 9084: 9083: 9053: 9052: 9041: 9040: 8917:Jean-Henri Fabre 8692:Cricket fighting 8687:Cockroach racing 8553:Insects in music 8514: 8513: 8485: 8478: 8471: 8462: 8461: 8423: 8410: 8409: 8379: 8378: 8374:Vermileonomorpha 8358: 8352:Pelecorhynchidae 8340: 8319: 8296: 8295: 8275: 8267: 8259: 8246: 8245: 8241:Stratiomyomorpha 8237: 8236: 8209: 8201: 8193: 8185: 8159: 8151: 8133: 8125: 8124:Mystacinobiidae 8119:Mesembrinellidae 8112: 8091: 8083: 8075: 8067: 8054: 8053: 8033: 8009: 7996: 7983: 7975: 7944: 7936: 7928: 7920: 7912: 7861: 7838: 7830: 7829:Aulacigastridae 7812: 7781: 7773: 7752: 7716: 7708: 7660: 7636:Syringogastridae 7619: 7596: 7575: 7567: 7561:Cypselosomatidae 7541: 7533: 7515: 7514:Platystomatidae 7507: 7499: 7478: 7465: 7464: 7456: 7455: 7447: 7446: 7427: 7419: 7398: 7390: 7382: 7374: 7366: 7353: 7352: 7344: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7311: 7303: 7272: 7259: 7251: 7226:(stiletto flies) 7225: 7217: 7204: 7196: 7195:Hilarimorphidae 7183: 7175: 7164:Apsilocephalidae 7157: 7144: 7143: 7135: 7134: 7131: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7113: 7112: 7085: 7077: 7069: 7061: 7060:Cylindrotomidae 7052: 7051: 7047: 7032: 7019: 7018: 7010: 7009: 6994: 6986: 6973: 6972: 6953: 6927: 6921:Canthyloscelidae 6909: 6908: 6900: 6899: 6874: 6873: 6854: 6846: 6833: 6825: 6807: 6793: 6792: 6788: 6773: 6752: 6739: 6738: 6730: 6729: 6709: 6701: 6700:Blephariceridae 6688: 6687: 6668: 6660: 6659:Ceratopogonidae 6652: 6644: 6623: 6616:(phantom midges) 6615: 6607: 6599: 6586: 6585: 6577: 6576: 6551: 6550: 6547: 6546: 6533: 6532: 6472: 6465: 6458: 6449: 6448: 6444: 6442: 6440: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6269: 6251: 6204: 6169: 6168: 6140: 6134: 6133: 6115: 6089: 6080: 6074: 6040: 6033: 6021: 6015: 6012: 6006: 6005: 5995: 5985: 5961: 5955: 5952: 5946: 5945: 5927: 5909: 5879: 5868: 5867: 5857: 5848: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5793: 5773: 5767: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5756: 5750:. Archived from 5742:(105): 382–410. 5733: 5724: 5718: 5717: 5707: 5697: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5645: 5639: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5572: 5571: 5561: 5533: 5527: 5512: 5482: 5476: 5475: 5449: 5419: 5413: 5412: 5386: 5377:(OUP): 123–135. 5359:Glossina austeni 5352: 5346: 5345: 5335: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5285: 5279: 5278: 5236: 5225: 5224: 5206: 5172: 5166: 5165: 5143: 5134: 5128: 5127: 5124:Internet Archive 5121: 5119: 5105: 5099: 5098: 5080: 5062: 5032: 5026: 5022: 5013: 5010: 5004: 5003: 5001: 4999: 4994:. 9 January 2012 4985: 4979: 4978: 4976: 4974: 4960: 4954: 4953: 4943: 4933: 4916:(4): 1513–1518. 4901: 4895: 4894: 4884: 4874: 4851:G. Hide (1999). 4848: 4842: 4841: 4839: 4837: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4805: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4693: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4652: 4642: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4588: 4577: 4576: 4569: 4563: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4527: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4378: 4367: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4338: 4292: 4281: 4280: 4262: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4208: 4202: 4192: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4132: 4126: 4116: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4043: 3985: 3979: 3978: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3904: 3886: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3799: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3779:. Archived from 3763: 3754: 3753: 3743: 3726:(8): 1236–1242. 3707: 3701: 3700: 3646: 3621: 3620: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3537: 3528: 3527: 3515: 3506: 3503: 3497: 3496: 3484: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3414: 3388:Muriel Robertson 3378:. He published: 3314:patronymic taxon 3304:In East Africa, 3297: 3294: 3276: 3269: 3265:History of study 3235:animal husbandry 3122:animal husbandry 2970:Glossina austeni 2814:Ultra-Low Volume 2665:The conquest of 2461:and invades the 2451:lymphatic system 2125:T. brucei brucei 2011:Species affected 2005: 2004: 1991:lymphatic system 1971:synthesis - and 1940:G. p. gambiensis 1819:in a blood smear 1731:(Westwood, 1850) 1730: 1720: 1710: 1689: 1679: 1667: 1657: 1643: 1629: 1615: 1588: 1579:(Westwood, 1850) 1578: 1569:and Evans, 1921) 1564: 1550: 1536: 1526: 1512: 1502: 1493:and Evans, 1922) 1488: 1478: 1475:Glossina frezili 1464: 1454: 1433: 1413: 1399: 1381:(Westwood, 1851) 1380: 1359: 1356:Glossina austeni 1332: 1325: 1321: 1318: 1312: 1289: 1281: 1125:, up to 7% from 953:giant forest hog 677: 676: 662: 661: 657: 652: 651: 647: 639: 638: 634: 484:; also known as 476: 471: 470: 467: 466: 463: 460: 457: 454: 451: 448: 441: 430: 425: 424: 421: 420: 417: 414: 411: 408: 405: 402: 395: 384: 379: 378: 375: 374: 371: 368: 365: 362: 359: 337: 288: 269: 157: 156: 134: 124: 61: 47:Temporal range: 41: 40: 21: 9336: 9335: 9331: 9330: 9329: 9327: 9326: 9325: 9286: 9285: 9284: 9279: 9271: 9269: 9261: 9256: 9248: 9243: 9235: 9230: 9222: 9217: 9209: 9204: 9196: 9191: 9183: 9178: 9170: 9165: 9157: 9152: 9144: 9139: 9131: 9126: 9118: 9116: 9108: 9103: 9094: 9093: 9088: 9079: 9078: 9073: 9060: 9050: 9045: 9035: 9029: 9007: 9001: 8943: 8891: 8853: 8846: 8738: 8731: 8670: 8642: 8600: 8569: 8509: 8504: 8498: 8489: 8459: 8454: 8429: 8405:Xylophagomorpha 8395: 8364: 8325: 8281: 8268:(soldier flies) 8215: 8170: 8160:(tachina flies) 8097: 8090:Scathophagidae 8068:(cabbage flies) 8039: 8015: 7969:Australimyzidae 7950: 7943:Mormotomyiidae 7892: 7860:Neurochaetidae 7797: 7758: 7751:Sphaeroceridae 7728:Sphaeroceroidea 7722: 7682:Heterocheilidae 7677:Helosciomyzidae 7645: 7581: 7547: 7534:(peacock flies) 7500:(flutter flies) 7484: 7433: 7404: 7373:Lonchopteridae 7317: 7288: 7266:Homalocnemiidae 7250:Dolichopodidae 7231: 7121: 7091: 7049: 7048: 7046: 7038: 7000: 6985:Ptychopteridae 6959: 6938: 6890: 6886:Perissommatidae 6860: 6845:Rangomaramidae 6790: 6789: 6787: 6779: 6758: 6720: 6674: 6661:(biting midges) 6629: 6606:Corethrellidae 6567: 6541: 6527: 6483: 6476: 6438: 6436: 6421: 6407: 6405: 6390: 6354:Wayback Machine 6338: 6276: 6177: 6175:Further reading 6172: 6151:(11): 1155–64. 6141: 6137: 6087: 6081: 6077: 6038: 6031: 6022: 6018: 6013: 6009: 5962: 5958: 5953: 5949: 5880: 5871: 5855: 5849: 5838: 5828: 5826: 5811: 5807: 5774: 5770: 5760: 5758: 5757:on 20 June 2015 5754: 5731: 5725: 5721: 5674: 5670: 5660: 5658: 5646: 5642: 5632: 5630: 5621: 5620: 5616: 5606: 5604: 5592: 5591: 5587: 5579: 5575: 5534: 5530: 5501: 5483: 5479: 5420: 5416: 5353: 5349: 5312: 5308: 5298: 5296: 5286: 5282: 5237: 5228: 5173: 5169: 5141: 5135: 5131: 5117: 5115: 5106: 5102: 5033: 5029: 5023: 5016: 5011: 5007: 4997: 4995: 4987: 4986: 4982: 4972: 4970: 4962: 4961: 4957: 4902: 4898: 4849: 4845: 4835: 4833: 4825: 4824: 4820: 4807: 4806: 4802: 4792: 4790: 4780: 4776: 4711: 4707: 4670: 4666: 4633:(6): e1000926. 4617: 4613: 4606: 4589: 4580: 4571: 4570: 4566: 4556: 4554: 4546: 4545: 4541: 4496: 4492: 4439: 4435: 4379: 4370: 4356: 4352: 4293: 4284: 4217: 4213: 4203: 4141: 4137: 4127: 4073:"Prevalence of 4069: 4065: 3986: 3982: 3929: 3925: 3849: 3845: 3800: 3796: 3786: 3784: 3765: 3764: 3757: 3708: 3704: 3647: 3624: 3617: 3590: 3586: 3538: 3531: 3516: 3509: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3450: 3446: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3364:, and took the 3349: 3328: 3298: 3292: 3289: 3282:needs expansion 3267: 3211:drug resistance 3205:treatment with 3170: 3076: 3055:state formation 3047: 3041: 3039:Societal impact 3017:trypanotolerant 2990:on the island. 2916: 2900:Praxis Ethiopia 2829: 2798: 2782: 2762: 2754: 2742:area-wide basis 2730:aerial spraying 2663: 2635:Trypanosomiasis 2593:trypanotolerant 2552:trypanosomiasis 2548: 2542: 2436: 2430: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2408:G. tabaniformis 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2364: 2362: 2356: 2352: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2296: 2294: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2267:G. tabaniformis 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2230: 2228: 2226: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2170: 2168: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2061: 2057: 2053: 1999: 1934:In the case of 1874:, specifically 1843:trypanosomiasis 1810: 1808:Trypanosomiasis 1773: 1749: 1744: 1589:(Henrard, 1952) 1479:(Gouteux, 1987) 1333: 1322: 1316: 1313: 1302: 1290: 1279: 1249: 1240:G. m. morsitans 1234:G. m. centralis 1225: 1181: 1169: 1085:domestic Suidae 1037:domestic Suidae 999:domestic cattle 963:G. tabaniformis 948:G. fuscipleuris 902: 840: 825:. The article " 766:Like all other 764: 659: 655: 654: 649: 645: 644: 636: 632: 631: 613: 601: 582:Sotho languages 564: 474: 445: 436: 435: 428: 399: 390: 389: 382: 356: 352: 298:Species groups 287: 268: 151: 125: 123: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 56: 55: 45: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9334: 9324: 9323: 9321:Hippoboscoidea 9318: 9313: 9308: 9303: 9298: 9281: 9280: 9278: 9277: 9267: 9254: 9241: 9228: 9215: 9202: 9189: 9176: 9163: 9150: 9137: 9124: 9114: 9101: 9086: 9070: 9068: 9062: 9061: 9047: 9046: 9034: 9031: 9030: 9028: 9027: 9022: 9017: 9011: 9009: 9003: 9002: 9000: 8999: 8998: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8951: 8949: 8945: 8944: 8942: 8941: 8934:Lafcadio Hearn 8931: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8907:Jan Swammerdam 8903: 8901: 8897: 8896: 8893: 8892: 8890: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8858: 8856: 8848: 8847: 8845: 8844: 8843: 8842: 8833:Model organism 8830: 8825: 8824: 8823: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8802: 8801: 8791: 8790: 8789: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8769: 8764: 8754: 8749: 8743: 8741: 8733: 8732: 8730: 8729: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8709: 8707:Insect farming 8704: 8699: 8694: 8689: 8684: 8678: 8676: 8672: 8671: 8669: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8652: 8650: 8644: 8643: 8641: 8640: 8639: 8638: 8628: 8627: 8626: 8621: 8610: 8608: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8598: 8593: 8591:Artificial fly 8588: 8583: 8577: 8575: 8571: 8570: 8568: 8567: 8562: 8561: 8560: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8539: 8538: 8531: 8524:Insects in art 8520: 8518: 8511: 8500: 8499: 8488: 8487: 8480: 8473: 8465: 8456: 8455: 8450: 8447: 8446: 8443: 8442: 8439: 8438: 8435: 8434: 8431: 8430: 8428: 8427: 8418: 8416: 8407: 8401: 8400: 8397: 8396: 8394: 8393: 8387: 8385: 8383:Vermileonoidea 8376: 8370: 8369: 8366: 8365: 8363: 8362: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8335: 8333: 8327: 8326: 8324: 8323: 8315: 8310: 8308:Austroleptidae 8304: 8302: 8293: 8287: 8286: 8283: 8282: 8280: 8279: 8271: 8266:Stratiomyidae 8263: 8260:(timber flies) 8254: 8252: 8250:Stratiomyoidea 8243: 8233: 8232: 8229: 8228: 8225: 8224: 8221: 8220: 8217: 8216: 8214: 8213: 8205: 8200:Nycteribiidae 8197: 8192:Hippoboscidae 8189: 8186:(tsetse flies) 8180: 8178: 8176:Hippoboscoidea 8172: 8171: 8169: 8168: 8163: 8155: 8150:Sarcophagidae 8147: 8142: 8137: 8129: 8121: 8116: 8111:Calliphoridae 8107: 8105: 8099: 8098: 8096: 8095: 8087: 8079: 8071: 8062: 8060: 8051: 8045: 8044: 8041: 8040: 8038: 8037: 8029: 8027:Cryptochetidae 8023: 8021: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8013: 8005: 8000: 7992: 7987: 7979: 7971: 7966: 7960: 7958: 7952: 7951: 7949: 7948: 7940: 7932: 7927:Drosophilidae 7924: 7916: 7908: 7902: 7900: 7894: 7893: 7891: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7878:Periscelididae 7875: 7870: 7865: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7845:Fergusoninidae 7842: 7834: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7807: 7805: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780:Chamaemyiidae 7777: 7768: 7766: 7760: 7759: 7757: 7756: 7748: 7746:Nannodastiidae 7743: 7738: 7732: 7730: 7724: 7723: 7721: 7720: 7712: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7655: 7653: 7647: 7646: 7644: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7591: 7589: 7583: 7582: 7580: 7579: 7571: 7563: 7557: 7555: 7549: 7548: 7546: 7545: 7537: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7516:(signal flies) 7511: 7508:(cheese flies) 7503: 7498:Pallopteridae 7494: 7492: 7486: 7485: 7483: 7482: 7473: 7471: 7462: 7453: 7443: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7431: 7423: 7414: 7412: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7394: 7386: 7378: 7370: 7367:(ironic flies) 7361: 7359: 7350: 7337: 7331: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7323: 7322: 7319: 7318: 7316: 7315: 7310:Nemestrinidae 7307: 7298: 7296: 7294:Nemestrinoidea 7290: 7289: 7287: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7268: 7263: 7255: 7247: 7241: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7230: 7229: 7221: 7218:(window flies) 7213: 7211:Mythicomyiidae 7208: 7200: 7192: 7187: 7179: 7176:(robber flies) 7171: 7166: 7161: 7152: 7150: 7141: 7123: 7122: 7109: 7108: 7105: 7104: 7101: 7100: 7097: 7096: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7089: 7081: 7073: 7065: 7056: 7054: 7040: 7039: 7037: 7036: 7031:Trichoceridae 7027: 7025: 7023:Trichoceroidea 7016: 7006: 7005: 7002: 7001: 6999: 6998: 6990: 6981: 6979: 6969: 6968: 6965: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6958: 6957: 6948: 6946: 6940: 6939: 6937: 6936: 6931: 6923: 6917: 6915: 6906: 6904:Psychodomorpha 6896: 6895: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6888: 6882: 6880: 6870: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6858: 6850: 6842: 6840:Mycetophilidae 6837: 6829: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6806:Cecidomyiidae 6803: 6801:Bolitophilidae 6797: 6795: 6791:(fungus gnats) 6781: 6780: 6778: 6777: 6768: 6766: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6756: 6747: 6745: 6736: 6726: 6725: 6722: 6721: 6719: 6718: 6713: 6705: 6696: 6694: 6684: 6683: 6680: 6679: 6676: 6675: 6673: 6672: 6664: 6656: 6648: 6639: 6637: 6631: 6630: 6628: 6627: 6619: 6611: 6603: 6594: 6592: 6583: 6573: 6572: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6565: 6559: 6557: 6543: 6542: 6529: 6528: 6526: 6525: 6519: 6513: 6507: 6501: 6495: 6488: 6485: 6484: 6475: 6474: 6467: 6460: 6452: 6446: 6445: 6419: 6414: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6361: 6356: 6344: 6337: 6336:External links 6334: 6333: 6332: 6325: 6318: 6311: 6301: 6294: 6287: 6283:. London, UK: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6270: 6224:Annual Reviews 6205: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6170: 6135: 6092:Res. Microbiol 6075: 6016: 6007: 5956: 5947: 5869: 5836: 5805: 5791:10.3386/w19673 5768: 5719: 5668: 5640: 5629:. 23 July 2015 5614: 5585: 5573: 5552:(2): 458–477. 5528: 5499: 5477: 5438:Annual Reviews 5414: 5347: 5326:(5): 736–745. 5306: 5280: 5251:Annual Reviews 5226: 5167: 5129: 5100: 5027: 5014: 5005: 4992:Slideshare.net 4980: 4955: 4896: 4865:(1): 112–125. 4843: 4818: 4800: 4774: 4705: 4664: 4626:PLOS Pathogens 4611: 4604: 4595:. London, UK: 4578: 4564: 4539: 4490: 4433: 4368: 4350: 4311:Annual Reviews 4282: 4211: 4135: 4063: 3980: 3943:Annual Reviews 3923: 3843: 3814:Annual Reviews 3794: 3776:United Nations 3755: 3702: 3661:Academic Press 3622: 3615: 3584: 3555:Annual Reviews 3529: 3507: 3498: 3491: 3469: 3462: 3444: 3425:(3): 225–241. 3408: 3406: 3403: 3402: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3385: 3355: 3348: 3345: 3327: 3324: 3319:G. swynnertoni 3300: 3299: 3279: 3277: 3266: 3263: 3169: 3166: 3158:Okavango Delta 3142:national parks 3075: 3072: 3064:Great Zimbabwe 3040: 3037: 2915: 2912: 2865:carbon dioxide 2828: 2825: 2797: 2794: 2790:chain clearing 2781: 2778: 2761: 2758: 2753: 2750: 2706:trypanosomosis 2662: 2659: 2554:, also called 2544:Main article: 2541: 2538: 2518:Chagas disease 2432:Main article: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2422: 2412:G. brevipalpis 2400:G. longipalpis 2396:G. tachinoides 2381: 2378: 2373: 2349: 2348:— chronic form 2340: 2339: 2337:G. longipalpis 2321:G. swynnertoni 2317:G. tachinoides 2306: 2303: 2298: 2291: 2282: 2281: 2271:G. brevipalpis 2259:G. longipalpis 2255:G. tachinoides 2240: 2237: 2232: 2223: 2214: 2213: 2211:G. brevipalpis 2207:G. tachinoides 2203:G. longipalpis 2195:G. swynnertoni 2180: 2177: 2172: 2165: 2164:— chronic form 2156: 2155: 2149:G. tachinoides 2137:G. swynnertoni 2130: 2127: 2122: 2113: 2104: 2103: 2093:G. swynnertoni 2086: 2085:Eastern Africa 2083: 2078: 2075: 2066: 2065: 2055:G. tachinoides 2048: 2047:Western Africa 2045: 2040: 2037: 2036:— chronic form 2028: 2027: 2021: 2018: 2012: 2009: 1998: 1995: 1963:- involved in 1924: 1923: 1914: 1893:are much more 1809: 1806: 1797:G. tachiniodes 1785:G. f. fuscipes 1772: 1769: 1767:respectively. 1748: 1745: 1741: 1740: 1736: 1735: 1734: 1733: 1723: 1713: 1703: 1682: 1672: 1671: 1670: 1660: 1650: 1622: 1595: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1591: 1581: 1571: 1557: 1543: 1529: 1523:Glossina nashi 1519: 1505: 1495: 1481: 1471: 1457: 1455:(Walker, 1849) 1431: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1427: 1406: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1373: 1335: 1334: 1293: 1291: 1284: 1278: 1275: 1267:Hippoboscoidea 1248: 1245: 1224: 1221: 1189:Wigglesworthia 1180: 1177: 1171:The genome of 1168: 1165: 1138: 1137: 1129: 1114:G. longipennis 1110: 1106:— 55–90% from 1103:G. longipalpis 1099: 1095:— 55–90% from 1088: 1080:G. tachinoides 1076: 1065:, 25–30% from 1054: 1043:, 25–30% from 1028: 1024:G. brevipalpis 1020: 1012:— 55–90% from 1005: 974: 970:, >7% from 959: 944: 932:— 50–60% from 925: 917:— 60–70% from 914:G. swynnertoni 901: 898: 839: 836: 807:G. brevipalpis 763: 760: 757: 756: 746: 743: 737: 736: 726: 723: 717: 716: 706: 703: 697: 696: 686: 683: 612: 609: 600: 597: 563: 560: 344: 343: 339: 338: 330: 329: 328: 327: 319: 311: 300: 299: 295: 294: 280: 276: 275: 263: 259: 258: 256:Hippoboscoidea 253: 249: 248: 243: 239: 238: 233: 229: 228: 223: 219: 218: 213: 209: 208: 203: 199: 198: 193: 189: 188: 183: 179: 178: 173: 169: 168: 163: 159: 158: 145: 144: 136: 135: 127: 126: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 46: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9333: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9293: 9291: 9274: 9268: 9264: 9259: 9255: 9251: 9246: 9242: 9238: 9233: 9229: 9225: 9220: 9216: 9212: 9207: 9203: 9199: 9194: 9190: 9186: 9181: 9177: 9173: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9142: 9138: 9134: 9129: 9125: 9121: 9115: 9111: 9106: 9102: 9097: 9091: 9087: 9082: 9076: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9054: 9044: 9039: 9032: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9016: 9013: 9012: 9010: 9004: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8990:Neonicotinoid 8988: 8986: 8983: 8982: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8952: 8950: 8946: 8939: 8935: 8932: 8929: 8928: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8904: 8902: 8898: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8859: 8857: 8855: 8849: 8841: 8840: 8836: 8835: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8822: 8819: 8818: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8800: 8797: 8796: 8795: 8792: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8759: 8758: 8755: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8744: 8742: 8740: 8734: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8688: 8685: 8683: 8680: 8679: 8677: 8675:Other aspects 8673: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8653: 8651: 8649: 8645: 8637: 8634: 8633: 8632: 8629: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8616: 8615: 8612: 8611: 8609: 8607: 8603: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8578: 8576: 8572: 8566: 8563: 8559: 8556: 8555: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8537: 8536: 8535:Musca depicta 8532: 8530: 8527: 8526: 8525: 8522: 8521: 8519: 8515: 8512: 8508: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8486: 8481: 8479: 8474: 8472: 8467: 8466: 8463: 8453: 8448: 8426: 8422:Xylophagidae 8420: 8419: 8417: 8415: 8414:Xylophagoidea 8411: 8408: 8406: 8402: 8392: 8391:Vermileonidae 8389: 8388: 8386: 8384: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8371: 8361: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8337: 8336: 8334: 8332: 8328: 8322: 8320:(snipe flies) 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8305: 8303: 8301: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8288: 8278: 8272: 8270: 8264: 8262: 8256: 8255: 8253: 8251: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8238: 8234: 8212: 8206: 8204: 8198: 8196: 8194:(louse flies) 8190: 8188: 8182: 8181: 8179: 8177: 8173: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8156: 8154: 8152:(flesh flies) 8148: 8146: 8145:Rhinophoridae 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8130: 8128: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8109: 8108: 8106: 8104: 8100: 8094: 8088: 8086: 8080: 8078: 8072: 8070: 8066:Anthomyiidae 8064: 8063: 8061: 8059: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8046: 8036: 8034:(lance flies) 8030: 8028: 8025: 8024: 8022: 8018: 8012: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7984:(beach flies) 7980: 7978: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7961: 7959: 7957: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7939: 7937:(shore flies) 7933: 7931: 7925: 7923: 7917: 7915: 7911:Curtonotidae 7909: 7907: 7904: 7903: 7901: 7899: 7895: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7883:Teratomyzidae 7881: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7835: 7833: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7809: 7808: 7806: 7804: 7800: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7788:Cremifaniidae 7786: 7784: 7782:(aphid flies) 7778: 7776: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7765: 7761: 7755: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7733: 7731: 7729: 7725: 7719: 7713: 7711: 7709:(marsh flies) 7705: 7703: 7702:Ropalomeridae 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7692:Natalimyzidae 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7657: 7656: 7654: 7652: 7648: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7608:Megamerinidae 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7593: 7592: 7590: 7588: 7584: 7578: 7572: 7570: 7566:Micropezidae 7564: 7562: 7559: 7558: 7556: 7554: 7550: 7544: 7538: 7536: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7512: 7510: 7504: 7502: 7496: 7495: 7493: 7491: 7487: 7481: 7475: 7474: 7472: 7470: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7430: 7424: 7422: 7418:Pipunculidae 7416: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7407: 7401: 7397:Platypezidae 7395: 7393: 7387: 7385: 7379: 7377: 7371: 7369: 7365:Ironomyiidae 7363: 7362: 7360: 7358: 7357:Platypezoidea 7354: 7351: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7332: 7314: 7308: 7306: 7300: 7299: 7297: 7295: 7291: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7279:Oreogetonidae 7277: 7275: 7273:(dance flies) 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7256: 7254: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7234: 7228: 7222: 7220: 7216:Scenopinidae 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7205:(mydas flies) 7201: 7199: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7180: 7178: 7172: 7170: 7169:Apystomyiidae 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7154: 7153: 7151: 7149: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7114: 7110: 7088: 7082: 7080: 7074: 7072: 7066: 7064: 7058: 7057: 7055: 7050:(crane flies) 7045: 7041: 7035: 7029: 7028: 7026: 7024: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7007: 6997: 6991: 6989: 6983: 6982: 6980: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6956: 6950: 6949: 6947: 6945: 6941: 6935: 6934:Valeseguyidae 6932: 6930: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6887: 6884: 6883: 6881: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6857: 6851: 6849: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6830: 6828: 6824:Keroplatidae 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6814:Diadocidiidae 6812: 6810: 6808:(gall midges) 6804: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6786: 6782: 6776: 6772:Anisopodidae 6770: 6769: 6767: 6765: 6764:Anisopodoidea 6761: 6755: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6744: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6734:Bibionomorpha 6731: 6727: 6717: 6716:Nymphomyiidae 6714: 6712: 6706: 6704: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6671: 6667:Chironomidae 6665: 6663: 6657: 6655: 6653:(black flies) 6649: 6647: 6643:Thaumaleidae 6641: 6640: 6638: 6636: 6635:Chironomoidea 6632: 6626: 6620: 6618: 6612: 6610: 6604: 6602: 6596: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6556: 6555:Axymyiomorpha 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6534: 6530: 6524: 6520: 6518: 6514: 6512: 6508: 6506: 6502: 6500: 6496: 6494: 6490: 6489: 6486: 6481: 6473: 6468: 6466: 6461: 6459: 6454: 6453: 6450: 6435: 6433: 6428: 6426: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6403: 6399: 6398: 6393: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6371: 6370:Claude Fuller 6367: 6366: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6351: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6319: 6316: 6312: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6299: 6295: 6292: 6288: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6277: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6185: 6179: 6178: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6139: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6098:(6): 459–66. 6097: 6093: 6086: 6079: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6036: 6029: 6025: 6020: 6011: 6003: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5976:(10): e1859. 5975: 5971: 5967: 5960: 5951: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5900:(PLoS): e55. 5899: 5895: 5891: 5890: 5889:PLOS Medicine 5885: 5878: 5876: 5874: 5865: 5861: 5860:New Scientist 5854: 5847: 5845: 5843: 5841: 5825: 5824: 5819: 5815: 5809: 5801: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5772: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5730: 5723: 5715: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5672: 5657: 5656: 5651: 5644: 5628: 5624: 5618: 5602: 5600: 5595: 5589: 5577: 5569: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5532: 5526: 5522: 5519: 5515: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5481: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5430: 5425: 5418: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5367: 5362: 5360: 5351: 5343: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5310: 5295: 5291: 5284: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5243: 5235: 5233: 5231: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5183: 5178: 5171: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5140: 5133: 5125: 5113: 5112: 5104: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5043: 5038: 5031: 5021: 5019: 5009: 4993: 4990: 4984: 4969: 4965: 4959: 4951: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4859: 4854: 4847: 4832: 4828: 4822: 4814: 4810: 4804: 4789: 4785: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4720: 4716: 4709: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4684:(4): 307–12. 4683: 4679: 4675: 4668: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4627: 4622: 4615: 4607: 4605:0-04-614001-8 4601: 4598: 4594: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4574: 4568: 4553: 4549: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4494: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4463:(in French). 4462: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4396: 4391: 4389: 4383: 4382:Austen, E. E. 4377: 4375: 4373: 4365: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4303: 4298: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4227: 4222: 4215: 4207: 4200: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4139: 4131: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4067: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 4000: 3995: 3993: 3984: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3935: 3927: 3919: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3859: 3854: 3847: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3806: 3798: 3782: 3778: 3777: 3773: 3768: 3762: 3760: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3715: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3653: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3618: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3599: 3594: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3547: 3542: 3536: 3534: 3525: 3521: 3514: 3512: 3502: 3494: 3488: 3483: 3482: 3473: 3465: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3409: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3350: 3344: 3342: 3339:that damages 3338: 3334: 3323: 3321: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3296: 3293:December 2021 3287: 3283: 3280:This section 3278: 3275: 3271: 3270: 3262: 3259: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3187: 3183: 3181: 3180: 3175: 3165: 3161: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3126:Julian Huxley 3123: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3083: 3082: 3081:New Scientist 3071: 3067: 3065: 3059: 3056: 3052: 3046: 3036: 3032: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3018: 3014: 3013:cattle breeds 3010: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2971: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2947: 2946: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2860: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2833: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2802: 2793: 2791: 2787: 2780:Land clearing 2777: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2757: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2707: 2702: 2700: 2696: 2686: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2629: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2602: 2597: 2595: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2560:bovine cattle 2557: 2553: 2547: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2522:South America 2519: 2514: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2369: 2360: 2355: 2351:domestic pigs 2350: 2347: 2346: 2342: 2341: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2325:G. pallidipes 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2292: 2289: 2288: 2284: 2283: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2225:domestic pigs 2224: 2221: 2220: 2216: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2199:G. pallidipes 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2175:T. congolense 2173: 2166: 2163: 2162: 2158: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2141:G. pallidipes 2138: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2106: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2097:G. pallidipes 2094: 2090: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2072: 2068: 2067: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2030: 2029: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2003: 1994: 1992: 1987: 1985: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1928: 1920: 1915: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1902: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1892: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1878:of the genus 1877: 1873: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1818: 1814: 1805: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1786: 1781: 1777: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1739: 1729: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1714: 1709: 1708: 1704: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1688: 1687: 1683: 1680:(Bigot, 1891) 1678: 1677: 1673: 1668:(Pires, 1948) 1666: 1665: 1661: 1658:(Zumpt, 1935) 1656: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1641: 1637: 1636: 1633: 1628: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1614: 1613: 1609: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1597: 1596: 1587: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1535: 1534: 1530: 1527:(Potts, 1955) 1525: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1511: 1510: 1506: 1503:(Corti, 1895) 1501: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1477: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1452: 1448: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1436: 1435: 1434: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1412: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1388: 1384: 1383: 1379: 1378: 1374: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1357: 1353: 1352: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1341: 1340: 1331: 1328: 1320: 1310: 1306: 1300: 1299: 1294:This section 1292: 1288: 1283: 1282: 1274: 1272: 1271:hematophagous 1268: 1264: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1244: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1235: 1230: 1220: 1218: 1217: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1205: 1200: 1199:bacteriocytes 1196: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1176: 1174: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1155:which act as 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1135: 1134: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1115: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1093: 1092:G. pallidipes 1089: 1086: 1082: 1081: 1077: 1074: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1059: 1055: 1052: 1048: 1047: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1033: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1010: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 979: 975: 973: 969: 968:red river hog 965: 964: 960: 958: 954: 950: 949: 945: 943: 939: 935: 931: 930: 926: 924: 920: 916: 915: 911: 910: 909: 907: 897: 895: 891: 887: 883: 878: 874: 872: 871:puparial case 868: 864: 863:larval stages 860: 852: 848: 844: 835: 832: 830: 829: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 799:dipteran crop 796: 792: 783: 779: 777: 771: 769: 751: 747: 744: 742: 739: 738: 731: 727: 724: 722: 719: 718: 711: 707: 704: 702: 699: 698: 691: 687: 684: 682: 679: 678: 675: 672: 670: 666: 641: 627: 625: 620: 618: 608: 606: 605:entomologists 596: 594: 591: 587: 583: 579: 574: 572: 568: 559: 557: 553: 549: 547: 543: 538: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 478: 469: 439: 433: 432: 423: 393: 387: 386: 377: 350: 340: 336: 331: 325: 324: 320: 317: 316: 312: 309: 308: 304: 303: 301: 296: 291: 286: 285: 281: 278: 277: 272: 267: 264: 261: 260: 257: 254: 252:Superfamily: 251: 250: 247: 244: 241: 240: 237: 234: 231: 230: 227: 224: 221: 220: 217: 214: 211: 210: 207: 204: 201: 200: 197: 194: 191: 190: 187: 184: 181: 180: 177: 174: 171: 170: 167: 164: 161: 160: 155: 150: 146: 143: 142: 137: 133: 128: 121: 116: 111: 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 60: 54: 50: 42: 39: 35: 30: 19: 9065: 9020:Insecticides 8937: 8925: 8922:Hans Zinsser 8887:Clothes moth 8837: 8648:In mythology 8581:Fishing bait 8533: 8347:Oreoleptidae 8339:Athericidae 8318:Rhagionidae 8313:Bolbomyiidae 8300:Rhagionoidea 8291:Tabanomorpha 8184:Glossinidae 8183: 8166:Ulurumyiidae 8092:(dung flies) 8032:Lonchaeidae 8020:Lonchaeoidea 8008:Milichiidae 8003:Inbiomyiidae 7997:(frit flies) 7995:Chloropidae 7919:Diastatidae 7888:Xenasteiidae 7819:Anthomyzidae 7811:Agromyzidae 7764:Lauxanioidea 7741:Heleomyzidae 7707:Sciomyzidae 7697:Phaeomyiidae 7687:Huttoninidae 7672:Helcomyzidae 7661:(kelp flies) 7651:Sciomyzoidea 7620:(rust flies) 7532:Tephritidae 7527:Richardiidae 7506:Piophilidae 7490:Tephritoidea 7460:Acalyptratae 7428:(hoverflies) 7302:Acroceridae 7182:Bombyliidae 7156:Apioceridae 7014:Tipulomorpha 6993:Tanyderidae 6954:(moth flies) 6952:Psychodidae 6944:Psychodoidea 6926:Scatopsidae 6913:Scatopsoidea 6774:(wood gnats) 6624:(mosquitoes) 6614:Chaoboridae 6581:Culicomorpha 6523:Holometabola 6521:Superorder: 6515:Infraclass: 6437:. 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Retrieved 4551: 4542: 4510:(1): 49–58. 4507: 4503: 4493: 4464: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4399: 4393: 4387: 4362: 4353: 4306: 4300: 4230: 4224: 4214: 4164: 4160: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4138: 4088: 4084: 4078: 4074: 4066: 4003: 3997: 3991: 3983: 3938: 3932: 3926: 3869:: e0254558. 3862: 3856: 3846: 3809: 3803: 3797: 3785:. Retrieved 3781:the original 3770: 3723: 3719: 3713: 3705: 3667:): S15–S25. 3656: 3650: 3597: 3587: 3550: 3544: 3519: 3501: 3480: 3472: 3453: 3447: 3422: 3418: 3412: 3380: 3369: 3329: 3317: 3310:E. E. Austen 3303: 3290: 3286:adding to it 3281: 3251: 3247: 3219:green desert 3215: 3203:prophylactic 3194: 3193:The disease 3192: 3177: 3171: 3162: 3144:such as the 3119: 3099: 3079: 3077: 3068: 3060: 3048: 3033: 3021: 3006: 2992: 2982: 2978: 2968: 2954: 2950: 2943: 2923: 2917: 2885: 2876: 2861: 2838: 2821:formulations 2817: 2799: 2783: 2763: 2755: 2741: 2718:trypanocidal 2711: 2703: 2699:prophylactic 2691: 2678: 2674: 2664: 2633: 2630: 2627: 2618: 2610: 2606: 2605: 2598: 2591: 2567: 2555: 2549: 2525: 2524:, caused by 2515: 2502: 2499:polyphyletic 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2476:The species 2475: 2454: 2448: 2443: 2437: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2392:G. morsitans 2391: 2387: 2383: 2375: 2366: 2358: 2343: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2309:G. morsitans 2308: 2300: 2290:— acute form 2285: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2251:G. morsitans 2250: 2246: 2242: 2234: 2222:— acute form 2217: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2187:G. morsitans 2186: 2182: 2174: 2159: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2133:G. morsitans 2132: 2124: 2112:— acute form 2107: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2089:G. morsitans 2088: 2080: 2074:— acute form 2069: 2063:G. morsitans 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2042: 2031: 2023: 2020:Distribution 2014: 2000: 1988: 1983: 1976: 1939: 1936:T. b. brucei 1935: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1899: 1888: 1883: 1879: 1869: 1864: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1829:trypanosomes 1822: 1817:Trypanosomes 1795: 1789: 1783: 1775: 1774: 1750: 1737: 1725: 1715: 1705: 1684: 1674: 1662: 1652: 1638: 1624: 1610: 1604: 1600: 1583: 1573: 1559: 1545: 1531: 1521: 1507: 1497: 1483: 1473: 1459: 1449: 1443: 1439: 1408: 1394: 1385: 1375: 1354: 1348: 1344: 1338: 1323: 1317:October 2020 1314: 1303:Please help 1298:verification 1295: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1250: 1238: 1232: 1226: 1214: 1208: 1202: 1192: 1188: 1182: 1172: 1170: 1148: 1144: 1139: 1131: 1112: 1101: 1090: 1078: 1066: 1056: 1044: 1030: 1022: 1007: 978:G. morsitans 976: 961: 957:hippopotamus 946: 936:, ~33% from 927: 912: 903: 879: 875: 856: 851:G. morsitans 850: 846: 833: 826: 811:G. morsitans 810: 806: 802: 788: 772: 765: 740: 721:Hatchet cell 720: 701:Folded wings 700: 680: 673: 642: 628: 621: 614: 602: 589: 586:de Havilland 577: 575: 566: 565: 550: 539: 527:trypanosomes 506: 501: 500: 490:biting flies 485: 481: 348: 347: 322: 321: 314: 313: 306: 305: 283: 282: 265: 242:Subsection: 226:Cyclorrhapha 222:(unranked): 212:(unranked): 139: 38: 29: 9193:iNaturalist 9110:Glossinidae 9090:Wikispecies 9006:Categories, 8985:Insecticide 8816:Sericulture 8787:Royal jelly 8712:Flea circus 8702:Entomophagy 8636:Cantharidin 8631:Spanish fly 8606:In medicine 8586:Fly fishing 8517:In the arts 8424:(awl flies) 8274:Xylomyidae 8210:(bat flies) 8208:Streblidae 8202:(bat flies) 8158:Tachinidae 8049:Calyptratae 7935:Ephydridae 7921:(bog flies) 7898:Ephydroidea 7831:(sap flies) 7803:Opomyzoidea 7793:Lauxaniidae 7772:Celyphidae 7736:Chyromyidae 7667:Dryomyzidae 7659:Coelopidae 7641:Tanypezidae 7451:Schizophora 7335:Muscomorpha 7245:Atelestidae 7224:Therevidae 7184:(bee flies) 7139:Asilomorpha 7076:Pediciidae 7068:Limoniidae 6819:Ditomyiidae 6751:Bibionidae 6743:Bibionoidea 6651:Simuliidae 6226:: 101–123. 6030:. Makerere: 5866:(2251): 30. 5761:5 September 5633:12 November 5607:17 November 5440:: 455–475. 5253:: 197–214. 4998:12 November 4973:12 November 4836:12 November 4552:www.who.int 4406:: 311–315. 4313:: 101–123. 4237:: 124–141. 3945:: 375–400. 3816:: 421–438. 3787:20 February 3557:: 205–225. 3360:joined the 3197:or African 2877:odor plume. 2845:insecticide 2835:Tsetse trap 2808:applied as 2774:extirpation 2603:in humans. 2416:G. vanhoofi 2388:G. fuscipes 2384:G. palpalis 2368:Hylochoerus 2363:forest hogs 2333:G. vanhoofi 2313:G. palpalis 2275:G. vanhoofi 2247:G. fuscipes 2243:G. palpalis 2183:G. palpalis 2153:G. fuscipes 2145:G. palpalis 2101:G. fuscipes 2059:G. fuscipes 2051:G. palpalis 2015:Trypanosoma 1911:horse-flies 1884:T. theileri 1880:Trypanosoma 1823:Tsetse are 1780:Afrotropics 1247:Systematics 1058:G. fuscipes 1032:G. palpalis 1001:, ~2% from 966:— 70% from 921:, ~8% from 882:development 562:Terminology 507:Glossinidae 266:Glossinidae 246:Calyptratae 236:Schizophora 9290:Categories 9025:Pesticides 8762:Bee pollen 8757:Beekeeping 8739:entomology 8682:Biomimicry 8614:Apitherapy 8574:In fishing 8529:Beetlewing 8510:in culture 8357:Tabanidae 8331:Tabanoidea 8134:(botflies) 8132:Oestridae 8103:Oestroidea 8074:Fanniidae 7982:Canacidae 7976:(bee lice) 7974:Braulidae 7906:Camillidae 7873:Opomyzidae 7850:Marginidae 7837:Clusiidae 7626:Somatiidae 7613:Nothybidae 7595:Diopsidae 7587:Diopsoidea 7540:Ulidiidae 7522:Pyrgotidae 7477:Conopidae 7469:Conopoidea 7426:Syrphidae 7410:Syrphoidea 7381:Opetiidae 7271:Hybotidae 7258:Empididae 7237:Empidoidea 7119:Brachycera 7084:Tipulidae 7044:Tipuloidea 6853:Sciaridae 6785:Sciaroidea 6622:Culicidae 6590:Culicoidea 6563:Axymyiidae 6539:Nematocera 6509:Subclass: 6499:Arthropoda 6408:4 December 5829:15 October 5509:1227700317 5158:World Bank 5025:Programmes 4471:: 97–100. 4363:Tsetse fly 3405:References 3150:Masai Mara 3116:, Tanzania 3086:rinderpest 3043:See also: 2997:region of 2812:sprays at 2801:Pesticides 2530:Reduviidae 2507:Procyclins 2420:G. austeni 2329:G. austeni 2279:G. austeni 2191:G. austeni 1938:infecting 1919:adaptation 1876:protozoans 1836:vertebrate 1424:Swynnerton 1273:families. 1157:repellents 1119:rhinoceros 1063:cormorants 1041:cormorants 1003:hartebeest 972:porcupines 929:G. austeni 892:stages, a 859:life cycle 838:Life cycle 611:Morphology 552:Fossilized 529:, causing 519:vertebrate 216:Eremoneura 186:Arthropoda 57:34–0 44:Tsetse fly 9008:templates 8980:Pesticide 8596:Fly tying 8140:Rhiniidae 8082:Muscidae 8058:Muscoidea 7956:Carnoidea 7868:Odiniidae 7855:Neminidae 7824:Asteiidae 7715:Sepsidae 7618:Psilidae 7603:Gobryidae 7574:Neriidae 7553:Nerioidea 7389:Phoridae 7284:Ragadidae 7190:Evocoidae 7174:Asilidae 7148:Asiloidea 7117:Suborder 6537:Suborder 6511:Pterygota 6491:Kingdom: 6439:9 October 6309:book site 6274:Textbooks 6240:0066-4170 6201:643483454 6193:0027-9358 6055:2163-2642 6047:1937-6812 5916:1549-1676 5800:153184179 5491:CRC Press 5472:221625690 5456:0066-4227 5393:0022-0493 5267:0066-4170 5069:1935-2735 5053:: e2772. 4753:0962-1075 4534:1867-1608 4447:Austenina 4420:0007-4853 4327:0066-4170 4251:1567-1348 4181:1776-1042 4147:Wolbachia 4105:1776-1042 4058:206554402 4032:0036-8075 3959:0066-4170 3893:1932-6203 3830:0066-4170 3681:0022-2011 3571:0066-4170 3322:in 1922. 3316:for him, 3225:, 29 are 3146:Serengeti 2932:gamma ray 2853:buffaloes 2534:Hemiptera 2503:T. brucei 2428:In humans 2235:T. simiae 1969:serotonin 1872:parasites 1765:Oligocene 1763:and late 1605:Nemorhina 1345:Morsitans 1216:Wolbachia 1185:symbionts 1179:Symbionts 1161:livestock 1153:volatiles 1141:Waterbuck 1073:crocodile 1051:crocodile 823:pregnancy 681:Proboscis 578:tseh-tseh 556:Paleogene 546:proboscis 307:Morsitans 290:Wiedemann 232:Section: 172:Kingdom: 166:Eukaryota 9117:BioLib: 9096:Glossina 9075:Wikidata 9066:Glossina 8948:Concerns 8900:Pioneers 8877:Woodworm 8782:Propolis 8737:Economic 8624:Melittin 8619:Apitoxin 7990:Carnidae 7203:Mydidae 6598:Dixidae 6517:Neoptera 6497:Phylum: 6493:Animalia 6482:families 6350:Archived 6266:22834246 6258:15355235 6165:14563366 6122:26027775 6071:51782062 6063:67-38577 6002:23145192 5942:17608648 5934:18303943 5714:25144776 5627:Iaea.org 5568:10472679 5464:32905752 5409:41188926 5401:14658522 5342:22323196 5275:14000804 5221:44666631 5213:19977233 5118:20 March 5095:18378553 5087:24763309 4950:11171982 4813:Cabi.org 4761:18092995 4700:15732457 4659:20532213 4485:91006636 4443:Glossina 4428:86238434 4388:Glossina 4384:(1922). 4345:15355235 4277:36305169 4269:18992846 4235:Elsevier 4199:30729921 4161:Parasite 4123:30117802 4085:Parasite 4050:24763584 4006:(6182). 3975:23463014 3967:16968206 3911:34283848 3858:PLoS ONE 3750:18647605 3697:20005358 3689:22878217 3665:Elsevier 3595:(2018). 3579:23317042 3347:See also 3312:named a 3240:semiarid 3103:Highland 3095:immunity 3025:residues 2983:Glossina 2965:Tanzania 2961:Zanzibar 2888:Ethiopia 2827:Trapping 2766:Principe 2695:curative 2576:diseases 2511:proteins 2467:lethargy 2404:G. fusca 2301:T. vivax 2263:G. fusca 2115:antelope 2026:vectors 2024:Glossina 1980:dipteran 1965:dopamine 1944:proteome 1895:virulent 1833:infected 1776:Glossina 1700:Newstead 1694:, 1929) 1646:Newstead 1632:Newstead 1601:Palpalis 1567:Newstead 1553:Newstead 1539:Newstead 1491:Newstead 1444:Austenia 1418:, 1922) 1364:, 1912) 1362:Newstead 1349:Glossina 1263:Glossina 1223:Diseases 1167:Genetics 1149:Glossina 1123:elephant 1108:bushbuck 1097:bushbuck 1018:aardvark 1014:bushbuck 1009:G. fusca 991:bushbuck 904:Overall 803:Glossina 776:halteres 593:Mosquito 542:abdomens 502:Glossina 323:Palpalis 284:Glossina 271:Theobald 262:Family: 182:Phylum: 176:Animalia 162:Domain: 9273:4178333 9211:1406594 9185:1456841 9081:Q205256 8872:Bed bug 8854:insects 8852:Harmful 8828:Shellac 8772:Beeswax 8727:Jingzhe 8507:insects 8503:Aspects 8496:insects 7348:Aschiza 6505:Insecta 6503:Class: 6480:Diptera 6478:Extant 6249:1462949 6130:9594154 5993:3493382 5925:2253612 5705:4140673 5548:]. 5204:2006480 5146:who.int 5078:3998934 4968:Fao.org 4918:Bibcode 4891:9880477 4793:2 April 4769:3134104 4650:2880569 4512:Bibcode 4477:3629143 4451:frezili 4366:5055987 4336:1462949 4260:2652644 4190:6366345 4114:6097038 4041:4077534 4012:Bibcode 3999:Science 3902:8291668 3871:Bibcode 3838:5340724 3774:of the 3741:2613686 3524:Longman 3439:8758138 3134:safaris 3128:of the 3074:History 2999:Senegal 2993:In the 2896:DLCO-EA 2873:acetone 2869:octenol 2818:pour-on 2810:aerosol 2728:(ITC), 2724:(ITT), 2720:drugs, 2661:Control 2643:Nigeria 2550:Animal 2376:T. suis 2354:warthog 2008:Disease 1949:glucose 1907:syringe 1891:strains 1648:, 1911) 1634:, 1911) 1620:, 1911) 1555:, 1913) 1541:, 1911) 1517:, 1911) 1469:, 1911) 1404:, 1903) 1277:Species 1253:Diptera 1204:Sodalis 1127:ostrich 1068:Varanus 1046:Varanus 987:buffalo 938:Bovidae 934:bushpig 923:giraffe 919:warthog 791:insects 768:insects 762:Anatomy 665:bauplan 658:⁄ 648:⁄ 635:⁄ 624:maggots 599:Biology 580:in the 571:English 486:tik-tik 279:Genus: 206:Diptera 202:Order: 196:Insecta 192:Class: 9270:uBio: 9263:139454 9250:753708 9224:102385 9172:1GLOSG 9133:103823 9120:116598 8811:Kermes 8806:Chitin 8799:Polish 6264: 6256: 6246: 6238: 6199: 6191: 6163: 6128: 6120: 6069: 6061: 6053: 6045: 6041:1–16. 6039: 6032: 6000: 5990: 5940: 5932: 5922: 5914: 5798: 5712: 5702: 5661:1 June 5566: 5523: 5516: 5507: 5497: 5470: 5462: 5454: 5407: 5399: 5391: 5340: 5299:15 May 5273: 5265: 5219: 5211: 5201: 5150:UNICEF 5093: 5085: 5075: 5067: 4948: 4938: 4889: 4879: 4831:Sc.edu 4767: 4759: 4751: 4698: 4657: 4647: 4602: 4557:14 May 4532: 4483: 4475: 4426: 4418: 4343: 4333: 4325: 4275: 4267: 4257: 4249: 4197: 4187: 4179: 4121: 4111: 4103: 4091:: 44. 4056: 4048: 4038: 4030: 3973: 3965: 3957: 3909: 3899: 3891: 3836: 3828: 3748: 3738: 3695: 3687: 3679: 3613: 3577: 3569: 3489: 3460: 3437: 3374:) and 3195:nagana 3179:nagana 3154:Kruger 2995:Niayes 2988:nagana 2957:Unguja 2871:, and 2671:nagana 2655:N'Dama 2645:, the 2564:horses 2556:nagana 2380:Africa 2305:Africa 2297:horses 2295:camels 2293:cattle 2287:Nagana 2239:Africa 2231:horses 2229:camels 2227:cattle 2219:Nagana 2179:Africa 2171:horses 2169:camels 2167:cattle 2161:Nagana 2129:Africa 2121:horses 2119:camels 2117:cattle 2109:Nagana 2077:humans 2039:humans 2017:agents 1865:nagana 1851:nagana 1761:Eocene 1738: 1692:Austen 1618:Austen 1515:Austen 1467:Austen 1416:Austen 1402:Austen 1370:Austen 993:, and 942:duiker 906:Suidae 890:larval 886:oocyte 815:uterus 793:; the 669:thorax 617:instar 590:Tsetse 567:Tsetse 494:Africa 482:tzetze 349:Tsetse 292:, 1830 273:, 1903 53:Recent 49:Eocene 18:Tsetse 9206:IRMNG 9198:67370 9159:56214 8777:Honey 8494:with 6432:icipe 6262:S2CID 6222:(1). 6126:S2CID 6088:(PDF) 5938:S2CID 5896:(2). 5856:(PDF) 5796:S2CID 5755:(PDF) 5732:(PDF) 5582:IAEA. 5544:[ 5468:S2CID 5436:(1). 5405:S2CID 5373:(1). 5249:(1). 5217:S2CID 5142:(PDF) 5091:S2CID 5049:(4). 4941:29288 4882:88909 4765:S2CID 4737:Wiley 4731:(6). 4481:S2CID 4467:(2). 4424:S2CID 4402:(3). 4309:(1). 4273:S2CID 4233:(1). 4167:: 5. 4054:S2CID 3971:S2CID 3941:(1). 3915:ORCID 3913:. 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