410:
contaminated by deception, fantasy, garbled speech, etc. A major vulnerability they produce in the subject is a tendency to believe he has revealed more than he has. It is possible, however, for both normal individuals and psychopaths to resist drug interrogation; it seems likely that any individual who can withstand ordinary intensive interrogation can hold out in narcosis. The best aid to a defense against narco-interrogation is foreknowledge of the process and its limitations. There is an acute need for controlled experimental studies of drug reaction, not only to depressants but also to stimulants and to combinations of depressants, stimulants, and ataraxics.
27:
480:, stated, with respect to the Holmes case, that use of a "truth drug" as proposed, "to ascertain the veracity of a defendant's plea of insanity... would provoke intense legal argument relating to Holmes's right to remain silent under the fifth amendment of the US constitution." Discussing possible effectiveness of such an examination, psychiatrist August Piper stated that "amytal's inhibition-lowering effects in no way prompt the subject to offer up true statements or memories."
473:. Judge William Sylvester ruled that prosecutors would be allowed to interrogate Holmes "under the influence of a medical drug designed to loosen him up and get him to talk", such as sodium amytal, if he filed an insanity plea. The hope was that a 'narcoanalytic interview' could confirm whether or not he had been legally insane on 20 July, the date of the shootings. It is not known whether such an examination was carried out.
301:
minutes after intake. Most importantly, a person who would be given, consecutively, two parts of the drug, i.e. both the "dote" and "antidote", would have no recollection of what had occurred in between and feel afterward as though he had suddenly fallen asleep, the preferable way to administer the "dote" being in an alcoholic drink, as that would serve as a plausible explanation of the sudden onset of drowsiness.
132:
73:
have been found to be suggestible and their memories subject to reconstruction and fabrication. When such drugs have been used in the course of investigating civil and criminal cases, they have not been accepted by
Western legal systems and legal experts as genuine investigative tools. In the United States, it has been suggested that their use is a potential violation of the
424:, that confessions produced as a result of ingestion of truth serum were "unconstitutionally coerced" and therefore inadmissible. The viability of forensic evidence produced from truth sera has been addressed in lower courts – judges and expert witnesses have generally agreed that they are not reliable for lie detection.
250:
to seek more information from
Krishna and also determine his credibility as a witness with key information, yet not known to the investigating authorities. Per unverified various media sources, Krishna had purported to have deemed Hemraj (the prime suspect) as not guilty of Aarushi's murder, claiming
300:
and Second
Directorates of the KGB had used, in exceptional cases and mostly on foreign citizens, a soluble odourless, colourless and tasteless substance code-named SP-117, an improved successor to similar drugs used by the KGB prior, that was effective in making a subject lose control of oneself 15
72:
Although a variety of such substances have been tested, serious issues have been raised about their use scientifically, ethically and legally. There is currently no drug proven to cause consistent or predictable enhancement of truth-telling. Subjects questioned under the influence of such substances
409:
The salient points that emerge from this discussion are the following. No such magic brew as the popular notion of truth serum exists. The barbiturates, by disrupting defensive patterns, may sometimes be helpful in interrogation, but even under the best conditions they will elicit an output
355:
jail. Both men were believed to be guilty, both denied guilt under scopolamine, and both were eventually acquitted. In 1926, the use of scopolamine was rejected in a court case, by Judge Robert Walker
Franklin, who questioned both its scientific origin, and the uncertainty of its effect.
948:
A PubMed search using the MeSH term 'narcotherapy' gives just two articles in the last ten years. There are no randomised control studies - the scientific standard - to demonstrate the reproducibility of results obtained by narcoanalysis for information gathering, abreaction, or lie
242:
terrorist group. On 3 May 2010, Kasab was found guilty of 80 offences, including murder, waging war against India, possessing explosives, and other charges. On 6 May 2010, the same trial court sentenced him to death on four counts and to a life sentence on five counts.
262:
tests were to be allowed with the consent of the accused. The judge stated: "We are of the considered opinion that no individual can be forced and subjected to such techniques involuntarily, and by doing so it amounts to unwarranted intrusion of personal liberty."
883:
A PubMed search found 26 references from 1997 to 2001 (or 5.2 publications per year), but in less than five years (2002 to July 2006) the number has more than tripled to 83 or 16.6 publications per year. Many of these are randomised controlled
346:
was promoted by obstetrician Robert Ernest House as an advance that would prevent false convictions, beginning in 1922. He had noted that women in childbirth who were given scopolamine could answer questions accurately even while in a state of
274:, a mother of three cubs, was found dead as a result of being hit by a vehicle. A Special Task Force requested the narcoanalysis testing of four persons, one of whom refused to consent on grounds of potential post-test complications.
387:, there were also issues of suggestibility and interviewer influence. Cases involving scopolamine resulted in a mixture of testimonies both for and against those suspected, at times directly contradicting each other.
1035:
The almost total absence of controlled experimental studies of "truth" drugs and the spotty and anecdotal nature of psychiatric and police evidence require that extrapolations to intelligence operations be made with
351:, and were oftentimes "exceedingly candid" in their remarks. House proposed that scopolamine could be used when interrogating suspected criminals. He even arranged to administer scopolamine to prisoners in the
1165:
1504: (The Supreme Court of New Jersey 1989) ("Three experts ... agreed that sodium-amytal-induced interviews are not considered scientifically reliable for the purpose of ascertaining "truth."").
1430:"Final report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, United States Senate: together with additional, supplemental, and separate views"
917:
It is true that the number of research publications on lie detection has tripled during 2002-2006. But no material has been produced that can be described as randomised controlled trials.
41:" is a colloquial name for any of a range of psychoactive drugs used in an effort to obtain information from subjects who are unable or unwilling to provide it otherwise. These include
487:
Scott
Linfield noted, as per Piper, that "there's good reason to believe that truth serums merely lower the threshold for reporting virtually all information, both true and false."
123:. Reliability and suggestibility of patients are concerns, and the practice of chemically inducing an involuntary mental state is now widely considered to be a form of torture.
1019:
1169:
1191:
1048:
94:
1501:
89:
arguing that use of a truth serum could be considered a violation of a human right to be free from degrading treatment, or could be considered a form of
444:
270:, Madhya Pradesh High Court permitted narcoanalysis in the investigation of a killing of a tiger that occurred in May 2010. The Jhurjhura Tigress at
74:
1237:
1308:
962:
1264:
1066:
1337:
428:
1147:
316:(SVR) officer, Alexander Kouzminov, who quit the service in the early 1990s, the officers of SVR′s Directorate S, which runs SVR's "
1408:
1111:
304:
Other reports state that SP-117 was just a form of concentrated alcohol meant to be added to alcoholic drinks such as champagne.
254:
On May 5, 2010 the
Supreme Court Judge Balasubramaniam in the case "Smt. Selvi vs. State of Karnataka" held that narcoanalysis,
1596:
1002:
890:
1392:
1363:
313:
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has used intravenous barbiturates for interrogation, often in high-profile cases. One such case was the interrogation of
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The
Central Bureau of Investigation also conducted this test on Krishna, a key witness and suspect in the high-profile
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393:
was also considered as a possible truth serum, but found unreliable. During the 1950s and 1960s, the United States
320:", primarily used the drug to verify fidelity and trustworthiness of their agents who operated overseas, such as
219:
405:, which involved illegal use of truth drugs including LSD. A CIA report from 1961, released in 1993, concludes:
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86:
864:
595:
247:
1327:
Biological
Espionage: Special Operations of the Soviet and Russian Foreign Intelligence Services in the West
1658:
466:
360:
1513:
1638:
1609:
1348:
1087:
initially denied that Kasab was a
Pakistani citizen, but, in January 2009, it confirmed his citizenship.
1015:
983:
Given the nature of narcoanalysis, it is not possible to get volunteers to facilitate controlled studies.
394:
1290:
741:
443:, to be administered sodium pentothal before being questioned about his knowledge regarding an alleged
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970:
271:
158:
50:
477:
447:. Russo would later describe "his conditioning by the DA's office as a complete brainwashing job."
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511:
297:
193:
While there have been many clinical studies of the efficacy of narcoanalysis in interrogation or
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383:: subjects became more talkative but that did not mean they were more truthful. Like
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120:
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62:
30:
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Tollefson GD: The amobarbital interview in the differential diagnosis of catatonia.
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531:
470:
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321:
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82:
20:
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Acid dreams: the complete social history of LSD: the CIA, the sixties, and beyond
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was drugged with the same substance by FSB agents during his kidnapping in 2004.
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Bringing
International Fugitives to Justice Extradition and its Alternatives
634:"Judge approves use of 'truth serum' on accused Aurora shooter James Holmes"
908:
455:
436:
376:
293:
174:
1089:
1544:
865:"Medical professionals and interrogation: lies about finding the 'truth'"
440:
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368:
332:
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182:
135:
109:
66:
379:. They concluded that the effects were not much different from those of
105:
758:
Naples M, Hackett TP: The amytal interview: history and current uses.
205:, that would meet scientific standards for determining effectiveness.
1309:"Russia's Lab X: poison factory that helped silence Soviets' critics"
1214:
516:
506:
372:
364:
296:, published an article that said that since the end of the 1980s the
255:
166:
101:
54:
1409:"One of the Most Shocking CIA Programs of All Time: Project MKUltra"
878:
384:
146:
142:
119:" or "narcoanalysis". Such application was first documented by Dr.
112:
1356:: The Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko and the Return of the KGB
267:
150:
138:, one of the chemical compounds that can be used as a truth serum
90:
42:
461:
More recently, a judge approved the use of narcoanalysis in the
1049:"Mumbai attacks: Militant kept in underwear to prevent suicide"
784:
Bleckwenn WJ: Production of sleep and rest in psychotic cases.
476:
William Shepherd, chair of the criminal justice section of the
131:
108:. In a therapeutic context, the controlled administration of
861:
There is some controversy to this point; see IJME debate in
1537:
682:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 296–297.
450:
In 1995, during the search for evidence that could acquit
1621:
390:
289:
1077:
1526:
Memo by Edward F. Wegmann of interview with Perry Russo
397:(CIA) carried out a number of investigations including
100:"Truth serum" was previously used in the management of
95:
Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture
226:, the only terrorist captured alive by police in the
1540:"Judge OKs medication for Colorado shooting suspect"
1168:. Bangalore Mirror. 29 November 2008. Archived from
197:, there is dispute whether any of them qualify as a
1387:(Rev. Evergreen ed.). New York: Grove Press.
1380:
830:
837:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.
734:
181:(commonly known by the brand name Pentothal) and
1630:
1238:"No narcoanalysis test without consent, says SC"
627:
625:
623:
621:
161:, potent short or intermediate acting hypnotic
1568:"James Holmes and the ethics of "truth serum""
855:
85:). Concerns have also been raised through the
1538:P. Solomon Banda; Dan Elliott (11 Mar 2013).
1104:
954:
932:"Narcoanalysis - spies, lies and truth serum"
922:
716:Ame Rican University International Law Review
618:
251:he "treated Aarushi like his own daughter".
149:that alter higher cognitive function include
126:
93:. It has been noted to be a violation of the
1617:Informal demonstration of thiopental (video)
1561:
1559:
1150:. Zee News. 29 November 2008. Archived from
1092:. Dawn (Pakistani Newspaper). 8 January 2009
791:
557:"Some Believe 'Truth Serums' Will Come Back"
1452:"Some Believe 'Truth Serums Will Come Back"
427:In 1967, during his investigation into the
173:, and various short and ultra-short acting
1286:
1284:
1192:"Bombay HC upholds Kasab's death sentence"
1067:"Exclusive: The Kasab Confession Part - 1"
996:
994:
992:
969:. Vol. 24, no. 9. Archived from
631:
429:assassination of President John F. Kennedy
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130:
25:
1565:
1281:
1148:"Planned 9/11 at Taj: Caught Terrorist"
1112:"CRIMINAL APPEAL NOS.1899-1900 OF 2011"
989:
742:"The Legal Prohibition Against Torture"
644:
589:
587:
585:
583:
581:
579:
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1379:Lee, Martin A.; Shlain, Bruce (1992).
1374:
1372:
1210:"Kasab waged war against India: court"
888:
862:
825:
816:
709:
675:
1449:
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891:"Misconceptions about narco analysis"
703:
669:
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1606:Center for the Study of Intelligence
1594:
1140:
1012:Center for the Study of Intelligence
1000:
833:Memory fragments of a modern history
574:
1566:Lennard, Natasha (March 13, 2013).
1369:
1265:"Narco test report throws up zilch"
963:"Narcoanalysis and some hard facts"
903:(1). Mumbai: 7–8, discussion 10–1.
363:(OSS) experimented with the use of
185:(formerly known as sodium amytal).
13:
1218:. Chennai, India. 22 February 2011
986:Indirecy quotation from B.M. Mohan
930:Misquitta, Neville (28 Feb 2011).
469:'s state of mind was valid for an
14:
1670:
1608:(Technical report). Vol. 5.
1588:
1450:Brown, David (20 November 2006).
1014:(Technical report). Vol. 5.
555:Brown, David (20 November 2006).
208:
1121:. 29 August 2012. Archived from
1073:from the original on 2021-12-11.
896:Indian Journal of Medical Ethics
877:(4). Mumbai: 116. Archived from
870:Indian Journal of Medical Ethics
652:"Annotation 9 - Fifth Amendment"
632:Pilkington, Ed (12 March 2013).
454:, his defense attorney employed
338:
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1519:
1507:
1488:
1472:
1422:
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1301:
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1184:
1090:"Ajmal's Nationality Confirmed"
1059:
1041:
1025:from the original on 2021-03-20
778:
375:as possible truth drugs during
248:2008 Aarushi-Hemraj Murder Case
220:Central Bureau of Investigation
1598:"Truth" Drugs in Interrogation
1358:. New York: Free Press, 2007.
1263:P. Naveen (October 23, 2012).
1004:"Truth" Drugs in Interrogation
936:Psychiatry and Society in Pune
765:
752:
548:
463:2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting
439:arranged for his key witness,
330:Russian presidential candidate
188:
87:European Court of Human Rights
1:
961:Lakshman, Sriram (May 2007).
889:Jesani, Amar (Jan–Mar 2007).
863:Jesani, Amar (Oct–Dec 2006).
542:
238:militant and a member of the
361:Office of Strategic Services
314:Foreign Intelligence Service
104:patients in the practice of
7:
490:
395:Central Intelligence Agency
10:
1675:
1194:. IBN Live. Archived from
465:trial to evaluate whether
127:Active chemical substances
18:
16:Class of psychoactive drug
1329:, Greenhill Books, 2006,
712:"Is Truth Serum Torture?"
710:Keller, Linda M. (2005).
676:Sadoff, David A. (2016).
312:According to the Russian
272:Bandhavgarh National Park
159:3-quinuclidinyl benzilate
51:3-quinuclidinyl benzilate
1514:JFK Assassination System
478:American Bar Association
213:
1485:, 372 U.S. 293, 307-308
1351:and Marina Litvinenko.
1166:"Please give me saline"
803:Encyclopedia of Surgery
596:"Stranger than fiction"
512:Pharmacological torture
277:
115:medications is called "
33:, marketed as Pentothal
1119:Supreme Court of India
1085:government of Pakistan
786:Arch Neurol Psychiatry
412:
139:
83:right to remain silent
34:
1483:Sain, Sheriff, et al.
497:Human experimentation
452:Andres English-Howard
407:
134:
29:
1502:116 N.J. 580
1354:Death of a Dissident
1325:Alexander Kouzminov
1291:РЫБКИНУ ДАЛИ СП-117?
1154:on 25 December 2008.
594:Rinde, Meir (2015).
326:Alexander Litvinenko
288:, with reference to
1659:Human rights abuses
1528:, January 27, 1971.
1457:The Washington Post
1298:, 15 February 2004.
1053:The Daily Telegraph
899:(Editorial reply).
561:The Washington Post
1639:Psychopharmacology
1595:Bimmerle, George.
1242:The Times Of India
1128:on 18 January 2013
1055:. 8 December 2008.
1001:Bimmerle, George.
788:1930; 24: 365–375.
775:1982; 23: 437–438.
746:Human Rights Watch
467:James Eagan Holmes
435:District Attorney
416:U.S. Supreme Court
359:The United States
308:Russian Federation
140:
35:
1625:, 4 October 2013.
1394:978-0-8021-3062-4
1364:978-1-4165-5165-2
928:A simple search:
762:1978; 19: 98–105.
179:sodium thiopental
121:William Bleckwenn
79:U.S. Constitution
63:sodium thiopental
31:Sodium thiopental
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532:Project Bluebird
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482:Psychology Today
421:Townsend v. Sain
322:Vitaly Yurchenko
203:controlled study
69:, among others.
21:Truth Serum (EP)
19:For the EP, see
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537:In vino veritas
527:Project Chatter
522:Project MKUltra
502:Microexpression
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403:Project MKDELTA
399:Project MKUltra
341:
324:. According to
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240:Lashkar-e-Taiba
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163:benzodiazepines
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75:Fifth Amendment
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1497:State v. Pitts
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