418:, are segments of bacterial DNA that are translocated into the genome, without the presence of a complementary sequence in the host's genome. P elements are administered in pairs of two, which flank the DNA insertion region of interest. Additionally, P elements often consist of two plasmid components, one known as the P element transposase and the other, the P transposon backbone. The transposase plasmid portion drives the transposition of the P transposon backbone, containing the transgene of interest and often a marker, between the two terminal sites of the transposon. Success of this insertion results in the nonreversible addition of the transgene of interest into the genome. While this method has been proven effective, the insertion sites of the P elements are often uncontrollable, resulting in an unfavorable, random insertion of the transgene into the
433:(RMCE). While it has shown to have a lower efficiency of transgenic transformation than the P element transposases, Cre greatly lessens the labor-intensive abundance of balancing random P insertions. Cre aids in the targeted transgenesis of the DNA gene segment of interest, as it supports the mapping of the transgene insertion sites, known as loxP sites. These sites, unlike P elements, can be specifically inserted to flank a chromosomal segment of interest, aiding in targeted transgenesis. The Cre transposase is important in the catalytic cleavage of the base pairs present at the carefully positioned loxP sites, permitting more specific insertions of the transgenic donor plasmid of interest.
256:, Mexico contained a transgenic 35S promoter, while a large sample taken by a different method from the same region in 2003 and 2004 did not. A sample from another region from 2002 also did not, but directed samples taken in 2004 did, suggesting transgene persistence or re-introduction. A 2009 study found recombinant proteins in 3.1% and 1.8% of samples, most commonly in southeast Mexico. Seed and grain import from the United States could explain the frequency and distribution of transgenes in west-central Mexico, but not in the southeast. Also, 5.0% of corn seed lots in Mexican corn stocks expressed recombinant proteins despite the moratorium on GM crops.
506:. Moreover, genetic disorders are being studied through the use of transgenic mice, pigs, rabbits, and rats. Transgenic rabbits have been created to study inherited cardiac arrhythmias, as the rabbit heart markedly better resembles the human heart as compared to the mouse. More recently, scientists have also begun using transgenic goats to study genetic disorders related to
145:. Transgenesis will therefore change the germ cells, not only the somatic cells, in order to ensure that the transgenes are passed down to the offspring when the organisms reproduce. Transgenes alter the genome by blocking the function of a host gene; they can either replace the host gene with one that codes for a different protein, or introduce an additional gene.
116:, insects, fish and mammals (including humans) have been bred. Transgenic plants such as corn and soybean have replaced wild strains in agriculture in some countries (e.g. the United States). Transgene escape has been documented for GMO crops since 2001 with persistence and invasiveness. Transgenetic organisms pose ethical questions and may cause
445:
and an attachment site in the bacterial host genome (attB). Compared to usual P element transgene insertion methods, ΊC31 integrates the entire transgene vector, including bacterial sequences and antibiotic resistance genes. Unfortunately, the presence of these additional insertions has been found
243:
The escape of genetically-engineered plant genes via hybridization with wild relatives was first discussed and examined in Mexico and Europe in the mid-1990s. There is agreement that escape of transgenes is inevitable, even "some proof that it is happening". Up until 2008 there were few documented
140:
in the sense that they both transform cells for a specific purpose. However, they are completely different in their purposes, as gene therapy aims to cure a defect in cells, and transgenesis seeks to produce a genetically modified organism by incorporating the specific transgene into every cell and
440:
has recently been utilized. Recent breakthrough studies involve the microinjection of the bacteriophage ΊC31 integrase, which shows improved transgene insertion of large DNA fragments that are unable to be transposed by P elements alone. This method involves the recombination between an attachment
526:
of the transplanted organ. Scientists have identified the antigen in pigs that causes this reaction, and therefore are able to transplant the organ without immediate rejection by removal of the antigen. However, the antigen begins to be expressed later on, and rejection occurs. Therefore, further
372:
occurs naturally within some cells, replacing the gene of interest with the designed transgene. Through this process, researchers were able to demonstrate that a transgene can be integrated into the genome of an animal, serve a specific function within the cell, and be passed down to future
471:. As of 2005 it was predicted that in the next two decades, 300,000 lines of transgenic mice will be generated. Researchers have identified many applications for transgenes, particularly in the medical field. Scientists are focusing on the use of transgenes to study the function of the
128:
The idea of shaping an organism to fit a specific need is not a new science. However, until the late 1900s farmers and scientists could breed new strains of a plant or organism only from closely related species because the DNA had to be compatible for offspring to be able to reproduce.
351:
are the most common animal model for transgenic research. Transgenic mice are currently being used to study a variety of diseases including cancer, obesity, heart disease, arthritis, anxiety, and
Parkinson's disease. The two most common types of genetically modified mice are
376:
Oncomice are another genetically modified mouse species created by inserting transgenes that increase the animal's vulnerability to cancer. Cancer researchers utilize oncomice to study the profiles of different cancers in order to apply this knowledge to human studies.
1208:
Wegier, A.; Piñeyro-Nelson, A.; AlarcĂłn, J.; GĂĄlvez-Mariscal, A.; Ălvarez-Buylla, E. R.; Piñero, D. (2011). "Recent long-distance transgene flow into wild populations conforms to historical patterns of gene flow in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) at its centre of origin".
1260:
Aono, M.; Wakiyama, S.; Nagatsu, M.; Kaneko, Y.; Nishizawa, T.; Nakajima, N.; Tamaoki, M.; Kubo, A.; Saji, H. (2011). "Seeds of a possible natural hybrid between herbicide-resistant
Brassica napus and Brassica rapa detected on a riverbank in Japan".
459:. Transgenes are being used to produce milk with high levels of proteins or silk from the milk of goats. Another agricultural application is to selectively breed animals, which are resistant to diseases or animals for biopharmaceutical production.
454:
One agricultural application is to selectively breed animals for particular traits: Transgenic cattle with an increased muscle phenotype has been produced by overexpressing a short hairpin RNA with homology to the myostatin mRNA using
1843:"Transgenic short-QT syndrome 1 rabbits mimic the human disease phenotype with QT/action potential duration shortening in the atria and ventricles and increased ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation inducibility"
360:. Knockout mice are a type of mouse model that uses transgenic insertion to disrupt an existing gene's expression. In order to create knockout mice, a transgene with the desired sequence is inserted into an isolated mouse
1840:
Odening, Katja E.; Bodi, Ilona; Franke, Gerlind; Rieke, Raphaela; Ryan de
Medeiros, Anna; Perez-Feliz, Stefanie; FĂŒrniss, Hannah; Mettke, Lea; Michaelides, Konstantin; Lang, Corinna N.; Steinfurt, Johannes (2019-03-07).
164:. In 1978, yeast cells were the first eukaryotic organisms to undergo gene transfer. Mouse cells were first transformed in 1979, followed by mouse embryos in 1980. Most of the very first transmutations were performed by
517:
from pig organs. Through the study of xeno-organ rejection, it was found that an acute rejection of the transplanted organ occurs upon the organ's contact with blood from the recipient due to the recognition of foreign
547:
Transgene use in humans is currently fraught with issues. Transformation of genes into human cells has not been perfected yet. The most famous example of this involved certain patients developing
310:-tolerant as "one of the first wind-pollinated, perennial, and highly outcrossing transgenic crops", was planted in 2003 as part of a large (about 160 ha) field trial in central Oregon near
235:. Little is known about the impact of golden rice on xerophthalmia because anti-GMO campaigns have prevented the full commercial release of golden rice into agricultural systems in need.
54:
containing a gene sequence that has been isolated from one organism and is introduced into a different organism. This non-native segment of DNA may either retain the ability to produce
947:"Transgenic Rice (Oryza Sativa) Endosperm Expressing Daffodil (Narcissus Pseudonarcissus) Phytoene Synthase Accumulates Phytoene, a Key Intermediate of Provitamin A Biosynthesis"
286:, Canada. They were persistent over a six-year study period, without herbicide selection pressure and despite hybridization with the wild form. This was the first report of the
1444:
1092:
Piñeyro-Nelson A, Van
Heerwaarden J, Perales HR, Serratos-HernĂĄndez JA, Rangel A, Hufford MB, Gepts P, Garay-Arroyo A, Rivera-Bustamante R, Alvarez-Buylla ER (February 2009).
394:, the fruit fly. This organism has been a helpful genetic model for over 100 years, due to its well-understood developmental pattern. The transfer of transgenes into the
498:, and the potential to treat these diseases using transgenic animals is, perhaps, one of the most promising applications of transgenes. There is a potential to use human
179:
The first transgenic animals were only intended for genetic research to study the specific function of a gene, and by 2003, thousands of genes had been studied.
62:
in the transgenic organism or alter the normal function of the transgenic organism's genetic code. In general, the DNA is incorporated into the organism's
502:
to replace a mutated gene with an unmutated copy of a transgene in order to treat the genetic disorder. This can be done through the use of Cre-Lox or
1980:
Hacein-Bey-Abina, S.; et al. (17 October 2003). "LMO2-Associated Clonal T Cell
Proliferation in Two Patients after Gene Therapy for SCID-X1".
617:
2152:
168:
of DNA directly into cells. Scientists were able to develop other methods to perform the transformations, such as incorporating transgenes into
195:, such as corn, soybean, rapeseed oil, cotton, rice and more. As of 2012, these GMO crops were planted on 170 million hectares globally.
2090:
2725:
172:
and then infecting cells; using electroinfusion, which takes advantage of an electric current to pass foreign DNA through the cell wall;
696:"Genome construction between bacterial species in vitro: replication and expression of Staphylococcus plasmid genes in Escherichia coli"
132:
In the 1970 and 1980s, scientists passed this hurdle by inventing procedures for combining the DNA of two vastly different species with
1445:"USDA concludes genetically engineered creeping bentgrass investigationâUSDA Assesses The Scotts Company, LLC $ 500,000 Civil Penalty"
1392:
Watrud, L.S.; Lee, E.H.; Fairbrother, A.; Burdick, C.; Reichman, J.R.; Bollman, M.; Storm, M.; King, G.J.; Van de Water, P.K. (2004).
552:
2808:
598:
436:
To overcome the limitations and low yields that transposon-mediated and Cre-loxP transformation methods produce, the bacteriophage
1448:
2598:
1645:
Oberstein, A.; Pare, A.; Kaplan, L.; Small, S. (2005). "Site-specific transgenesis by Cre-mediated recombination in
Drosophila".
1394:"Evidence for landscape-level, pollen-mediated gene flow from genetically modified creeping bentgrass with CP4 EPSPS as a marker"
430:
314:. In 2004, its pollen was found to have reached wild growing bentgrass populations up to 14 kilometres away. Cross-pollinating
1094:"Transgenes in Mexican maize: molecular evidence and methodological considerations for GMO detection in landrace populations"
1062:
Kristin L. Mercer; Joel D. Wainwright (January 2008). "Gene flow from transgenic maize to landraces in Mexico: An analysis".
1337:"Do escaped transgenes persist in nature? The case of an herbicide resistance transgene in a weedy Brassica rapa population"
2814:
2804:
437:
407:
1464:"New genes in traditional seed systems: diffusion, detectability and persistence of transgenes in a maize metapopulation"
215:
deficiency, in
Southeast Asia alone. Of those children, a quarter million went blind. To combat this, scientists used
2755:
2765:
2083:
827:
176:, which is the procedure of shooting DNA bullets into cells; and also delivering DNA into the newly fertilized egg.
2437:
1592:
1149:
Dyer GA, Serratos-Hernandez JA, Perales HR, Gepts P, Pineyro-Nelson A, et al. (2009). Hany A. El-Shemy (ed.).
2773:
2316:
1306:"Transgenic Brassica napus fields and Brassica rapa weeds in Québec: sympatry and weedcrop in situ hybridization"
2819:
2488:
337:
325:
78:. This technique is routinely used to introduce human disease genes or other genes of interest into strains of
987:
2794:
2789:
2535:
2451:
2107:
290:âthe stable incorporation of genes from one gene pool into anotherâof an herbicide-resistance transgene from
109:
264:
In 2011, transgenic cotton was found in Mexico among wild cotton, after 15 years of GMO cotton cultivation.
2899:
2291:
2198:
2076:
336:
The long-term monitoring and controlling of a particular transgene has been shown not to be feasible. The
2799:
2425:
2410:
2354:
2345:
2296:
2221:
2162:
2147:
625:
89:
The construction of a transgene requires the assembly of a few main parts. The transgene must contain a
2456:
2362:
2257:
2129:
2120:
593:
348:
192:
2651:
2593:
2497:
2432:
2415:
2326:
2180:
1019:
Arias, D. M.; Rieseberg, L. H. (November 1994). "Gene flow between cultivated and wild sunflowers".
369:
390:
136:. The organisms produced by these procedures were termed transgenic. Transgenesis is the same as
38:
techniques, from one organism to another. The introduction of a transgene, in a process known as
2301:
1793:"Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias and sudden death in transgenic rabbits with long QT syndrome"
93:, which is a regulatory sequence that will determine where and when the transgene is active, an
2904:
105:
and the coding sequences are typically chosen from transgenes with previously known functions.
101:
for the protein of interest), and a stop sequence. These are typically combined in a bacterial
2206:
2036:"Newly created transgenic primate may become an alternative disease model to rhesus macaques"
403:
253:
154:
814:
2745:
2520:
2286:
1989:
1936:
1475:
1348:
1218:
1162:
1105:
861:
766:
707:
652:
415:
303:
149:
1207:
8:
2735:
2667:
2605:
2469:
2099:
514:
480:
133:
90:
35:
17:
1993:
1940:
1479:
1352:
1222:
1166:
1109:
963:
946:
865:
770:
711:
656:
2613:
2464:
2013:
1962:
1817:
1792:
1768:
1743:
1727:
1692:
1670:
1554:
1498:
1463:
1374:
1286:
1242:
1185:
1150:
1126:
1093:
1044:
67:
2321:
1420:
1393:
1091:
789:
754:
730:
695:
641:"Integration and stable germ line transmission of genes injected into mouse pronuclei"
640:
2850:
2740:
2730:
2057:
2005:
1954:
1905:
1870:
1862:
1822:
1773:
1759:
1714:
1662:
1627:
1503:
1461:
1425:
1366:
1361:
1336:
1305:
1290:
1278:
1234:
1230:
1190:
1131:
1117:
1036:
995:
968:
924:
879:
823:
794:
735:
676:
668:
468:
316:
220:
98:
2239:
1674:
1522:
1378:
1246:
1048:
901:
425:
To improve the location and precision of the transgenic process, an enzyme known as
2623:
2047:
2017:
1997:
1966:
1944:
1897:
1854:
1812:
1804:
1763:
1755:
1722:
1704:
1654:
1617:
1534:
1493:
1483:
1415:
1405:
1356:
1317:
1270:
1226:
1180:
1170:
1121:
1113:
1071:
1028:
958:
916:
869:
784:
774:
725:
715:
660:
568:
523:
476:
456:
188:
160:
113:
79:
1901:
410:
insertion. The most practiced method used thus far to insert transgenes into the
2672:
2556:
2515:
2474:
2384:
1488:
1175:
555:(X-SCID). This was attributed to the close proximity of the inserted gene to the
548:
495:
426:
365:
2698:
2693:
2628:
2618:
2530:
2367:
2331:
1922:
1888:
Kues WA, Niemann H (2004). "The contribution of farm animals to human health".
1858:
1709:
1391:
1075:
573:
528:
488:
429:
has been introduced. Cre has proven to be a key element in a process known as
353:
321:
311:
165:
23:
Gene or genetic material that has been transferred from one organism to another
1523:"Guidance on the environmental risk assessment of genetically modified plants"
1462:
van
Heerwaarden J, Ortega Del Vecchyo D, Alvarez-Buylla ER, Bellon MR (2012).
2893:
2873:
2750:
2688:
2505:
2394:
2281:
1866:
1718:
1539:
999:
672:
588:
503:
442:
287:
278:
228:
208:
2001:
1923:
Woods, N.-B.; Bottero, V.; Schmidt, M.; von Kalle, C.; Verma, I. M. (2006).
1410:
1334:
664:
2662:
2561:
2540:
2389:
2211:
2061:
2009:
1958:
1909:
1874:
1842:
1826:
1777:
1666:
1631:
1507:
1429:
1370:
1282:
1274:
1238:
1194:
1135:
1040:
883:
779:
720:
499:
472:
137:
71:
39:
972:
928:
920:
739:
680:
2525:
2188:
1744:"Use of Transgenic Animals to Improve Human Health and Animal Production"
1259:
798:
232:
204:
1644:
2566:
2229:
1622:
1605:
1032:
559:
promoter, which controls the transcription of the LMO2 proto-oncogene.
414:
genome utilizes P elements. The transposable P elements, also known as
361:
307:
231:. The product was a transgenic rice species rich in vitamin A, called
169:
148:
The first transgenic organism was created in 1974 when Annie Chang and
2068:
2878:
2845:
2379:
2372:
2311:
2306:
2265:
2247:
1949:
1924:
1808:
1658:
583:
578:
507:
399:
357:
324:
could not remove all genetically engineered plants, and in 2007, the
282:â was found in Japan in 2011 after having been identified in 2006 in
212:
117:
83:
63:
43:
2052:
2035:
1321:
1303:
874:
849:
491:, and blood anti-clotting factors from the milk of transgenic cows.
283:
112:, be they bacteria, viruses or fungi, serve many research purposes.
2868:
2835:
2638:
2633:
2510:
1588:
1586:
1061:
519:
224:
216:
173:
1693:"Transgenic livestock for agriculture and biomedical applications"
1148:
475:
in order to better understand disease, adapting animal organs for
2863:
2840:
2420:
2170:
2142:
2137:
1973:
1916:
1881:
1572:
532:
484:
446:
to affect the level and reproducibility of transgene expression.
102:
59:
1735:
1638:
1597:
1583:
1565:
1547:
388:
Multiple studies have been conducted concerning transgenesis in
805:
610:
536:
142:
70:
this can be accomplished by injecting the foreign DNA into the
1151:"Dispersal of Transgenes through Maize Seed Systems in Mexico"
398:
genome has been performed using various techniques, including
34:
that has been transferred naturally, or by any of a number of
1335:
Warwick, S.I.; Legere, A.; Simard, M.J.; James, T. (2008).
556:
467:
The application of transgenes is a rapidly growing area of
328:
fined Scotts $ 500,000 for noncompliance with regulations.
320:
was even found at a distance of 21 kilometres. The grower,
94:
75:
31:
55:
51:
1839:
227:. The daffodil insertion increased the production of
97:, a protein coding sequence (usually derived from the
1555:"Background: Cloned and Genetically Modified Animals"
2153:
List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn
1979:
1791:
Brunner, Michael; Peng, Xuwen; Liu, GongXin (2008).
1606:"Transgenesis upgrades for Drosophila melanogaster"
449:
813:
340:published a guidance for risk assessment in 2010.
1925:"Gene therapy: Therapeutic gene causing lymphoma"
1304:Simard, M.-J.; LĂ©gĂšre, A.; Warwick, S.I. (2006).
539:which increase the rate of industrial reactions.
2891:
1741:
1398:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
752:
1790:
1018:
191:have been designed for agriculture to produce
2084:
811:
276:â hybridized with a native Japanese species,
203:One example of a transgenic plant species is
1603:
638:
207:. In 1997, five million children developed
2726:Detection of genetically modified organisms
1887:
2091:
2077:
693:
494:As of 2004 there were five thousand known
2051:
2033:
1948:
1816:
1767:
1726:
1708:
1621:
1538:
1497:
1487:
1419:
1409:
1360:
1184:
1174:
1125:
1064:Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment
962:
944:
873:
843:
841:
839:
788:
778:
729:
719:
553:X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency
1604:Venken, K. J. T.; Bellen, H. J. (2007).
1577:National Human Genome Research Institute
902:"New imperatives for an old vitamin (A)"
822:(Rev. ed.). Pacific Union College.
599:Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis
527:research is being conducted. Transgenic
2098:
850:"Case studies: A hard look at GM crops"
847:
753:Hinnen, A; Hicks, JB; Fink, GR (1978).
624:. Washington University. Archived from
2892:
1686:
1684:
1593:Genetically modified mouse#cite note-8
1385:
985:
899:
836:
694:Chang, A. C. Y.; Cohen, S. N. (1974).
542:
431:recombinase-mediated cassette exchange
2072:
639:Gordon, J.; Ruddle, F. (1981-12-11).
297:
1690:
1520:
1442:
940:
938:
895:
893:
812:Bryan D. Ness, ed. (February 2004).
380:
267:
86:involved with that particular gene.
1681:
964:10.1046/j.1365-313x.1997.11051071.x
479:into humans, and the production of
462:
238:
13:
2756:Genetic use restriction technology
2027:
331:
42:, has the potential to change the
14:
2916:
935:
890:
1760:10.1111/j.1439-0531.2005.00596.x
1748:Reproduction in Domestic Animals
1362:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03567.x
1231:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05258.x
1118:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03993.x
1021:Theoretical and Applied Genetics
450:Use in livestock and aquaculture
211:, a medical condition caused by
182:
2774:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
1833:
1784:
1559:Center for Genetics and Society
1514:
1455:
1436:
1328:
1297:
1253:
1201:
1142:
1085:
1055:
1012:
531:capable of producing catalytic
223:gene into Asia indigenous rice
979:
746:
687:
632:
343:
338:European Food Safety Authority
326:U.S. Department of Agriculture
294:into the wild form gene pool.
252:Corn sampled in 2000 from the
198:
110:genetically modified organisms
1:
2536:Somatic cell nuclear transfer
1902:10.1016/j.tibtech.2004.04.003
604:
1691:Long, Charles (2014-10-01).
1489:10.1371/journal.pone.0046123
1176:10.1371/journal.pone.0005734
7:
562:
513:Transgenes may be used for
10:
2921:
1710:10.1186/1753-6561-8-S4-O29
1310:Canadian Journal of Botany
1076:10.1016/j.agee.2007.05.007
986:Harmon, Amy (2013-08-24).
759:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
700:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
594:Nucleic acid hybridization
193:genetically modified crops
123:
15:
2859:
2828:
2782:
2764:
2711:
2681:
2649:
2594:Genetically modified food
2586:
2579:
2549:
2496:
2487:
2450:
2403:
2353:
2344:
2274:
2256:
2238:
2220:
2197:
2179:
2161:
2128:
2119:
2106:
1742:Houdebine, L.-M. (2005).
1443:USDA (26 November 2007).
988:"Golden Rice: Lifesaver?"
755:"Transformation of yeast"
349:Genetically modified mice
259:
82:to study the function or
1859:10.1093/eurheartj/ehy761
1540:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1879
945:Burkhardt, P.K. (1997).
820:Encyclopedia of Genetics
551:after being treated for
370:homologous recombination
2002:10.1126/science.1088547
1411:10.1073/pnas.0405154101
1081:(subscription required)
900:Sommer, Alfred (1988).
665:10.1126/science.6272397
481:pharmaceutical products
391:Drosophila melanogaster
247:
219:to insert the daffodil
50:describes a segment of
1847:European Heart Journal
1275:10.4161/gmcr.2.3.18931
815:"Transgenic Organisms"
780:10.1073/pnas.75.4.1929
721:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1030
2207:Roundup ready soybean
2034:Cyranoski, D (2009).
254:Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca
155:Staphylococcus aureus
16:For the company, see
2746:Reverse transfection
2521:Genetic transduction
909:Journal of Nutrition
848:Gilbert, N. (2013).
272:Transgenic rapeseed
2900:Genetic engineering
2736:Genetics in fiction
2668:Genetic enhancement
2470:Hepatitis B vaccine
2100:Genetic engineering
1994:2003Sci...302..415H
1941:2006Natur.440.1123W
1480:2012PLoSO...746123V
1451:on 8 December 2015.
1404:(40): 14533â14538.
1353:2008MolEc..17.1387W
1223:2011MolEc..20.4182W
1167:2009PLoSO...4.5734D
1110:2009MolEc..18..750P
921:10.1093/jn/119.1.96
866:2013Natur.497...24G
771:1978PNAS...75.1929H
712:1974PNAS...71.1030C
657:1981Sci...214.1244G
651:(4526): 1244â1246.
622:Mouse Genetics Core
543:Ethical controversy
515:xenotransplantation
441:(attP) site in the
306:, engineered to be
134:genetic engineering
36:genetic engineering
18:Transgene (company)
2846:Stem cell research
2465:Ice-minus bacteria
1623:10.1242/dev.005686
1579:. August 27, 2015.
1033:10.1007/BF00223700
992:The New York Times
618:"Transgene Design"
304:creeping bentgrass
298:Creeping bentgrass
68:higher vertebrates
66:. For example, in
2887:
2886:
2851:Synthetic biology
2741:Human enhancement
2731:Genetic pollution
2707:
2706:
2575:
2574:
2483:
2482:
2446:
2445:
2340:
2339:
1988:(5644): 415â419.
1890:Trends Biotechnol
1616:(20): 3571â3584.
1561:. April 14, 2005.
1341:Molecular Ecology
1316:(12): 1842â1851.
1217:(19): 4182â4194.
1211:Molecular Ecology
1098:Molecular Ecology
628:on March 2, 2011.
524:endothelial cells
469:molecular biology
317:Agrostis gigantea
268:Rapeseed (canola)
221:phytoene synthase
189:transgenic plants
114:Transgenic plants
2912:
2624:Dow AgroSciences
2584:
2583:
2494:
2493:
2351:
2350:
2126:
2125:
2117:
2116:
2093:
2086:
2079:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2055:
2022:
2021:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1952:
1950:10.1038/4401123a
1920:
1914:
1913:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1820:
1809:10.1172/JCI33578
1803:(6): 2246â2259.
1788:
1782:
1781:
1771:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1712:
1703:(Suppl 4): O29.
1688:
1679:
1678:
1659:10.1038/nmeth775
1642:
1636:
1635:
1625:
1601:
1595:
1590:
1581:
1580:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1501:
1491:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1447:. Archived from
1440:
1434:
1433:
1423:
1413:
1389:
1383:
1382:
1364:
1347:(5): 1387â1395.
1332:
1326:
1325:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1188:
1178:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1129:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1070:(1â3): 109â115.
1059:
1053:
1052:
1016:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1006:
983:
977:
976:
966:
957:(5): 1071â1078.
942:
933:
932:
906:
897:
888:
887:
877:
845:
834:
833:
817:
809:
803:
802:
792:
782:
765:(4): 1929â1933.
750:
744:
743:
733:
723:
706:(4): 1030â1034.
691:
685:
684:
636:
630:
629:
614:
496:genetic diseases
463:Future potential
457:RNA interference
239:Transgene escape
161:Escherichia coli
74:of a fertilized
46:of an organism.
2920:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2855:
2824:
2778:
2760:
2713:
2703:
2677:
2673:Genetic testing
2655:
2645:
2571:
2557:Recombinant DNA
2545:
2516:Electroporation
2479:
2475:Oncolytic virus
2454:
2442:
2399:
2385:Herman the Bull
2336:
2270:
2252:
2234:
2216:
2193:
2175:
2157:
2111:
2109:
2102:
2097:
2053:10.1038/459492a
2030:
2028:Further reading
2025:
1978:
1974:
1921:
1917:
1886:
1882:
1853:(10): 842â853.
1838:
1834:
1789:
1785:
1740:
1736:
1697:BMC Proceedings
1689:
1682:
1643:
1639:
1602:
1598:
1591:
1584:
1573:"Knockout Mice"
1571:
1570:
1566:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1519:
1515:
1460:
1456:
1441:
1437:
1390:
1386:
1333:
1329:
1322:10.1139/b06-135
1302:
1298:
1258:
1254:
1206:
1202:
1147:
1143:
1090:
1086:
1080:
1060:
1056:
1017:
1013:
1004:
1002:
984:
980:
943:
936:
904:
898:
891:
875:10.1038/497024a
860:(7447): 24â26.
846:
837:
830:
810:
806:
751:
747:
692:
688:
637:
633:
616:
615:
611:
607:
565:
549:T-cell leukemia
545:
477:transplantation
465:
452:
386:
366:electroporation
346:
334:
332:Risk assessment
300:
274:Brassicus napus
270:
262:
250:
241:
201:
185:
126:
80:laboratory mice
24:
21:
12:
11:
5:
2918:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2832:
2830:
2829:Similar fields
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2717:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2701:
2699:Gene targeting
2696:
2694:Gene knockdown
2691:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2629:DuPont Pioneer
2626:
2621:
2616:
2608:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2590:
2588:
2587:In agriculture
2581:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2531:Microinjection
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2461:
2459:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2413:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2368:Knockout mouse
2359:
2357:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2262:
2260:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2232:
2226:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2203:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2185:
2183:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2167:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2123:
2114:
2104:
2103:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2081:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2023:
1972:
1935:(7088): 1123.
1915:
1896:(6): 286â294.
1880:
1832:
1783:
1754:(5): 269â281.
1734:
1680:
1653:(8): 583â585.
1647:Nature Methods
1637:
1596:
1582:
1564:
1546:
1513:
1474:(10): e46123.
1454:
1435:
1384:
1327:
1296:
1252:
1200:
1141:
1084:
1054:
1011:
978:
934:
889:
835:
828:
804:
745:
686:
631:
608:
606:
603:
602:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
574:Fusion protein
571:
564:
561:
544:
541:
529:microorganisms
489:growth hormone
464:
461:
451:
448:
385:
379:
345:
342:
333:
330:
322:Scotts Company
312:Madras, Oregon
299:
296:
292:Brassica napus
269:
266:
261:
258:
249:
246:
240:
237:
200:
197:
184:
181:
166:microinjection
125:
122:
108:Transgenic or
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2917:
2906:
2905:Gene delivery
2903:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2874:Biotechnology
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2858:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2827:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2815:South America
2813:
2810:
2806:
2805:North America
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2751:Transhumanism
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2710:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2689:Gene knockout
2687:
2686:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2600:
2599:Controversies
2597:
2596:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2499:
2498:Inserting DNA
2495:
2492:
2490:
2486:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2404:Other animals
2402:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2255:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2089:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2075:
2074:
2071:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2046:(7246): 492.
2045:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2031:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1797:J Clin Invest
1794:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1738:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1685:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1560:
1556:
1550:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1521:EFSA (2010).
1517:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1300:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1269:(3): 201â10.
1268:
1264:
1256:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1104:(4): 750â61.
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1027:(6): 655â60.
1026:
1022:
1015:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
982:
974:
970:
965:
960:
956:
952:
951:Plant Journal
948:
941:
939:
930:
926:
922:
918:
915:(1): 96â100.
914:
910:
903:
896:
894:
885:
881:
876:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
844:
842:
840:
831:
829:1-58765-149-1
825:
821:
816:
808:
800:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
749:
741:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
690:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
635:
627:
623:
619:
613:
609:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
589:Introgression
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
566:
560:
558:
554:
550:
540:
538:
534:
530:
525:
521:
516:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
460:
458:
447:
444:
439:
434:
432:
428:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
392:
384:
378:
374:
373:generations.
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
354:knockout mice
350:
341:
339:
329:
327:
323:
319:
318:
313:
309:
305:
295:
293:
289:
288:introgression
285:
281:
280:
279:Brassica rapa
275:
265:
257:
255:
245:
236:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
209:xerophthalmia
206:
196:
194:
190:
187:A variety of
183:Use in plants
180:
177:
175:
171:
167:
163:
162:
157:
156:
151:
150:Stanley Cohen
146:
144:
141:changing the
139:
135:
130:
121:
119:
115:
111:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
2720:
2663:Gene therapy
2562:Transgenesis
2541:Transfection
2506:Agrobacteria
2390:Knockout rat
2212:Vistive Gold
2108:Genetically
2043:
2039:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1932:
1928:
1918:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1850:
1846:
1835:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1751:
1747:
1737:
1700:
1696:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1613:
1609:
1599:
1576:
1567:
1558:
1549:
1533:(11): 1879.
1530:
1527:EFSA Journal
1526:
1516:
1471:
1467:
1457:
1449:the original
1438:
1401:
1397:
1387:
1344:
1340:
1330:
1313:
1309:
1299:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1161:(5): e5734.
1158:
1154:
1144:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1067:
1063:
1057:
1024:
1020:
1014:
1003:. Retrieved
991:
981:
954:
950:
912:
908:
857:
853:
819:
807:
762:
758:
748:
703:
699:
689:
648:
644:
634:
626:the original
621:
612:
546:
512:
500:gene therapy
493:
473:human genome
466:
453:
435:
424:
419:
411:
395:
389:
387:
382:
375:
347:
335:
315:
301:
291:
277:
273:
271:
263:
251:
242:
202:
186:
178:
170:retroviruses
159:
153:
147:
138:gene therapy
131:
127:
107:
88:
47:
40:transgenesis
27:
25:
2682:In research
2656:diagnostics
2526:Lipofection
2287:Arabidopsis
2189:Golden rice
1610:Development
416:transposons
344:Use in mice
302:Transgenic
233:golden rice
205:golden rice
199:Golden rice
2894:Categories
2766:Regulation
2610:Companies
2567:Cisgenesis
2511:Biolistics
2317:Sugar beet
2230:Flavr Savr
2130:Maize/corn
1005:2015-11-24
605:References
520:antibodies
420:Drosophila
412:Drosophila
396:Drosophila
383:Drosophila
362:blastocyst
308:glyphosate
229:ÎČ-carotene
217:biolistics
174:biolistics
152:expressed
120:problems.
2879:Bioethics
2783:Geography
2721:Transgene
2489:Processes
2380:Enviropig
2373:Oncomouse
2312:SmartStax
2248:Bt cotton
2112:organisms
1867:1522-9645
1719:1753-6561
1291:207515910
1000:0362-4331
673:0036-8075
584:Gene flow
579:Gene pool
508:fertility
400:P element
225:cultivars
213:vitamin A
158:genes in
118:biosafety
84:pathology
64:germ line
48:Transgene
44:phenotype
28:transgene
2869:Genetics
2836:Eugenics
2714:articles
2639:Syngenta
2634:Monsanto
2606:Pharming
2452:Bacteria
2148:StarLink
2110:modified
2062:19478751
2010:14564000
1959:16641981
1910:15158058
1875:30496390
1827:18464931
1778:16008757
1675:24887960
1667:16094382
1632:17905790
1508:23056246
1468:PLOS ONE
1430:15448206
1379:15784621
1371:17971090
1283:22179196
1263:GM Crops
1247:20530592
1239:21899621
1195:19503610
1155:PLOS ONE
1136:19143938
1049:27999792
1041:24178006
884:23636378
563:See also
533:proteins
504:knockout
483:such as
422:genome.
404:Cre-loxP
368:. Then,
358:oncomice
91:promoter
2864:Biology
2841:Cloning
2820:Oceania
2712:Related
2457:viruses
2421:GloFish
2411:Insects
2355:Mammals
2346:Animals
2332:Mustard
2322:Tobacco
2292:Brinjal
2199:Soybean
2171:Amflora
2143:MON 863
2138:MON 810
2018:9100335
1990:Bibcode
1982:Science
1967:4372110
1937:Bibcode
1818:2373420
1769:7190005
1728:4204076
1499:3463572
1476:Bibcode
1349:Bibcode
1219:Bibcode
1186:2685455
1163:Bibcode
1127:3001031
1106:Bibcode
973:9193076
929:2643699
862:Bibcode
767:Bibcode
740:4598290
708:Bibcode
681:6272397
653:Bibcode
645:Science
537:enzymes
485:insulin
381:Use in
244:cases.
124:History
103:plasmid
72:nucleus
60:protein
2795:Africa
2790:Europe
2652:humans
2426:Salmon
2395:Rabbit
2302:Papaya
2297:Canola
2240:Cotton
2222:Tomato
2163:Potato
2060:
2040:Nature
2016:
2008:
1965:
1957:
1929:Nature
1908:
1873:
1865:
1825:
1815:
1776:
1766:
1725:
1717:
1673:
1665:
1630:
1506:
1496:
1428:
1421:521937
1418:
1377:
1369:
1289:
1281:
1245:
1237:
1193:
1183:
1134:
1124:
1047:
1039:
998:
971:
927:
882:
854:Nature
826:
799:347451
797:
790:392455
787:
738:
731:388155
728:
679:
671:
569:Hybrid
406:, and
364:using
284:Québec
260:Cotton
143:genome
2619:Bayer
2550:Types
2438:Frogs
2433:Birds
2363:Mouse
2327:Trees
2282:Apple
2275:Other
2258:Wheat
2121:Crops
2014:S2CID
1963:S2CID
1671:S2CID
1375:S2CID
1287:S2CID
1243:S2CID
1045:S2CID
905:(PDF)
443:phage
30:is a
2800:Asia
2614:BASF
2580:Uses
2455:and
2416:Fish
2307:Rose
2181:Rice
2058:PMID
2006:PMID
1955:PMID
1906:PMID
1871:PMID
1863:ISSN
1823:PMID
1774:PMID
1715:ISSN
1663:PMID
1628:PMID
1504:PMID
1426:PMID
1367:PMID
1279:PMID
1235:PMID
1191:PMID
1132:PMID
1037:PMID
996:ISSN
969:PMID
925:PMID
880:PMID
824:ISBN
795:PMID
736:PMID
677:PMID
669:ISSN
557:LMO2
438:ΊC31
408:ΊC31
356:and
248:Corn
99:cDNA
95:exon
76:ovum
32:gene
2654:and
2650:In
2266:HB4
2048:doi
2044:459
1998:doi
1986:302
1945:doi
1933:440
1898:doi
1855:doi
1813:PMC
1805:doi
1801:118
1764:PMC
1756:doi
1723:PMC
1705:doi
1655:doi
1618:doi
1614:134
1535:doi
1494:PMC
1484:doi
1416:PMC
1406:doi
1402:101
1357:doi
1318:doi
1271:doi
1227:doi
1181:PMC
1171:doi
1122:PMC
1114:doi
1072:doi
1068:123
1029:doi
959:doi
917:doi
913:119
870:doi
858:497
785:PMC
775:doi
726:PMC
716:doi
661:doi
649:214
535:or
522:on
427:Cre
58:or
56:RNA
52:DNA
2896::
2809:US
2056:.
2042:.
2038:.
2012:.
2004:.
1996:.
1984:.
1961:.
1953:.
1943:.
1931:.
1927:.
1904:.
1894:22
1892:.
1869:.
1861:.
1851:40
1849:.
1845:.
1821:.
1811:.
1799:.
1795:.
1772:.
1762:.
1752:40
1750:.
1746:.
1721:.
1713:.
1699:.
1695:.
1683:^
1669:.
1661:.
1649:.
1626:.
1612:.
1608:.
1585:^
1575:.
1557:.
1529:.
1525:.
1502:.
1492:.
1482:.
1470:.
1466:.
1424:.
1414:.
1400:.
1396:.
1373:.
1365:.
1355:.
1345:17
1343:.
1339:.
1314:84
1312:.
1308:.
1285:.
1277:.
1265:.
1241:.
1233:.
1225:.
1215:20
1213:.
1189:.
1179:.
1169:.
1157:.
1153:.
1130:.
1120:.
1112:.
1102:18
1100:.
1096:.
1066:.
1043:.
1035:.
1025:89
1023:.
994:.
990:.
967:.
955:11
953:.
949:.
937:^
923:.
911:.
907:.
892:^
878:.
868:.
856:.
852:.
838:^
818:.
793:.
783:.
773:.
763:75
761:.
757:.
734:.
724:.
714:.
704:71
702:.
698:.
675:.
667:.
659:.
647:.
643:.
620:.
510:.
487:,
402:,
26:A
2811:)
2807:(
2092:e
2085:t
2078:v
2064:.
2050::
2020:.
2000::
1992::
1969:.
1947::
1939::
1912:.
1900::
1877:.
1857::
1829:.
1807::
1780:.
1758::
1731:.
1707::
1701:8
1677:.
1657::
1651:2
1634:.
1620::
1543:.
1537::
1531:8
1510:.
1486::
1478::
1472:7
1432:.
1408::
1381:.
1359::
1351::
1324:.
1320::
1293:.
1273::
1267:2
1249:.
1229::
1221::
1197:.
1173::
1165::
1159:4
1138:.
1116::
1108::
1078:.
1074::
1051:.
1031::
1008:.
975:.
961::
931:.
919::
886:.
872::
864::
832:.
801:.
777::
769::
742:.
718::
710::
683:.
663::
655::
20:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.