142:
572:. Many species of rays and skates outside the family have electric organs in the tail; however, the electric ray has two large kidney-shaped electric organs on each side of its head, where current passes from the lower to the upper surface of the body. The nerves that signal the organ to discharge branch repeatedly, then attach to the lower side of each plaque in the batteries. These are composed of hexagonal columns, closely packed in a honeycomb formation. Each column consists of 500 to more than 1000 plaques of modified striated muscle, adapted from the
168:
544:
556:
120:
580:, these batteries are connected as a parallel circuit, whereas freshwater batteries are arranged in series. This allows freshwater rays to transmit discharges of higher voltage, as freshwater cannot conduct electricity as well as saltwater. With such a battery, an electric ray may electrocute larger prey with a voltage of between 8 volts in some narcinids to 220 volts in
594:
The 60 or so species of electric rays are grouped into 12 genera and two families. The
Narkinae are sometimes elevated to a family, the Narkidae. The torpedinids feed on large prey, which are stunned using their electric organs and swallowed whole, while the narcinids specialize on small prey on or
428:
Electric rays are found from shallow coastal waters down to at least 1,000 m (3,300 ft) deep. They are sluggish and slow-moving, propelling themselves with their tails, not by using their pectoral fins as other rays do. They feed on invertebrates and small fish. They lie in wait for prey
519:
The torpedo fish, or electric ray, appears continuously in premodern natural histories as a magical creature, and its ability to numb fishermen without seeming to touch them was a significant source of evidence for the belief in
442:
The electrogenic properties of electric rays have been known since antiquity, although their nature was not understood. The ancient Greeks used electric rays to numb the pain of
1291:
Electrolux addisoni, a new genus and species of electric ray from the east coast of South Africa (Rajiformes: Torpedinoidei: Narkidae), with a review of torpedinoid taxonomy
836:
1114:
Copenhaver, Brian P. (September 1991). "A tale of two fishes: Magical objects in natural history from antiquity through the scientific revolution".
1963:
1819:
739:
1858:
607:
595:
in the bottom substrate. Both groups use electricity for defense, but it is unclear whether the narcinids use electricity in feeding.
1030:
Alexander, Mauro (1969). "The role of the voltaic pile in the
Galvani-Volta controversy concerning animal vs. metallic electricity".
1958:
1793:
1506:
1067:"A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250 th An- niversary of a Historic Expedition to Île de Ré"
1832:
1325:
417:
are at the base of the pectoral fins. The snout is broad, large in the
Narcinidae, but reduced in all other families. The mouth,
1210:
959:
1837:
1348:
1938:
1274:
1241:
1181:
921:
896:
871:
1910:
1863:
832:
1845:
393:
Electric rays have a rounded pectoral disc with two moderately large rounded-angular (not pointed or hooked)
244:
167:
1499:
800:
1741:
1728:
1318:
17:
1353:
1902:
1746:
1719:
1463:
1915:
577:
1943:
1369:
414:
507:
proposed that electric rays use electricity; he built an artificial ray consisting of fish shaped
360:, depending on species, used to stun prey and for defense. There are 69 species in four families.
1492:
1889:
1953:
1681:
1311:
975:
488:
1884:
1377:
993:
949:
569:
492:
1876:
1824:
1258:
1767:
127:
8:
1266:
1066:
687:
663:
149:
141:
1733:
1131:
289:
162:
31:
524:
in nature during the ages before the discovery of electricity as an explanatory mode.
1871:
1754:
1604:
1270:
1237:
1206:
1177:
1139:
1047:
978:(1773). "On the Electric Property of the Torpedo: in a Letter to Benjamin Franklin".
955:
917:
892:
867:
582:
465:
460:
of "stunning" people with his puzzling questions, in a manner similar to the way the
947:
1484:
1473:
1446:
1434:
1123:
1039:
521:
500:
429:
below the sand or other substrate, using their electricity to stun and capture it.
385:, 'to be stiffened or paralyzed', from the effect on someone who touches the fish.
302:
1759:
1642:
1440:
771:
754:
504:
406:
368:
1850:
1259:
1594:
1574:
1557:
1516:
1088:
1043:
573:
461:
353:
219:
209:
948:
Theodore Holmes
Bullock; Carl D. Hopkins; Richard R. Fay (28 September 2006).
1948:
1932:
1547:
1406:
1334:
796:
776:
533:
496:
484:
77:
1290:
1092:
1704:
1599:
1579:
1468:
1412:
1400:
1382:
1143:
732:
679:
293:
270:
1051:
936:
543:
1806:
1713:
1656:
1609:
1589:
1161:. Sears Foundation for Marine Research, Yale University. pp. 80–104.
912:
Stevens, J.; Last, P. K. (1998). Paxton, J. R.; Eschmeyer, W. N. (eds.).
695:
671:
655:
614:
52:
483:
In the 1770s the electric organs of the torpedo ray were the subject of
1637:
1541:
1428:
1422:
1135:
746:
721:
713:
706:
622:
600:
508:
468:, a Roman physician, recorded the use of torpedo fish for treatment of
443:
402:
398:
394:
265:
260:
97:
62:
1811:
1780:
1584:
1198:
630:
555:
422:
179:
119:
102:
1675:
1127:
1798:
1785:
1698:
1664:
1619:
1535:
1529:
805:
647:
469:
457:
229:
199:
92:
87:
72:
67:
57:
1632:
638:
418:
373:
107:
82:
1303:
561:
Diagram of structure of electric organs and stacked electrocytes
410:
285:
189:
1201:. In Marc D. Binder; Nobutaka Hirokawa; Uwe Windhorst (eds.).
341:
30:
This article is about the fish. For a ray of electricity, see
1897:
1772:
1566:
453:
405:. The body is thick and flabby, with soft loose skin with no
377:
364:
1289:
Compagno, Leonard J.V. and
Heemstra, Phillip C. (May 2007) "
889:
Sharks, Skates, and Rays: The
Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes
335:
308:
1295:
Smithiana, Publications in
Aquatic Biodiversity, Bulletin 7
473:
448:
376:
undersea weapon is named after it. The name comes from the
357:
317:
1171:
860:
Collins Latin Gem
Dictionary: Latin-English, English-Latin
503:– the founders of electrophysiology and electrochemistry.
1017:
998:
980:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
329:
323:
1150:
1032:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
1283:
344:
332:
326:
1514:
1205:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 1050–1056.
954:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6.
320:
314:
305:
1236:(Third ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 768.
401:), and a stout muscular tail with a well-developed
338:
311:
1174:A Living Bay: the Underwater World of Monterey Bay
996:(1773). "Anatomical Observations on the Torpedo".
495:. These appear to have influenced the thinking of
941:
1930:
1156:
363:Perhaps the best known members are those of the
1176:. University of California Press. p. 222.
511:to successfully mimic their behaviour in 1773.
1107:
1023:
1500:
1319:
1256:
1159:Fishes of the Western North Atlantic, Part 2
1058:
1190:
911:
380:
1507:
1493:
1326:
1312:
1172:Langstroth, L. & Newberry, T. (2000).
1113:
140:
118:
1643:Myliobatiformes (stingrays and relatives)
1157:Bigelow, H. B.; Schroeder, W. C. (1953).
1093:"Shock and Awe: The Story of Electricity"
1029:
916:. San Diego: Academic Press. p. 66.
432:
1265:(fourth ed.). John Wiley. pp.
1011:Hunter, John (1775). "An account of the
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
816:
1964:Taxa named by Fernando de Buen y Lozano
1575:Hexanchiformes (frilled and cow sharks)
1297:: 15-49. Retrieved on October 22, 2008.
1064:
886:
835:. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.
795:
14:
1931:
1250:
1231:
1225:
1196:
1087:
1010:
992:
880:
437:
352:. They are known for being capable of
1680:
1679:
1488:
1307:
974:
813:
1903:03A3DB49-C055-B83A-82E7-C10CFE1C7909
1638:Rajiformes (skates and guitarfishes)
857:
839:from the original on 15 October 2008
1595:Heterodontiformes (bullhead sharks)
1349:Electroreception and electrogenesis
1234:International Wildlife Encyclopedia
891:. Baltimore and London: JHU Press.
568:The electric rays have specialised
549:Position of the two electric organs
24:
1065:Edwards, Paul (10 November 2021).
905:
830:
25:
1975:
1605:Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks)
1333:
789:
527:
1600:Orectolobiformes (carpet sharks)
554:
542:
446:and operations. In his dialogue
301:
166:
50:
1959:Extant Eocene first appearances
1628:Torpediniformes (electric rays)
1165:
1116:Journal of the History of Ideas
1081:
1004:
858:Kidd, D. A. (1973). "Torpedo".
354:producing an electric discharge
1585:Pristiophoriformes (sawsharks)
986:
968:
930:
851:
589:
514:
456:has the character Meno accuse
388:
13:
1:
1610:Lamniformes (mackerel sharks)
1590:Squatiniformes (angel sharks)
1580:Squaliformes (dogfish sharks)
782:
27:Order of cartilaginous fishes
1203:Encyclopedia of Neuroscience
887:Hamlett, William C. (1999).
864:Collins Latin Gem Dictionary
7:
765:
10:
1980:
1665:Chimaeriformes (chimaeras)
1409:(S. American knifefishes)
1354:Jamming avoidance response
1199:"Electric Organ Discharge"
531:
29:
1688:
1655:
1618:
1565:
1556:
1524:
1464:History of bioelectricity
1456:
1393:
1362:
1341:
1069:. HAL open-access archive
425:are underneath the disc.
257:
252:
163:Scientific classification
161:
148:
139:
126:
117:
41:
1939:Electroreceptive animals
1633:Pristiformes (sawfishes)
1044:10.1093/jhmas/xxiv.2.140
809:. February 2011 version.
799:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
735:(torpedo electric rays)
586:, the Atlantic torpedo.
464:stuns with electricity.
356:, ranging from 8 to 220
801:"Order Torpediniformes"
1197:Kramer, Bernd (2008).
914:Encyclopedia of Fishes
433:Relationship to humans
381:
296:, composing the order
1885:Paleobiology Database
1378:Ampullae of Lorenzini
1257:Nelson, J.S. (2006).
576:(gill arch) muscles.
532:Further information:
478:Compositiones Medicae
409:or thorns. A pair of
1437:(electric catfishes)
421:, and five pairs of
128:Marbled electric ray
1403:(African knifefish)
1261:Fishes of the World
1232:Burton, R. (2002).
1013:Gymnotus electricus
866:. London: Collins.
438:History of research
150:Lesser electric ray
1517:cartilaginous fish
831:Martin, R. Aidan.
290:cartilaginous fish
155:Narcine bancroftii
32:Electric discharge
1926:
1925:
1872:Open Tree of Life
1682:Taxon identifiers
1673:
1672:
1651:
1650:
1567:Selachii (sharks)
1482:
1481:
1374:Electroreceptors
1212:978-3-540-23735-8
961:978-0-387-28275-6
583:Torpedo nobiliana
466:Scribonius Largus
397:(reduced in some
278:
277:
248:
133:Torpedo marmorata
16:(Redirected from
1971:
1919:
1918:
1906:
1905:
1893:
1892:
1880:
1879:
1867:
1866:
1854:
1853:
1851:NBNSYS0000187908
1841:
1840:
1828:
1827:
1815:
1814:
1802:
1801:
1789:
1788:
1776:
1775:
1763:
1762:
1750:
1749:
1737:
1736:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1677:
1676:
1563:
1562:
1509:
1502:
1495:
1486:
1485:
1474:Magnetoreception
1425:(elephantfishes)
1328:
1321:
1314:
1305:
1304:
1298:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1264:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1169:
1163:
1162:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1111:
1105:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1062:
1056:
1055:
1027:
1021:
1020:
1008:
1002:
1001:
990:
984:
983:
972:
966:
965:
951:Electroreception
945:
939:
934:
928:
927:
909:
903:
902:
884:
878:
877:
855:
849:
848:
846:
844:
828:
811:
810:
793:
558:
546:
522:occult qualities
501:Alessandro Volta
407:dermal denticles
384:
351:
350:
347:
346:
343:
340:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
243:
171:
170:
144:
122:
112:
49:
45:Temporal range:
39:
38:
21:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1944:Torpediniformes
1929:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1914:
1909:
1901:
1896:
1888:
1883:
1875:
1870:
1862:
1857:
1849:
1844:
1836:
1831:
1823:
1818:
1810:
1805:
1797:
1792:
1784:
1779:
1771:
1766:
1758:
1753:
1745:
1740:
1734:Torpediniformes
1732:
1727:
1720:Torpediniformes
1718:
1717:
1712:
1703:
1702:
1697:
1690:Torpediniformes
1684:
1674:
1669:
1647:
1620:Batoidea (rays)
1614:
1552:
1520:
1513:
1483:
1478:
1452:
1443:(electric rays)
1441:Torpediniformes
1417:(electric eels)
1389:
1358:
1337:
1332:
1302:
1301:
1288:
1284:
1277:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1230:
1226:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1195:
1191:
1184:
1170:
1166:
1155:
1151:
1128:10.2307/2710043
1112:
1108:
1098:
1096:
1089:Al-Khalili, Jim
1086:
1082:
1072:
1070:
1063:
1059:
1028:
1024:
1009:
1005:
991:
987:
973:
969:
962:
946:
942:
937:Wikisource:Meno
935:
931:
924:
910:
906:
899:
885:
881:
874:
856:
852:
842:
840:
833:"Electric Rays"
829:
814:
794:
790:
785:
772:Endangered rays
768:
650:(sleeper rays)
592:
570:electric organs
566:
565:
564:
563:
562:
559:
551:
550:
547:
536:
530:
517:
505:Henry Cavendish
480:of 46 AD.
440:
435:
415:electric organs
391:
304:
300:
298:Torpediniformes
284:are a group of
242:
240:Torpediniformes
165:
152:
130:
113:
111:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
47:
46:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1977:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1907:
1894:
1881:
1868:
1855:
1842:
1829:
1816:
1803:
1790:
1777:
1764:
1751:
1738:
1725:
1710:
1694:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1667:
1661:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1624:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1571:
1569:
1560:
1558:Elasmobranchii
1554:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1512:
1511:
1504:
1497:
1489:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1435:Malapteruridae
1432:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1404:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1380:
1372:
1370:Electric organ
1366:
1364:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1345:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1331:
1330:
1323:
1316:
1308:
1300:
1299:
1282:
1275:
1249:
1242:
1224:
1211:
1189:
1182:
1164:
1149:
1122:(3): 373–398.
1106:
1080:
1057:
1038:(2): 140–150.
1022:
1019:(65): 395–407.
1003:
1000:(63): 481–489.
985:
982:(64): 461–480.
967:
960:
940:
929:
922:
904:
897:
879:
872:
850:
812:
797:Froese, Rainer
787:
786:
784:
781:
780:
779:
774:
767:
764:
763:
762:
761:
760:
759:
758:
750:
729:
728:
727:
726:
725:
716:(coffin rays)
709:(coffin rays)
703:
702:
701:
700:
699:
691:
683:
675:
667:
659:
644:
643:
642:
634:
626:
618:
591:
588:
578:In marine fish
560:
553:
552:
548:
541:
540:
539:
538:
537:
529:
528:Bioelectricity
526:
516:
513:
439:
436:
434:
431:
390:
387:
292:with enlarged
276:
275:
274:
273:
268:
263:
255:
254:
250:
249:
237:
233:
232:
227:
223:
222:
220:Elasmobranchii
217:
213:
212:
210:Chondrichthyes
207:
203:
202:
197:
193:
192:
187:
183:
182:
177:
173:
172:
159:
158:
146:
145:
137:
136:
124:
123:
115:
114:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1976:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1954:Electric fish
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1715:
1711:
1706:
1700:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1549:
1548:Gnathostomata
1545:
1543:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1526:
1523:
1518:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1491:
1490:
1487:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1447:Uranoscopidae
1445:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1416:
1415:
1414:Electrophorus
1411:
1410:
1408:
1407:Gymnotiformes
1405:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1352:
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1449:(stargazers)
1413:
1401:Gymnarchidae
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271:Torpedinidae
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226:Superorder:
154:
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36:
1807:iNaturalist
1714:Wikispecies
1657:Holocephali
976:Walsh, John
696:Typhlonarke
672:Heteronarce
656:Crassinarke
615:Benthobatis
590:Systematics
515:In folklore
509:Leyden jars
493:John Hunter
395:dorsal fins
389:Description
18:Torpedo ray
1933:Categories
1542:Vertebrata
1540:Subphylum
1429:Rajiformes
1423:Mormyridae
1342:Physiology
1218:2012-03-25
843:12 October
783:References
747:Tetronarce
738:Subfamily
712:Subfamily
664:Electrolux
646:Subfamily
623:Diplobatis
608:Narcininae
606:Subfamily
601:Narcinidae
489:John Walsh
487:papers by
444:childbirth
423:gill slits
403:caudal fin
399:Narcinidae
261:Narcinidae
245:F. de Buen
216:Subclass:
631:Discopyge
574:branchial
470:headaches
253:Families
186:Kingdom:
180:Eukaryota
1699:Wikidata
1536:Chordata
1530:Animalia
1528:Kingdom
1431:(skates)
1144:11622951
837:Archived
806:FishBase
766:See also
714:Hypninae
707:Hypnidae
648:Narkinae
458:Socrates
419:nostrils
413:-shaped
266:Hypnidae
230:Batoidea
200:Chordata
196:Phylum:
190:Animalia
176:Domain:
1534:Phylum
1515:Extant
1457:Related
1363:Anatomy
1136:2710043
1052:4895861
755:Torpedo
731:Family
705:Family
639:Narcine
599:Family
476:in his
382:torpere
374:torpedo
369:Torpedo
236:Order:
206:Class:
1890:154073
1877:356640
1864:117888
1838:649684
1786:1TORPO
1705:Q41317
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719:Genus
693:Genus
688:Temera
685:Genus
677:Genus
669:Genus
661:Genus
653:Genus
636:Genus
628:Genus
620:Genus
612:Genus
491:, and
411:kidney
372:. The
247:, 1926
1916:10215
1911:WoRMS
1898:Plazi
1825:11530
1820:IRMNG
1812:51325
1269:–82.
1132:JSTOR
1095:. BBC
1073:6 May
680:Narke
454:Plato
378:Latin
365:genus
358:volts
1949:Rays
1859:NCBI
1833:ITIS
1794:GBIF
1781:EPPO
1773:8898
1742:BOLD
1271:ISBN
1238:ISBN
1207:ISBN
1178:ISBN
1140:PMID
1101:2022
1075:2022
1048:PMID
1036:XXIV
956:ISBN
918:ISBN
893:ISBN
868:ISBN
845:2008
499:and
474:gout
472:and
449:Meno
286:rays
280:The
53:PreꞒ
1846:NBN
1799:881
1768:EoL
1760:48K
1755:CoL
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