Dougga - Knowledge

6422: 2733: 3654: 520: 1968: 694: 483: 2845: 2081:) after they had promised to do so following in response to a request from the entire population of the city. The circus was built to take the maximum possible advantage of the surrounding landscape, in reflection of an understandable need to limit costs in a medium-sized city with limited resources, but certainly also out of desire to finish the construction works as quickly as possible, given that magistrates' mandates were limited to one year. The construction was nonetheless expected to have "a certain magnitude"; at 393 m (1,289 ft) long with a 2642: 2582: 75: 68: 2986: 2594: 3139: 3639: 3624: 2570: 1532: 3669: 3088: 2387: 2933:). During the Roman era, the city of Dougga had at least two sanctuaries dedicated to Saturn. The evidence for the existence of one of the two derives mostly from inscriptions found in the city. The second temple, which is the one commonly known as the Temple of Saturn at Dougga, has been excavated. The remains of this temple, which are less significant than those of the capitol or the Temple of Juno Caelestis, are of particular interest because of their location. The ruins lie atop a 1856: 2558: 2273: 3684: 2546: 2841:

one of the richest in Dougga, was well placed within Carthage's notables and maintained its power at Dougga, even during the reduction of the local aristocracy in the 3rd century. The terms of Gabinia's will provide evidence of her concern that the family should endure - the annual banquet would keep alive the memory of the family's generosity and emphasize its sociability, while the circus would provide for the pleasure of the most humble of the city's inhabitants.

1478: 2051: 3364:, including those in the building known as the house of Venus and in particular at the Aïn Doura Bath. This is a consequence of the discovery of Dougga's works of art at a time when archaeological sites were robbed of their treasures and abandoned after a dig. This approach has made it possible to preserve a certain number of mosaics with their colours intact; other mosaics that were uncovered but not removed have suffered due to their exposure to the elements. 2610: 2147: 988: 3001: 2895: 702: 1688: 2693: 3381: 3286: 2004: 1813: 7183: 1564: 3337: 3241: 3233: 2211: 1614: 1205: 577: 1324:, a certain Aulus Vitellius Felix Honoratus, a well-known individual in Dougga, made an appeal to the emperor "in order to assure the public liberty". Lepelley believes that this is an indication that the city's privilege had been called into question, although Dougga appears to have been at least partially able to preserve its concessions, as evidenced by an inscription to the honor of "Probus, defender of its liberty". 1666: 1794: 1911: 1871: 1555:, is the largest private house excavated so far at Dougga. The house had two storeys, but there is almost nothing left of the upper storey. It stands in the south of the city, halfway up the hill. The house is particularly interesting because of the way in which it is built to align with the lay of the land; the entrance hall slopes down to a courtyard around which the various rooms were arranged. 955:. The works at Dougga concentrated at first on the area around the forum; other discoveries ensured that there was an almost constant series of digs at the site until 1939. Alongside these excavations, work was conducted to restore the capitol, of which only the front and the base of the wall of the cella were still standing, and to restore the mausoleum, particularly between 1908 and 1910 . 52: 2724:, Julia Paula Laenatiana. The building was designed to take advantage of the slope on which it stands; the podium is at the level of the roof of the portico and the temple in the strict sense of the word is located outside the surrounding building. The stairs providing access to the temple accentuates the inaccessible nature of the divinity. 2264:, of which 175 m (1,880 sq ft) are taken up by the frigidarium. The construction of the bath required work both to lower and to raise sections of the slope on which it stood, which may explain why parts of the building have been better preserved than others; the section built on raised ground has for the most part been lost. 3483:("All things through you, Eros"). The depiction of the charioteer shows great attention to realism, as do the depictions of the horses, two of which are named Amandus and Frunitus after their characters. The horses are arranged symmetrically; such symmetries were very popular at the time. The charioteer is holding a 1745:. According to the most recent research, the names cited in the inscription are only those of its architect and of representatives of the different professions involved in its construction. The monument was built by the inhabitants of the city for a Numidian prince; some authors believe that it was intended for 2882:

to the 2nd or 3rd century. The associated building was excavated in the 1960s but little is known about the manner in which the excavation was conducted and the stabilization work carried out at the site. A cella with just one niche has been discovered on a podium in the middle of a courtyard and the

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The temple occupied what was doubtlessly one of the last free spaces in the vicinity of the forum. The temple's benefactor preferred this site in the city center to those that she owned in the outskirts: the site of the circus or the site where the Temple of Celeste was later built. Gabinia's family,

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In order to compensate for the natural incline of the ground on which the market stands, its builders undertook significant earthworks. These earthworks have been dated as being amongst the oldest Roman constructions, and their orientation vis-à-vis the forum seems to suggest that they were not built

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This site is still used once annually for a festival celebrating Mokhola, who was a female saint and benefactor of Moroccan origin according to local oral tradition The veneration of Mokhola is accompanied with animal sacrifices. It has been shown that this tradition has pagan origins; the object of

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164 and 166, at the same era as the capitol, which is 50 m (160 ft) away. The entrance to the building has been perfectly preserved, as has one of the columns of the entrance porch. The interior consists of a courtyard that was once surrounded with a portico. To the south is the cella of a

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have been completely excavated at Dougga; a fourth has so far only been partially uncovered. Of these four baths, one ("the bath of the house to the west of the Temple of Tellus") belongs to a private residence, two, the Aïn Doura bath and the bath known for a long time as the "Licinian bath", were,

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The city as it exists today consists essentially of remains from the Roman era dating for the most part to the 2nd and 3rd century. The Roman builders had to take account both of the site's particularly craggy terrain and of earlier constructions, which led them to abandon the normal layout of Roman

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The first Western visitors to have left eyewitness accounts of the ruins reached the site in the 17th century. This trend continued in the 18th century and at the start of the 19th century. The best-preserved monuments, including the mausoleum, were described and, at the end of this period, were the

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are interesting for having much of its original walls intact, as well as a long tunnel used by the slaves working at the baths. The baths were donated to the city by the Licinii family in the 3rd century. They were primarily used as winter baths. The frigidarium has triple arcades at both ends and

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The temple therefore bears witness to a desire to construct something that was different from other such buildings, doubtless in response to the constraints created by the terrain. The dedication in the temple sheds light on its construction: the inscription, which has been very precisely dated to

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on a plateau with an uninhibited view of the surrounding plains in the Oued Khalled. The site offers a high degree of natural protection, which helps to explain its early occupation. The slope on which Dougga is built rises to the north and is bordered in the east by the cliff known as Kef Dougga.

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evidence for more than twenty temples at Dougga; a significant number for a small city. There are archaeological remains and inscriptions proving the existence of eleven temples, archaeological remains of a further eight, and inscriptions referring to another fourteen. This abundance of religious

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The different necropoleis mark the zones of settlement at Dougga. There are five areas that have been identified as necropoleis: the first in the northeast, around the Temple of Saturn and the Victoria Church, the second in the northwest, a zone which also encompasses the dolmens on the site, the

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increasingly adopted Roman culture and behavior, became Roman citizens, and the councils of the two communities began to take decisions in unison. The increasing closeness of the communities was facilitated at first by their geographic proximity—there was no physical distinction between their two

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Despite its importance and its exceptional state, Dougga remains off the beaten track for many tourists and receives only about 50,000 visitors per year. In order to make it more attractive, the construction of an on-site museum is being considered, while the national antiquities institute has

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on any earlier foundations. The modern-day location of the remains from the market near the forum should however not be misunderstood as indicating a link between the two. The market was almost completely destroyed during the construction of the Byzantine fort. It was excavated in 1918–1919.

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After Tunisia's independence, other buildings were excavated, including the Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany. During the same period, the last inhabitants of the site were evicted and relocated to a village located on the plain several kilometers from the antique site, which is named

2977:, which seems expensive but may be explained by the extent of the earthworks required to give the temple a solid foundation; these works nonetheless seem to have proven insufficient as work to restore and shore up the edifice appear to have been carried out before it finally fell into ruin. 2365:

builds on this hypothesis, pointing out the lack of any antique sources testifying to anything more than simple expressions of respect by a people vis-à-vis its king. According to Camps, the temple is only a memorial, a site belonging to a funeral cult. Its construction ten years into

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It is possible that the Temple of Pluto is located near Septimius Severus's triumphal arch in an area of the city that has only been partially excavated as yet, but this hypothesis is not very firm and is based on the discovery of a bust in a courtyard, which has been dated by

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Early archaeological digs concentrated on public buildings, which meant that private buildings tended at first to be uncovered at the ends of the trenches dug for this purpose. Later, trenches were cut with the purpose of exposing particularly characteristic private buildings.

3150:, which stands in the northeast of the site, below the Temple of Saturn, is the only Christian building that has been so far excavated at Dougga. At the end of the 4th century or at the start of the 5th century, the Christian community erected the unusually designed little 2973:. Water from the temple roof was collected in cisterns. An inscription provides details about the temple's construction: it was erected using funds bequeathed in the testament of a notable local resident named Lucius Octavius Victor Roscianus at a cost of at least 150,000 3304:

The center of the city was probably paved; the streets resembled meandering lanes. The city had sewers, as is evidenced by the access stones that are still in place in the streets. At the foot of the hill, there are traces of streets joining with the main road from

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This bath, measuring 75 m (810 sq ft), which can be accessed from the house and from the street, was uncovered at the start of the 20th century. The archaeological analysis of the bath's relationship with the house in which it is located has led

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The city forum, which is 924 m (9,950 sq ft) in size is small. It is better preserved in some places than others, because the construction of the Byzantine fort damaged a large section of it. The capitol, which stands on an area surrounded by

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identified the temple in 1631 thanks to an inscription that was still in place at the time. The podium is relatively low (1–1.5 m or 3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in); it can be ascended by a series of seven stairs on the southern side.

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is a half-buried edifice from the 3rd century. It was erected in the middle of the oldest necropolis, which was excavated in 1913. The hypogeum was designed to house funeral urns in small niches in the walls; at the time of its discovery, it contained

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The temple, which is relatively narrow, has an unusual design. It is 41.5 m × 14.2 m (136 ft × 47 ft), and is situated beside the road that descends from the forum to the Aïn Doura Bath. The temple is associated with a

2069:, but it is barely visible nowadays. Originally, the circus consisted of nothing more than a field; an inscription in the temple in honor of Caracalla's victory in Germany notes that the land was donated by the Gabinii in 214 and describes it as an 966:

In 1991, the decision was taken to make the site into a national archaeological park. A cooperative scientific programme aims in particular to promote the study of the inscriptions at the site and the pagan temples. In 1997, Dougga was added to the

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established a website presenting the site and the surrounding region. For the time being, visitors with sufficient time can appreciate Dougga, not only because of its many ruins but also for its olive groves, which give the site a unique ambiance.

1519:. Although these traces are very faint, they served to disprove the theories of the first archaeologists, including Louis Poinssot, that the Roman and pre-Roman settlements were located on separate sites. The two settlements evidently overlapped. 3513:(Ulysses to the Romans) is seen standing on a boat that is decorated with a human head and a palm branch and that has two sails and a battering ram. Ulysses's hands are tied to the main mast so that he will not succumb to the fatal charm of the 3255:

The six cisterns of Aïn El Hammam, situated close to the Temple of Juno Caelestis, have a total capacity of 6000 m but are in ruins. They were fed by a spring 12 km (7.5 mi) away and an aqueduct constructed during the reign of

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in 1997, believing that it represents "the best-preserved Roman small town in North Africa". The site, which lies in the middle of the countryside, has been protected from the encroachment of modern urbanization, in contrast, for example, to

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at Dougga has not been conclusively answered. Traditionally, a large elliptic depression to the northwest of the site has been interpreted as the site of an amphitheater. Archeologists have however become much more cautious on this subject.

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third in the west, between the Aïn Mizeb and Aïn El Hammam cisterns and to the north of the Temple of Juno Caelestis, the fourth and the fifth in the south and the south-east, one around the mausoleum and the other around Septimius Severus'

637:, the remains of which were found during archaeological excavations. Even though our knowledge of the city before the Roman conquest remains very limited, recent archaeological finds have revolutionized the image that we had of this period. 2230:' reign on the basis of incomplete inscriptions and Dougga's prosperity at this time has been called into question by recent research, conducted in particular by Michel Christol. Christol has suggested that the bath dates from the reign of 2042:, which probably served for the initiation of novices. Despite its modern appellation, the auditorium was not a site for spectacles; only its form suggests otherwise. It measures 20 m × 20 m (66 ft × 66 ft). 3396:

is particularly noteworthy: he is depicted with a generous head of hair, a full beard and a vivacity that makes it one of the most significant statues yet discovered in Roman Africa. This African masterpiece was realized in marble from

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sources—focussed on the question of whether the city was still under Punic influence or whether it was increasingly Berber. Local Berber institutions distinct from any form of Punic authority arose from the Numidian period onwards, but

3274:, these eight domed reservoirs can hold 9,000 m (320,000 cu ft) and feature a basin into which they decant. The cisterns are fed by a spring located 200 m (660 ft) away connected via an underground aqueduct. 2997:, which was built on the outskirts of the city, was described in the 17th century and excavated in the 1890s. Significant restoration work was undertaken between 1904 and 1914, and new studies were carried out between 1999 and 2002. 1142:—free cities where the Roman governor did not have the right to control the municipal magistrates. There is however no evidence that Dougga enjoyed exceptional legal privileges of the type associated with certain free cities such as 1765:

with five steps. On the northern side of the podium (the lowest of three levels in the monument), there is an opening to the funeral chamber that is closed with a stone slab. The other sides are decorated with fake windows and four

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Thomas d'Arcos identified the Capitol as a temple of Jupiter in the 17th century. It was the object of further research at the end of the 19th century, led in particular by the doctor Louis Carton in 1893. The walls, executed in

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BC. This sanctuary consisted essentially of a wide open space designed to receive ex-votos and sacrifices. It was covered over to facilitate the construction of the Temple of Saturn, the ruins of which can still be seen today.

2286:. On the basis of the mosaics that have been found here, it has been suggested that the bath dates from the end of the 2nd century or the start of the 3rd century, and that the mosaic décor was renewed in the 4th century CE. 684:

were still in place in several cities, including Dougga, during the Roman era, which is a sign of continuing Punic influence and the preservation of certain elements of Punic civilization well after the fall of Carthage.

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has served to stoke historiographic debates that have been said to have ideological agendas. The dolmens at Dougga have been the subject of archaeological digs, which have also uncovered skeletons and ceramic models.

2000:" only inasmuch as they have been adapted to take account of the local terrain. Some minor adjustments have been made and the local architects had a certain freedom with regard to the ornamentation of the buildings. 664:. Targeted digs have also proven that what had been interpreted as two Numidian towers in the walls are in fact two funeral monuments from the Numidian era reused much later as foundations and a section of defences. 1895:, which dates from 222 to 235, is relatively well preserved, despite the loss of its upper elements. It is equidistant from the capitol and the Temple of Juno Caelestis. Its arcade is 4 m (13 ft) tall. 3499:

can be seen in the background. This work of art was found in a private residence and it appears that it must be interpreted as a monument donated by the owner celebrating the victory of a charioteer named Eros.

1996:. It could seat 3500 spectators, even though Dougga only had 5000 inhabitants. It was one of a series of imperial buildings constructed over the course of two centuries at Dougga which deviate from the classic " 652:

BC), is 14 m × 6.3 m (46 ft × 21 ft) wide. It proves that the area around the forum was already built upon before the arrival of the Roman colonists. A building dating to the 2nd

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This residence, which dates to the 2nd or 3rd century, stands downhill from the quarters that surround the forum and the principal public monuments in the city, in an area where the streets are winding.

3420:) that dates from the 3rd century. It depicts an aged man, who has a short beard and is dressed in a toga. It seems certain that this is a later work of art reflective of the contemporary taste in art. 2941:

valley of the Oued Khalled, 160 m (520 ft) from the theater and outside the bounds of the city. During the excavation works, remains of a temple of Ba'al Hammon, particularly ritual ditches (

1487:" and the market; to the west, the western square with the capitol and immediately to the left of the capitol, the substructures of the Temple of Massinissa; in grey, the outline of the Byzantine fort 2483:

The Capitol is exceptionally well preserved, which is a consequence of its inclusion in the Byzantine fortification. A series of eleven stairs lead up to the front portico. The temple front's

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on the wishes of a great lady of Dougga named Gabinia Hermiona after her death. Besides the generosity of this act of philanthropy, her will foresaw the holding of an annual banquet for the

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Recent archaeological digs have confirmed the continuity in the city's urban development. The heart of the city has always been at the top of the hill, where the forum replaced the Numidian

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to be financed by her inheritors on the anniversary of the dedication of the temple. At the same time, Gabinia Hermiona bequeathed the land for the circus "for the pleasure of the people".

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Recent finds have disproved earlier theories about the so-called "Numidian walls". The walls around Dougga are in fact not Numidian; they are part of the city's fortifications erected in

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disproved Louis Poinssot's theory that the Numidian city stood on the plateau but that it was separate from the newer Roman settlement. The temple, which was erected in the tenth year of

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leading to the city, located a short distance from the well-preserved cisterns, is amongst the best preserved examples of this type of structure on the territory of modern-day Tunisia.

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Although it is difficult to put a date on the erection of the dolmens, as they were in use until the dawn of the Christian era, it seems likely that they date from at least 2000 years

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Véronique Brouquier-Reddé, « La place du sanctuaire de la Victoire germanique de Caracalla dans la typologie de l'architecture religieuse païenne de l'Afrique romaine »,

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as described in the legend. Three sirens stand at the base of a rocky crag. They are depicted with the upper body of a woman but the wings and legs of a bird. One of them holds a

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Mustapha Khanoussi, Stefan Ritter et Philipp von Rummel, « The German-Tunisian project at Dougga. First results of the excavations south of the Maison du Trifolium »,

2856:. The reservoirs in the courtyard were filled in order to provide space for the faithful, while pulpits were added to the cella. The decoration of the cella was also modified. 2289:

The complex remains largely unexposed, but it seems, according to Yvon Thébert, that it has a symmetrical design, of which only a section of the cold rooms has been excavated.

6318: 2539:"—which is named after a compass rose that is engraved on the floor—and the remains of the Byzantine citadel, which reused a section of the ruins after the city's decline. 1741:, made it possible to decode the Libyan characters. It has only recently been established that the inscription was originally located on one side of a fake window on the 748:) of Roman colonists also arose alongside the existing settlement. For two centuries, the site was thus governed by two civic and institutional bodies: the city with its 3876:

Mustapha Khanoussi, « L'évolution urbaine de Thugga (Dougga) en Afrique proconsulaire : de l'agglomération numide à la ville africo-romaine », pp. 131-143

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in the immediate vicinity has proven difficult. The "trifolium villa" is quite distant, and the closest ruins are hard to identify as they have not been well preserved.

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The market dates from the middle of the 1st century. It took the form of a square 35.5 m × 28 m (116 ft × 92 ft) in size, surrounded by a

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over the road. The temple can be accessed via a semi-circular staircase; in each corner of the courtyard in front of the staircase is a reservoir for rain water. The

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BC. A bilingual inscription installed in the mausoleum mentioned that the tomb was dedicated to Ateban, the son of Iepmatath and Palu. In 1842, Sir Thomas Reade, the

798:, achieved some civic stature here well into the imperial period. In fact, the city once had three magistrates serve at once, a relative rarity in the Mediterranean. 7100: 5515:

Azedine Beschaouch, « Épigraphie et ethnographie. D’une fête populaire de Dougga, en Tunisie, à la dédicace de l’aqueduc de Thugga, en Afrique romaine »,

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but no courtyard. The sanctuary, which can be accessed via a series of four stairs, stands on a faded podium. It was excavated and shored up between 1904 and 1908.

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saw the area around the forum transformed into a fort; several important buildings were destroyed in order to provide the necessary materials for its construction.

3456:, "You will live!"). The amphora bearers are flanked by another two characters, one of whom is carrying another amphora, the other of whom is carrying a branch of 3024:

is demarcated by a wall, a large section of which has been very well preserved. The court is only partially tiled and has two symmetrical doors. A portico with 25

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of the area. For a long time, Dougga remained the site of a small village populated by the descendants of the city's former inhabitants, as evidenced by the small

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and on the other hand that the term can cover a range of diverse privileges of differing degrees. It is known that the territory of Carthage, to which the Dougga

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and has not been the subject of further works since 1912. A house that was built nearby re-using antique remains was destroyed at the start of the 20th century.

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s dependence, "the elevation of a community of peregrini to the liberty of Roman citizenship", which also served to placate the fears of the inhabitants of the

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Mustapha Khanoussi, « L'évolution urbaine de Thugga (Dougga) en Afrique proconsulaire : de l'agglomération numide à la ville africo-romaine »,

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Mustapha Khanoussi, « L'évolution urbaine de Thugga (Dougga) en Afrique proconsulaire : de l'agglomération numide à la ville africo-romaine »,

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but it fell into a sort of stupor from the 4th century. The city appears to have experienced an early decline, as evidenced by the relatively poor remains of

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The "butler's mosaic" dating from the middle of the 3rd century features a drinking scene. Two characters are serving two others, who are much smaller, from

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does not exclude the possibility that the crypt was built at the same time as the Byzantine citadel, of which the forum and capitol formed the nerve center.

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The theater is still used for performances of classic theater, particularly during the festival of Dougga, and conservation work has been carried out on it.

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261, during the reign of Gallienus, following an appeal from Aulus Vitellius Felix Honoratus in Christol's version of events. Thereafter, the defence of the

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of its great families of wealthy individuals, which sometimes reached exorbitant levels, while its interests were successfully represented by appeals to the

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and the granting of Roman law that raised the specter of a fusion of the two communities, which would without a doubt have provoked a certain unease in the

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VIII, 27374 ; inscription revisted and commented by Jacques Gascou, « Conservator pagi (d'après l'inscription de Thugga CIL VIII, 27374) »,

3104: 2514: 2680: 3464:. This depiction is a greeting to all guests and a promise of hospitality. The same is true of another mosaic held at the museum which bears the phrase 2712:

at the end of the 1st century, but the more important site dedicated to this divinity is a building which features a temple and an area surrounded by a

6311: 1503:. As Dougga developed, urban construction occupied the side of the hill, so that the city must have resembled "a compact mass", according to Hédi Slim 1154:

has thus suggested that Dougga's "freedom" is nothing but an expression of the concept of liberty without any legal meaning; obtaining the status of a

3112: 2879: 2510: 2354:. The stone remains found in this area seem to belong to several different structures; the exact location of the sanctuary is still open to debate. 3591: 2829:

and their celebration within the context of the imperial cult. This inscription also explains that the temple was constructed at a cost of 100,000

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A proposal to construct a museum on the site is being studied. It would serve in particular to house recent discoveries and those yet to be made.

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The "mosaic of the victorious charioteer" is younger than these works. It dates from the second half of the 4th century, and features the phrase

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would have expressed "concern or even refusal when faced with the pretensions of their closest neighbors". This would explain the honor that the

1339:. In Christol's view, it is important not to forget that the emperor's decision in 205 must have been taken in response to a request made by the 262: 3580:

is attacking one of the pirates, who are transformed into dolphins as soon as they recognize the divine nature of their adversary. To the left,

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have been discovered during archaeological digs. These monuments are an indication of the site's importance before the arrival of the Romans.

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The discovery of Libyan and Punic inscriptions at the site provoked a debate on the administration of the city at the time of the Kingdom of

2073:(field that serves as a circus) ). In 225 though, the site was prepared and the circus was constructed. It was financed by the magistrates ( 1673:

A type of tomb unique to the Numidian world has been discovered at Dougga. They are referred to as bazina tombs or circular monument tombs.

961: 540:, a ditch and boundary made by the Romans after the destruction of Carthage, indicates Dougga's position as a point of contact between the 3594:

attributes a protective function to these two scenes, a means of invoking fate, a practice which is probably based on Hellenic tradition.

1781:. The third level is the most richly decorated of all: in addition to pilasters similar to those on the lowest level, it is capped with a 2520:

The construction of the Capitol at Dougga occurred at the same time as the construction of other monuments of the same type elsewhere in

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judging by their size, open to the public, while the nature of the last bath, the bath of the Cyclopses, is more difficult to interpret.

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must be understood in this context and in an abstract sense. This liberty derives from belonging to a city and expresses the end of the

3529:, while the third, who does not carry an instrument, is believed to be the singing siren. In front of Ulysses's boat, there is a small 2822:, here specifically in connection with the emperor's campaigns in Germany, for the welfare of Caracalla and of his mother Iulia Domna. 4500: 2194:

is less than 30 m (320 sq ft)) has led some experts to believe that it was a private bath, but the identification of a

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Dougga was in any case an early and important human settlement. Its urban character is evidenced by the presence of a necropolis with

7043: 3617:. This last element has been lost. The mosaic dates to the end of the 3rd century and was discovered in the "Bath of the Cyclopses". 6267: 2282:

In the immediate vicinity of Aïn Doura is a partially excavated complex that could turn out to be the largest bath in the city, the

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could thus be a reference to the fiscal immunity made possible by the region's great wealth and by the emperor's generosity to each

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is located on the western flank of the capital. The first archaeologists believed that the remains of the temple were a monumental

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s title, is a term with which the city, which had waited a long time for the status of a municipium, is happy to flatter itself".

788:, who were legally subordinated to the distant but powerful colony of Carthage. In addition, epigraphic evidence indicates that a 7217: 7193: 7028: 3951:

Ilẹvbare, J.A. (June 1974). "The Impact of the Carthaginians and the Romans on the Administrative System of the Maghreb Part I".

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The site at Dougga has offered up numerous works or art, many of which have been removed and placed in museums, most notably the

3653: 1083:, which appear in the title of Thibursicum Bure. Thibursicum Bure is however an exception to the rule; the titles of the other 5171:, actes du VIIIe colloque d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'Afrique du Nord (8-13 mai 2000 à Tabarka), Tunis, 2003, pp. 457-470 3035:

The temple in the strict sense of the word stands on a high podium that can be accessed via a series of eleven steps. It is a

2125:) are a reminder of the importance of spectacles in the social life of Roman cities and the demand for popular entertainment. 6239: 6024: 5927: 5786: 5669: 5514: 4447: 3791: 2023:

the dominates the city, recalls the building's commissioner, P. Marcius Quadratus, who "built for his homeland with his own

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Ammar Mahjoubi, Villes et structures de la province romaine d'Afrique, éd. Centre de publication universitaire, Tunis, 2000

2569: 2581: 6189:

THVGGA II. Drei Hanghäuser in Thugga : maison des trois masques, maison du labyrinthe, maison de Dionysos et d'Ulysse

3996: 1453:)—the promotion to the status of a colony. Christol also points out that, despite the abstract character of terms such as 556:

Dougga's history is best known from the time of the Roman conquest, even though numerous pre-Roman monuments, including a

107: 6273: 5490: 4928:, actes du VIIIe colloque d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'Afrique du Nord (8-13 mai 2000 à Tabarka), Tunis, 2003, p. 447 1805:

Although work has in the past been undertaken to uncover the Roman sepulchres, today they have been reclaimed in part by

657:

BC has also been discovered nearby. Similarly, Dougga's mausoleum is not isolated but stands within an urban necropolis.

6251: 3277:

A final network of secondary cisterns is located in the vicinity of the Aïn Doura Bath, in the south-west of the site.

2506:

The base of the cella still features alcoves for three statues. The middle alcove houses a colossal statue of Jupiter.

1483:

To the east, from the north to the south, are the Temple of Mercury and the Temple of August Piety, the "square of the

588:

The city appears to have been founded in the 6th century BC. Some historians believe that Dougga is the city of Tocae (

3768: 3683: 2027:"; the dedication was celebrated with "scenic representations, distributions of life, a festival and athletic games". 322:, which has been pillaged and rebuilt on numerous occasions. Dougga's size, its well-preserved monuments and its rich 6196: 6169: 6122: 6095: 6078: 6058: 6041: 6007: 5994: 5977: 5900: 5883: 5867: 5850: 5823: 5806: 5766: 5744: 5727: 4946: 4559: 2994: 2953:, were discovered. The Roman temple thus replaced an indigenous sanctuary that dated back at least to the 2nd century 2810:

and located in the middle of a vast courtyard with a portico; the Tuscan order was thus quite rare in the provinces.

2653:. It was financed through the philanthropy of a certain Caius Pompeius Nahanius. The temple faces the "square of the 2302:

to suggest that it was a later addition to the original construction but he does not propose a date for this event.

1515:

Traces of a residence dating to the Numidian era have been identified in the foundations of the temple dedicated to

1228:

Despite Gascou's conclusion, efforts have been made more recently to identify concrete aspects of Dougga's liberty.

4537:

The Latin texts found on these sepulchres have been collated and published in Mustapha Khanoussi et Louis Maurin ,

3781: 3248:

Dougga has two networks of cisterns, in the north and in the west, one of which is particularly well preserved. An

2545: 1682: 343: 3270:

The second network of cisterns, the cisterns of Aïn Mizeb, is very well preserved. Located close to the Temple of

2677:. The mosque is the last remnant of the little village that existed on the site until the creation of New Dougga. 7007: 3182: 951:), for which the excavation of the site at Dougga was a priority from 1901, parallel to the works carried out at 912: 826:

and the rights of the city's inhabitants became similar to those of the Roman citizens. During the same era, the

67: 7060: 5192: 4716: 4285: 4231: 4186: 4168: 4137: 4119: 4105: 4051: 4037: 3392:

A number of heads of emperors have been discovered during the digs at the site. Amongst these, the portrait of

3293:

Dougga's streets are not laid out as prescribed by the normal theoretical model of a Roman settlement—around a

3208: 2350:

and are evidence of the fact that the political center of the Roman city was in the same place as the Hellenic

3834: 2357:

Although it is believed that the sanctuary set Massinissa on par with a god, this is debated by some experts.

2260:

The symmetrical building is medium-sized, with an area of 1,700 m (18,000 sq ft) excluding the

2187:

are also on display. The building has been dated to the 3rd century CE on the basis of a study of the mosaic.

1761:, who essentially reconstructed it from pieces that were left lying on the ground. The tomb is accessed via a 6421: 6151: 5947:

Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles)

5199:

Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles)

4762:

Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles)

4746:

Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles)

4242:

Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles)

4193:

Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles)

4130:

Dougga. Fragments d'histoire. Choix d'inscriptions latines éditées, traduites et commentées (Ier-IVe siècles)

4010: 3405: 3321: 2795:. Seven columns are spaced along the cella, linking to the lateral door, which opens onto the staircase. The 2732: 2180: 1695:

The Mausoleum of Ateban is one of the very rare examples of royal Numidian architecture. There is another in

1099:

do not include the names of any divinities, and this hypothesis has therefore been abandoned. Alternatively,

940: 834:

won a certain degree of autonomy from Carthage; it was able to receive bequests and administer public funds.

5447: 5259: 4685:"Projet de restauration et de mise en valeur du théâtre romain de Dougga (Institut national du patrimoine)" 4218: 2741: 2529: 2242:, because of a particularity which became common a century later in the west: the columns in the northwest 1881:'s arch, which is heavily damaged, stands close to the mausoleum and on the route leading from Carthage to 1035:, whose significance is not immediately clear. The term appears in the titles of a certain number of other 3668: 2886:

An architectural study was carried out between 2000 and 2002, but it did not lead to any excavation work.

2593: 2370:'s reign can be explained by its political symbolism: Micipsa, sole ruler after the death of his brothers 6737: 5183:

Mustapha Khanoussi, « Le temple de la Victoire germanique de Caracalla à Dougga », pp. 447-456

3623: 3638: 2792: 2184: 1162:

had freed the city of its subjugation and enabled it to adorn itself with the "ornaments of liberty" (

7144: 5912:(Comptes-rendus des séances de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres), 2003, pp. 131–155 5757: 2834: 2701: 1978: 1892: 1433:

and to open the door to a later promotion, to the status of a colony. This promotion took place in AD

773: 2768:

inside the sanctuary features six lateral niches which are designed to hold the bases of statues of

1927:" (which is named after a decorative element) seems more like an esplanade leading to the Temple of 6967: 6481: 3710: 3560:

and more common marine themes. The god is standing, ready to throw his spear. He is supported by a

2970: 2852:

At the end of the 4th century, the Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany was transformed into a

2658: 2361:

believes that a temple to the king would reflect a continuation of eastern and Hellenic practices;

1734: 1224:. Inscriptions such as this one are practically the only record we have of the city's institutions. 936: 240: 5664:, Studi Africanistici: Quaderni di Studi Berberi e Libico-Berberi, Naples: Unior, pp. 65–71, 2513:

to suggest that the crypt dates from the period of Christianity's triumph over the old religions.

7159: 6972: 6962: 3740: 3201: 2086: 2085:

190 m × 6 m (623 ft × 20 ft), the circus is quite extraordinary in

1993: 1972: 1962: 1726: 802: 347: 519: 7124: 6596: 6581: 6461: 6436: 6371: 6361: 4319: 4133: 1445:

was not a question of defending a privilege at risk, but of requesting the "ultimate liberty" (

1171: 603: 373: 17: 5833:

La politique municipale de l'empire romain en Afrique proconsulaire de Trajan à Septime Sévère

4684: 4067:

La politique municipale de l'Empire romain en Afrique proconsulaire de Trajan à Septime Sévère

6732: 6696: 6366: 6296: 6288: 4924:

Mustapha Khanoussi, « Le temple de la Victoire germanique de Caracalla à Dougga »,

3702: 3212: 2745: 2089:. The circus marks Dougga out as one of the most important cities in the province, alongside 2055: 1967: 1232:

believes on the one hand that this must be a reference to the relations between the city and

1115:, "liberty"). This interpretation is confirmed by an inscription found at Dougga that honors 7048: 6957: 6376: 4491:, tome 2 « Maisons, palais, villas et tombeaux », éd. Picard, Paris, 2001, p. 417 4354:, éd. Agence de mise en valeur du patrimoine et de promotion culturelle, Tunis, 2008, p. 41 4320:

Michel Christol, « De la liberté recouvrée d’Uchi Maius à la liberté de Dougga »

3492: 2819: 693: 6034:

Topographie religieuse de Thugga (Dougga). Ville romaine d'Afrique proconsulaire (Tunisie)

4939:

Topographie religieuse de Thugga (Dougga). Ville romaine d'Afrique proconsulaire (Tunisie)

4552:

Topographie religieuse de Thugga (Dougga). Ville romaine d'Afrique proconsulaire (Tunisie)

3847:

Topographie religieuse de Thugga (Dougga). Ville romaine d'Afrique proconsulaire (Tunisie)

2867:

receives particular honor at Dougga as the city's patron divinity, as demonstrated by the

412:("to protect"). This evidently derives from the site's position atop an easily defensible 8: 7109: 7012: 6977: 6217:Étude de l’architecture religieuse de Dougga (Ministère français des affaires étrangères) 3606: 3271: 2844: 2781: 2777: 2670: 2618: 2427: 2403: 1928: 1580: 972: 900: 452:, see below. Once Dougga received the status of a Roman colony, it was formally known as 339: 314: 306: 202: 190: 2806:. The temple's design is unusual inasmuch as temples of the imperial cult are generally 2641: 94: 7053: 7038: 6491: 6476: 3960: 3610: 3581: 3025: 2961:

The Roman temple was built during the reign of Septimius Severus. It consists of three

2902: 2869: 2134: 749: 531:

The archaeological site is located 4.6 km (2.9 mi) SSW of the modern town of

524: 351: 2744:

to have been located precisely at Dougga. Fragments of an inscription on the temple's

2283: 2276: 1923:, dominates its surroundings by virtue of its imposing appearance. The "square of the 6987: 6742: 6511: 6471: 6231: 6192: 6165: 6118: 6091: 6074: 6054: 6037: 6020: 6003: 5990: 5973: 5923: 5922:, éd. Agence de mise en valeur du patrimoine et de promotion culturelle, Tunis, 2008 5896: 5879: 5863: 5846: 5819: 5802: 5782: 5762: 5740: 5723: 5675: 5665: 5662:

La Lingua nella Vita e la Vita della Lingua: Itinerari e Percorsi degli Studi Berberi

5433: 4942: 4555: 4443: 3787: 3514: 3496: 3357: 3298: 3151: 3050: 2864: 2853: 2826: 2748:

were discovered in 1835, but the temple was not identified until 1966. It features a

2666: 2654: 2626: 2622: 2536: 2062: 1944:. This suggestion has been contradicted by the discovery of a sanctuary dedicated to 1924: 1878: 1484: 1347:

and must have taken account of the relations that already existed between it and the

1309: 1116: 842: 823: 761: 437: 420:

as Thugga. Once it was granted "free status", it was formally refounded and known as

369: 5878:, tome 2 « Maisons, palais, villas et tombeaux », éd. Picard, Paris, 2001 5737:

L'Afrique romaine. De l'Atlantique à la Tripolitaine. 146 av. J.-C. - 533 apr. J.-C.

3584:

have boarded another ship, while to the right, fishermen are attempting to catch an

2736:

The Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany (on the right) on the road to Aïn Doura

2496: 2358: 2226:) and has several storeys. Louis Poinssot's identification of the bath as dating to 6867: 6762: 6501: 6456: 3718: 3306: 3204: 3036: 2922: 2807: 2487:

columns are 8 m (26 ft) tall, on top of which is the perfectly preserved

2484: 2415: 2399: 1170:). The city's liberty was celebrated just as its dignity was extolled; the emperor 732:

complicated Dougga's institutional status. The city was included in the territory (

725: 615: 355: 7078: 2985: 2740:

The Temple of Caracalla's Victory in Germany is the only edifice dedicated to the

2331:, even though an inscription proving the existence of a sanctuary to the deceased 7212: 7149: 7033: 6282: 6255: 6223: 5794: 5481:, hors-série « Tunisie. Ses trésors méconnus », octobre 2008, pp. 40-41 4303: 4256: 4085: 4014: 3597:

The mosaic of the "cyclopses forging Jupiter's thunderbolts" from the floor of a

3147: 3138: 2443: 2239: 2016: 1981:

were a fundamental element of the monumental make-up of a city from the reign of

1364: 1328: 1229: 944: 878: 815: 607: 508: 494: 476: 464: 405: 342:

history make it exceptional. Amongst the most famous monuments at the site are a

6066: 4808: 4791: 4092:, éd. Ausonius, Bordeaux, 1997, pp. 105-114, also available in Claude Lepelley, 3344:

Few works of art have been left on site, with the exception of a sculpture of a

2299: 2199: 805:

of the city brought the two communities closer together. Notable members of the

7002: 6929: 6913: 6872: 6852: 6601: 6591: 6381: 5242: 3714: 3706: 3553: 3249: 3197: 3096: 3075:

The temenos, which is 52 m (171 ft) in diameter, is reminiscent of a

2761: 2717: 2492: 2456: 2219: 2106: 2066: 1864: 1822: 1738: 1733:

seriously damaged the monument while removing this inscription. This bilingual

1723: 1596: 1531: 710: 661: 589: 581: 417: 377: 294: 186: 5655:"Toponymie et Onomastique Libyques: L'Apport de l'Écriture Punique/Néopunique" 4094:

Aspects de l'Afrique romaine : les cités, la vie rurale, le christianisme

3537:, the depiction of which is over-sized. The mosaic has been dated to around AD 1469:, their formal appearance should be references to concrete and unique events. 814:

settlements—and then later by institutional arrangements. During the reign of

7206: 6807: 6782: 6686: 6386: 6351: 5965: 5774: 5752: 5679: 4008:

Portail de Dougga (Ministère de la culture et de la sauvegarde du patrimoine)

3605:: Brontes, Steropes, and Pyracmon or Arges. They are depicted naked, forging 3545: 3517:' music. Ulysses's companions are seated around him, their ears blocked with 3488: 3443: 3087: 3028:

runs along the circular section of the temenos. The portico is topped with a

2721: 2394:

The Capitol is a Roman temple from the 2nd century, principally dedicated to

2386: 2362: 1755: 1752: 1703:. Some authors believe that there is a link with the funeral architecture in 1638: 1131: 1052: 870: 721: 677: 641: 545: 401: 327: 178: 122: 109: 6248: 3064:

222 and 235, was paid for by a certain Q. Gabinius Rufus Felix, who donated

2796: 2292: 1855: 1044: 884:

Dougga's monuments attest to its prosperity in the period from the reign of

532: 428:; "Septimium" and "Aurelium" are references to the "new" town's "founders" ( 298: 7134: 6772: 6526: 6391: 3393: 3385: 3361: 3190: 3119: 3039: 2800: 2521: 2439: 2315:

sites is the result in particular of the philanthropy of wealthy families.

2272: 2098: 1938:

Long ago, archaeologists believed that Roman settlement at Dougga occurred

1931:, which stands on its northern side, than an open public space. The city's 1767: 1626: 1051:. Several interpretations of its meaning have been suggested. According to 896: 890: 625:, the most ancient archaeological find at Dougga, a sanctuary dedicated to 335: 164: 6576: 6982: 6727: 6656: 4398:, tome 1 « Monuments publics », éd. Picard, Paris, 1996, p. 455 3598: 3216: 3108: 2525: 2461: 2191: 2050: 1839: 1778: 1718:

This tomb is 21 m (69 ft) tall and was built in the 2nd century

1143: 537: 5893:

Rome en Afrique. De la chute de Carthage aux débuts de la conquête arabe

3964: 3000: 2894: 2609: 2378:, was affirming the unity of his kingdom around the person of the king. 2146: 987: 919:

situated in the Temple of August Piety and the small bath dating to the

701: 6952: 6908: 6903: 6887: 6857: 6757: 6722: 6566: 5477:

Cyrielle Le Moigne, « La vie secrète des ruines de Dougga »,

4700: 4088:, « Thugga au IIIe siècle : la défense de la liberté », 3457: 3069: 3042: 2974: 2934: 2830: 2692: 2625:. It faces towards the market; between the two lies the "square of the 2446:; judging by this reference, the Capitol must have been completed in AD 2375: 2324: 2238:. Others have even suggested that the bath dates from the reign of the 1945: 1806: 1746: 1708: 1687: 1552: 1477: 1151: 885: 866: 846: 557: 6506: 5876: