Punic people - Knowledge

314: 54: 1567:"These results indicate that autochthonous North African populations contributed substantially to the genetic makeup of Kerkouane. The contribution of autochthonous North African populations in Carthaginian history is obscured by the use of terms like "Western Phoenicians", and even to an extent, "Punic", in the literature to refer to Carthaginians, as it implies a primarily colonial population and diminishes indigenous involvement in the Carthaginian Empire. As a result, the role of autochthonous populations has been largely overlooked in studies of Carthage and its empire. Genetic approaches are well suited to examine such assumptions, and here we show that North African populations contributed substantially to the genetic makeup of Carthaginian cities." 1463:"In the southeast , we recovered genomic data from 45 individuals dated between the 3rd and 16th centuries CE. All analyzed individuals fell outside the genetic variation of preceding Iberian Iron Age populations and harbored ancestry from both Southern European and North African populations, as well as additional Levantine-related ancestry that could potentially reflect ancestry from Jewish groups. These results demonstrate that by the Roman period, southern Iberia had experienced a major influx of North African ancestry, probably related to the well-known mobility patterns during the Roman Empire or to the earlier Phoenician-Punic presence; the latter is also supported by the observation of the Phoenician-associated Y-chromosome J2." 68: 1193: 87: 1499:

less north African ancestry. This could be because they harbor earlier Phoenician ancestry and north African admixture may have been unique to the later Punic context, or because they were individuals from a different ancestral background altogether. Estimated north African admixture fractions were much lower in later ancient individuals and present-day Sardinian individuals, in line with previous studies that have observed small but significant African admixture in several present-day south European populations, including Sardinia."

109: 1495:"All six individuals from the Punic Villamar site were inferred to have substantial levels of ancient north African ancestry (point estimates ranging 20–35%) ... Beyond our focal interest in Sardinia, the results from individuals from the Phoenician-Punic sites Monte Sirai and Villamar shed some light on the ancestry of a historically impactful Mediterranean population. Notably, they show strong genetic relationships to ancient North-African and eastern Mediterranean sources. 1034: 851: 1475:"Phoenician colonies were established in the Balearic Islands during the Iron Age. The Ibiza individual published previously from a collective burial in a Punic hypogeum and dated to 361–178 cal. BC is not consistent with forming a clade with any of the Bronze Age Balearic individuals and has a qualitatively different ancestry profile; for example, a north African source of ancestry is required to obtain a fit (our model is 10.8 ± 2.7% 889:, whose relations with the Sardo-Punic cities were mixed, including both trade and military conflict. Intermarriage and cultural mixing took place on a large scale. The inhabitants of the Sardo-Punic cities were a mixture of Phoenician and Nuragic stock, with the latter forming the majority of the population. Sardinia had a special position because it was central in the western Mediterranean between Carthage, Spain, the river 122: 1172:, by which point Carthage had become the wealthiest and most powerful of all the Phoenician colonies. Around this time, a distinct culture began to emerge from the admixture of local customs with Phoenician traditions, which also gave rise to a nascent sense of national identity. Tyre's status and power continued to diminish under Neo-Assyrian, and subsequently 1512:"With respect to the ancient Punic samples from Tharros, it is worth noting how they appear genetically closer to north African populations; indeed, rather than clustering with other modern Sardinians, they instead occupy an intermediate position on the right side of the PCA plot between north African groups and southern European Iberian populations." 1428:"When the Phoenicians migrated over the Mediterranean to the west and established their the city of Carthage, they had people with Y-DNA E-M81, and some people with E-FGC18960 and E-V65. Philip K. Hitti (professor in Semitic languages) explained that they named themselves Mauri ("presumably of Phoenician origin, meaning 'western'") in his book " 1404:

In 1994, a Punic burial crypt was discovered on Byrsa Hill, near the entry to the National Museum of Carthage in Tunisia. Inside this crypt were the remains of a young man along with a range of burial goods, all dating to the late 6th century BCE. An osteological analysis of the young man from Byrsa,

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The destruction of Carthage did not mean the end of the Punic people. After the wars, the city of Carthage was completely razed and the land around it was turned into farmland for Roman citizens. There were, however, other Punic cities in northwest Africa, and Carthage itself was rebuilt and regained

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These results mirror other emerging ancient DNA studies and are not unexpected given that the Punic center of Carthage, on the north African coast itself, has roots in the eastern Mediterranean. Interestingly, the Monte Sirai individuals, predating the Villamar individuals by several centuries, show

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had grown to be the largest and most powerful of these city-states by the 5th century BC and gained increasingly close control over Punic Sicily and Sardinia in the 4th century BC, but communities in Iberia remained outside their control until the second half of the 3rd century BC. In the course of

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populations, consisting of three primary genetic clusters. One of the genetic groups includes four individuals who have genetic continuity with preceding Maghrebi neolithic farmers, suggesting that these individuals represent an autochthonous North African population. One individual can be modeled

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Moots, Hannah M.; Antonio, Margaret; Sawyer, Susanna; Spence, Jeffrey P.; Oberreiter, Victoria; Weiß, Clemens L.; Lucci, Michaela; Cherifi, Yahia Mehdi Seddik; Pastina, Francesco La; Genchi, Francesco; Praxmeier, Elisa; Zagorc, Brina; Cheronot, Olivia; Özdoğan, Kadir T.; Demetz, Lea (2022-03-15).

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The Phoenician colonial system was motivated by economic opportunity, not expansionist ideology and, as such, the Phoenicians lacked the numbers or even the desire to establish an "empire" overseas. The colonies were therefore independent city-states, though most were relatively small, probably

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ancestry were detected in this group of Tunisian Punics. One possible explanation is that the colonial expansion of Phoenician city-states at the start of the Iron Age did not involve large amounts of population mobility, and may have been based on trade relationships rather than occupation.

1161:, were able to grow much larger. Effectively establishing a monopoly on the continent's natural resources, the colonies' wealth exploded, which was compounded by an influx of Phoenician traders fleeing from increasing tributary obligations to foreign powers and trade interference. 502:, Malta and other small islands of the western Mediterranean. In Sardinia and Sicily, they had strong economic and political ties to the independent natives in the hinterland. Their naval presence and trade extended throughout the Mediterranean and beyond, to Atlantic Iberia, the 446:

that this is a misreading, since although this term is "applied to Levantine people" in the Hebrew Bible, "there is no other evidence for self-identification as Canaanite, and so we might suspect him of learned optimism." However, this opinion is not shared by all scholars.

833:, where Punic construction techniques and red-slip pottery appear at the time. Armed conflicts with the Libyans are first attested in the early 5th century, with several revolts attested in the fourth century (398, 370s, 310-307 BC). In the late 4th century, 1554:. A last individual, who projects near modern Mozabite and Moroccan populations in PCA space can be modelled with a combination Morocco Early Neolithic and Anatolia Neolithic ancestry. When compared to other ancient individuals, this individual forms a clade with ancient 3857:

de Angelis, Flavio; Veltre, Virginia; Romboni, Marco; di Corcia, Tullia; Scano, Giuseppina; Martínez-Labarga, Cristina; et al. (2021). "Ancient genomes from a rural site in Imperial Rome (1st–3rd cent. CE): A genetic junction in the Roman Empire".

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Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction : Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project, Held in Innsbruck, Austria, October 3rd – 8th

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Nigro & Spagnoli Nigro, Landing on Motya: the Phoenician settlement in the excavations of Rome “La Sapienza” University, 2010–2016. Stratigraphy, architecture and finds (Quaderni di Archeologia fenicio-punica 4). Roma: Missione Archeologica a Mozia.

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Two other studies published in 2021 in the journal Annals of Human Biology also show a strong genetic proximity with the populations of North Africa of several individuals from Sardinia and Italy. According to Sarno, Cillion, de Fanti,

301:(264–146 BC), the Romans challenged Carthaginian hegemony in the western Mediterranean, culminating in the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, but the Punic language and Punic culture endured under Roman rule, surviving in some places until 1524:"The genomic legacy with the south-eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea and the Central and Western Northern-African coast funerary influence pave the way for considering people buried in QCP as resembling a Punic-derived human group." 289:, Greeks, and Iberians, and developed some cultural traits distinct from those of their Phoenician homeland. Some of these were shared by all western Phoenicians, while others were restricted to individual regions within the Punic sphere. 821:

in the early sixth century. The region was very fertile and allowed Carthage to be economically self-sufficient. The site of Kerkouane has been extensively excavated and provides the best-known example of a Punic city from North Africa.

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With Phoenicia's decline, Carthage had become effectively independent from Tyre by 650 BC. Carthaginians carried out significant sea explorations around Africa and elsewhere from their base in Carthage. In the 5th century BC,

248:) that hasn't been confirmed by archaeology, and a second at the end of the 9th century BC, documented in written references in both east and west, which culminated in the foundation of colonies in northwest Africa (the cities Auza, 1153:. Archaeological evidence, on the other hand, generally implies that the colonies began in the 8th century BC as, barring a few exceptional sites, any material evidence of Phoenician habitation before this time period is lacking. 837:

reports that the Carthaginians dealt with local discontent by resettling poor citizens in cities in Libya. These settlements had to provide tribute and military manpower when required, but remained self-governing. There is some

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In 2022, 30 ancient individuals from Carthaginian and Etruscan port cities around the central Mediterranean, in Tunisia, Sardinia, and central Italy were sequenced. In Tunisia a highly heterogeneous population was observed in

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Sarno, Stefania; Cilli, Elisabetta; Serventi, Patrizia; de Fanti, Sara; Corona, Andrea; Fontani, Francesco; et al. (2021). "Insights into Punic genetic signatures in the southern necropolis of Tharros (Sardinia)".

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and Hanno, led a revolt against the Romans. Punic culture remained strong during the first centuries of the Roman domination, but over time the civic elites adopted Roman cultural practices and Latin became first the

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The island came under Carthaginian dominance around 510 BC, after that a first attempt at conquest in 540 BC that ended in failure. They expanded their influence to the western and southern coast from

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Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth A.; Gosling, Anna L.; Boocock, James; Kardailsky, Olga; Kurumilian, Yara; Roudesli-Chebbi, Sihem; Badre, Leila; Morel, Jean-Paul; Sebaï, Leïla Ladjimi; Zalloua, Pierre A. (2016-05-25).

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in Carthage in 1921, which contained the urns of cremated children. However, modern historians and archaeologists debate the reality and extent of this practice. Some scholars propose that all remains at the

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Numismatic evidence from Sicily shows that some western Phoenicians made use of the term "Phoinix", but it is not clear what term (if any) they used for themselves; they may have called themselves 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍𐤌

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Zalloua, Pierre; Collins, Catherine J.; Gosling, Anna; Biagini, Simone Andrea; Costa, Benjamí; Kardailsky, Olga; Nigro, Lorenzo; Khalil, Wissam; Calafell, Francesc; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth (2018-12-04).

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homeland. Although links with Phoenicia were retained throughout their history, they also developed close trading relations with other peoples of the western Mediterranean, such as Sicilians, Sardinians,

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Sarno, Stefania; Cilli, Elisabetta; Serventi, Patrizia; De Fanti, Sara; Corona, Andrea; Fontani, Francesco; Traversari, Mirko; Ferri, Gianmarco; Fariselli, Anna Chiara; Luiselli, Donata (2021-04-03).

1391:, where spoken Punic survived well past written use. Whether this refers to some remnant Punic population is uncertain; if it does, it represents the last known record of the people's existence. 1312:, and settlements in the surrounding area were granted to soldiers who had retired from the Roman army. People of Punic origin prospered again as traders, merchants and even politicians of the 1359:

Augustine is the last ancient writer to indicate that the Punic language was widely spoken. The last remains of a distinct Punic culture probably disappeared somewhere in the chaos during the

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ancestry as opposed to African or Asian. In 2016, it was revealed that the individual belonged to the rare U5b2c1, which is the earliest evidence of this European lineage in North Africa.

1546:. A second cluster contains seven individuals who are genetically similar to Bronze Age Sicilian and central Italian populations, as well as some individuals from the Hellenistic Iberian 782:

is dated to the late 9th century BC by Greek literary sources and archaeological evidence. The literary sources attribute the foundation to a group of Tyrian refugees led by

1145:, dated the beginning of the colonization efforts to the 12th and 11th centuries BC, as several legends describe interactions between Phoenician colonists and famous figures from the 1424:

A recent genetic study has linked haplogroups E-M81, E-FGC18960 and E-V65 to the diffusion of the Phoenician language in the Western Mediterranean. According to Penninx (2019):

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played a significant role in exploring coastal areas of present-day Morocco and other parts of the African coast, specifically noting details of indigenous peoples, such as at

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by burning. Many ancient Greek and Latin authors describe some version of child sacrifice to "Cronos" (Baal Hammon). These descriptions were compared to those found in the

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Mitochondrial analysis of 10 Punic samples from the necropolis of Tharros in Sardinia (5th – 3rd century BC) shows affinities with North African and Iberian populations.

1915:: Unde interrogati rustici nostri, quid sint, punice respondentes: chanani, corrupta scilicet sicut in talibus solet una littera, quid aliud respondent quam: chananaei?) 1445:

showed that Punic people from Sardinia, Ibiza, South Iberia and Italy had strong genetic relationships to ancient north African and eastern Mediterranean sources.

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or Ariche, as he has become known, determined that he was approximately 1.7 m tall and aged between 19 and 24 years, and a craniometric analysis indicated likely

4052: 1267:, Carthage was destroyed in 146 BC. Victory in the Punic Wars enabled Roman settlement of Africa and eventual domination of the entire Mediterranean Sea. 4043: 313: 1542:

with 100% Morocco Late Neolithic farmer ancestry, while three individuals can be modeled predominantly with this component, along with the addition of

1301:, where he reports that Tiberius crucified the priests of "Saturn" on the same trees they consecrated to the god. Tertullian also mentions the goddess 1339:), considered himself Punic, and left some important reflections on Punic cultural history in his writing. One of his more well known passages reads: 1168:, once the economic and political capital of Phoenicia, began to lose its status in the seventh century BC. Phoenicia was eventually conquered by the 3994:

Dridi, Hédi (2019). "Early Carthage: From its foundation to the battle of Himera (ca. 814–480 BC)". In Doak, Brian R.; López-Ruiz, Carolina (eds.).

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had severely circumscribed what little power it retained. Its status as the pre-eminent Phoenician city was then usurped by its rival city-state,

968:. The existing power structures, infrastructure, and urbanized culture continued largely unchanged. In 216 BC, two Sardo-Punic notables from 1184:– but Sidon too was under Persian subjugation, leading the way for Carthage to fill the power vacuum as the leading Phoenician political power. 3236: 3139: 3402: 767:

taking place around the end of the twelfth century. Further Phoenician settlements, were established in the following centuries, including

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The cult to Baal Hammon, and the consequent sacrifice of children, though banned by Rome, continued openly under the guise of worshipping

382:), which was used indiscriminately to refer to both western and eastern Phoenicians. Latin later borrowed the Greek term a second time as 331:"Punics" and "Punes" were used in the 16th century, but are obsolete and there is no proper noun in current use. "Punic" derives from the 1276:

some importance, if a shadow of its ancient influence. Although the area was partially romanized and some of the population adopted the

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exclusively refers to Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean. Specific Punic groups are often referred to with hyphenated names, like

434:", which is only a corruption by one letter of the alphabet of what we would expect: What else should they reply except that they are " 1452:

in 2018 showed that Eastern Mediterranean and North African influence in the Punic population of Ibiza was primarily male dominated.

4036: 624:. Different Punic centres had their own distinct pantheons; in Punic Sardinia, for example, Sid or Sid Babi (known to the Romans as 4772: 53: 2492: 3360: 3333: 3271: 3246: 3100: 3065: 2997: 2970: 2894: 2809: 2765: 2746: 2727: 2708: 2689: 2667: 2620: 2601: 2582: 2545: 2441: 2422: 2403: 2384: 2365: 2346: 2324: 2261: 2242: 2221: 2198: 2179: 2160: 2139: 1796: 1766: 1707: 1686:

Salimbeti, Andrea; d'Amato, Raffaele (2014). The Carthaginians 6th-2nd Century BC. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781782007777.

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and apparently an indigenous deity) received worship as the son of Melqart and was particularly associated with the island.

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in northern Africa in 202 BC, marking the end of Carthage's position as a major Mediterranean power. Finally, in the

1363:. The demographic and cultural characteristics of the region were thoroughly transformed by turbulent events such as the 861:

From the 8th century BC, Phoenicians founded several cities and strongholds on strategic points in the south and west of

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Tunisia was among the areas settled during the first wave of Phoenician expansion into the west, with the foundation of

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thought to be representative of the original founding population. Surprisingly, no individuals with large amounts of

1280:, while fusing it with aspects of their beliefs and customs, the language and the ethnicity persisted for some time. 482:

Like other Phoenician people, their urbanized culture and economy were strongly linked to the sea. They settled over

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Literary sources report two moments of Tyrian settlements in the west, the first in the 12th century BC (the cities

1360: 350:, which were used mostly to refer to the Carthaginians and other western Phoenicians. These terms derived from the 3377: 3013:

Sommer, Michael (1 June 2007). "Networks of Commerce and Knowledge in the Iron Age: The Case of the Phoenicians".

2037: 1667: 1016: 709:, who describes how Carthaginian women gained gifts by engaging in prostitution with visitors at Sicca Veneria. 1372: 1368: 42: 675:), and functionaries like cooks, butchers, singers, and barbers. Sanctuaries had associations, referred to as 3323: 1982: 3493: 1141:

It is unclear when the Phoenicians began to seriously colonize North Africa. Writers in antiquity, such as

885:). The north, the eastern coast and the interior of the island continued to be dominated by the indigenous 2799: 327:

The English adjective "Punic" is used in modern academic writing to refer to the western Phoenicians. The

3427:"A European Mitochondrial Haplotype Identified in Ancient Phoenician Remains from Carthage, North Africa" 978: 1255:

was unsuccessful in forcing the Romans to surrender and the Carthaginians were subsequently defeated by

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to Caralis, consolidating the existing Phoenician settlements, administered by plenipotentiaries called

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etc. are now important archaeological sites where Punic architecture and city planning can be studied.

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evidence for intermarriage between Punic people and Libyans in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.

553: 226: 657:, as well as lower-ranking religious officials, called "servants" or "slaves" of the sanctuary (male: 540: 169:, is exclusively used to refer to Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean, following the line of the 93: 2936: 601: 170: 3057: 2874: 3953: 1277: 790:. Archaeologically, the new foundation is characterised by the focus of religious cult on the gods 2804:. Monographiae Biologicae. Vol. 52. The Hague, The Netherlands: W. Junk (Kluwer). p. 1. 1106:

later grew in power, these settlements sometimes came into conflict with them, such as Motya, and

3856: 2867: 2635: 1978: 1950: 1723: 1607: 1288: 443: 67: 3802: 3410: 1648:, shows the vision the Romans had of Carthaginians. A number of lines are in the Punic language. 3699:"The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean" 1543: 3748:"Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia" 3575:"Ancient DNA of Phoenician remains indicates discontinuity in the settlement history of Ibiza" 3350: 2779: 1782: 1740: 4300: 4295: 4068: 4021: 3325:

Late Punic Epigraphy: An Introduction to the Study of Neo-Punic and Latino-Punic Inscriptions

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Within a century, the population of Carthage rose to 30,000, meanwhile, the "mother city" of

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The Carthaginians appear to have had both part-time and full-time priests, the latter called

154: 17: 3050: 3759: 3653: 3586: 3438: 2989:'Hellenization' and Southern Phoenicia: Reconsidering the Impact of Greece Before Alexander 1634: 1213: 1212:. Carthaginians pushed westerly into the Atlantic and established important settlements in 886: 865:, often peninsulas or islands near estuaries, easy to defend and natural harbours, such as 241: 1128:

population as shown in archaeology as a distinctive “West Phoenician cultural identity”.

8: 4708: 4237: 3494:"Insights into Punic genetic signatures in the southern necropolis of Tharros (Sardinia)" 3116: 2800:

Kuhbier, Heinrich; Alcover, Josep Antoni; Guerau d'Arellano Tur, Cristòfol, eds. (1984).

1583: 1231:, the Carthaginians had several clashes with the Greeks over the island of Sicily in the 1205: 1169: 994: 961: 690: 222: 3763: 3657: 3590: 3442: 829:. Punic influence on inland regions is seen from the early 6th century, notably at 734:. The ancient descriptions were seemingly confirmed by the discovering of the so-called 4654: 3931: 3883: 3839: 3780: 3747: 3723: 3698: 3674: 3639: 3615: 3574: 3539: 3469: 3426: 3304: 3217: 3133: 3030: 2941: 2108: 2100: 1837: 1629: 1328: 1284: 1192: 930: 466:

Greek authors sometimes referred to the Punic inhabitants of central northern Africa (

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The western Phoenicians were arranged into a multitude of self-governing city-states.

4743: 4534: 4115: 4056: 3999: 3980: 3961: 3935: 3923: 3903: 3887: 3875: 3843: 3831: 3785: 3728: 3679: 3644: 3620: 3602: 3543: 3531: 3523: 3474: 3456: 3406: 3356: 3329: 3267: 3242: 3209: 3120: 3096: 3061: 3034: 2993: 2966: 2945: 2890: 2805: 2301: 2217: 2135: 2112: 2043: 2016: 1958: 1930: 1912: 1882: 1841: 1792: 1762: 1703: 1406: 1317: 1177: 1038: 206: 3904:"A Genetic History of Continuity and Mobility in the Iron Age Central Mediterranean" 3559:"The male lines of the Maghreb: Phoenicians, Carthage, Muslim conquest, and Berbers" 3154: 712:

Various Greek and Roman sources describe and criticize the Carthaginian practice of

4672: 4539: 4325: 3915: 3867: 3821: 3813: 3775: 3767: 3718: 3710: 3669: 3661: 3610: 3594: 3513: 3505: 3464: 3446: 3378:"Did Punic Survive Until the Advent of Arabic? Part 4: The Post-Augustine Evidence" 3022: 2931: 2923: 2825: 2092: 1829: 1380: 1324: 1256: 1248: 1114: 1103: 1096: 1020: 969: 706: 174: 35: 3871: 3817: 3509: 1367:' wars with Byzantines and the population movements that followed, as well as the 317:

A Carthaginian coin from Sicily depicting a horse in front of a palm tree (called

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Sacred Violence, African Christians, and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine

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has often been interpreted as indicating that they called themselves Canaanites (

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inscriptions, who held ritual banquets. Some Phoenician communities practiced

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the Romans took over the whole island, incorporating it into the province of

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As Christianity spread in the Roman Empire, it was especially successful in

4739: 4189: 3927: 3879: 3835: 3789: 3732: 3683: 3624: 3535: 3478: 2467: 1327:, and Carthage became a Christian city even before Christianity was legal. 1313: 1297: 1072: 764: 717: 625: 182: 178: 4490: 3352:

History of Humanity: From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C.

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noli istum poenum monentem vel admonetem terra inflatus propagine spernere

1176:, vassalage, and by the sixth century BC, its voluntary submission to the 705:

in western Sicily. Punic sacred prostitution is mentioned by Latin author

345: 4585: 4519: 4232: 4145: 1657: 1442: 950: 946: 878: 814: 795: 693:; in the Punic sphere this is archeologically attested at Sicca Veneria ( 557: 463: 328: 3826: 3518: 3221: 3197: 2679: 2677: 1551: 1033: 1023:

dates this foundation to 654 BC and attributes it to the Carthaginians.

1019:, which has been excavated, was established in the mid-seventh century. 737: 337: 4607: 4458: 4448: 4438: 4345: 4340: 4242: 4130: 4110: 2104: 1601: 1332: 1292: 1243:

between 265 and 146 BC but they were defeated in each one. In the

1240: 1146: 1110: 973: 898: 830: 772: 597: 550: 405: 298: 97: 4703: 4634: 4624: 4614: 4551: 4524: 4480: 4400: 4207: 4155: 4150: 4140: 4125: 4105: 3423: 2674: 2559: 1902: 1538: 1530: 1217: 1209: 1107: 1075:. Within a century, they established major Phoenician settlements at 1049: 937:

was probably the main centre. Carthage encouraged the cultivation of

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Forgiveness and the Just Deserts of Sins, and the Baptism of Infants

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and established some colonies in Southern Iberia, Sardinia, Sicily,

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This article is about the Punic people. For the Punic language, see

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A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation

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Technical achievements of the Punic people of Carthage include the

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from 600 to 265 BC. The Carthaginians eventually also fought

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from the middle of the seventh city and establishing the city of

810: 768: 593: 585: 577: 573: 561: 491: 487: 483: 286: 269: 194: 190: 2883:"Conclusion: The Impact of City-State Cultures on World History" 4731: 4664: 4629: 4595: 4512: 4453: 4420: 4410: 4405: 4360: 4350: 4335: 4330: 4310: 4290: 4270: 3974: 2391: 1652: 1559: 1547: 1410: 1287:

until at least the proconsulate of Tiberius Iulius Secundus in

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having a population of less than 1,000. Some colonies, such as

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Fernandes, D.M.; Mittnik, A.; Olalde, I.; et al. (2020).

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Jenkins, G. Kenneth (1974). "Coins of Punic Sicily, Part II".

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The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean

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The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean

1388: 1181: 1084: 990: 938: 922: 874: 791: 779: 746:

were sacrificed, whereas others propose that only some were.

648: 565: 495: 419: 370: 356: 332: 277: 273: 261: 245: 214: 210: 186: 3746:

Marcus, J.H.; Posth, C.; Ringbauer, H.; et al. (2020).

3571: 4742:. The Madeira and Azores islands were unoccupied until the 2912:"Colonial Engagements in the Global Mediterranean Iron Age" 2753: 2523: 2521: 1788:

The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, colonies, and trade

1236: 981:, and later the speech of the majority of the inhabitants. 914: 906: 902: 783: 721: 613: 3491: 2336: 2334: 1699:

The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade

3088:

Robert Rollinger; Christoph Ulf; Kordula Schnegg (2004).

2312: 2294:"Review of: The Myth of Sacred Prostitution in Antiquity" 2249: 1343:"It is an excellent thing that the Punic Christians call 1008: 605: 3900: 3153:

Hogan, C. Michael (2 November 2007). Burnham, A. (ed.).

2889:. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 601–602. 2570: 2533: 2518: 2506: 2353: 1351:', and the sacrament of Christ's body nothing else but ' 1113:

in western Sicily were eventually fully integrated into

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Roman Society: A Social, Economic, and Cultural History

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2331: 2275: 2273: 2271: 1987:

identification and identity in the Phoenician diaspora"

798:, by the development of a new religious structure, the 621: 1881:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 240 n. 8. 1754: 1379:

described a people who spoke a language which was not

1196:

Painting by Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini (1731) titled

3349:

de Laet, Sigfried J.; Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1994).

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Las Ciudades Fenicio Púnicas en el Norte de África...

2085:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

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Clifford, Richard J. (1990). "Phoenician religion".

2010: 1907:

Unfinished Commentary on Paul's Letter to the Romans

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The Punic religion was a direct continuation of the

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Tophet § Carthage and the western Mediterranean

41:"Carthaginians" redirects here. For other uses, see 3115: 3047: 2440:

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2372: 2186: 2148: 720:describing the sacrifice of children by burning to 3049: 2764:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFHead_&_al.1911 ( 2130:. In López-Ruiz, Carolina; Doak, Brian R. (eds.). 4012: 778:The foundation of Carthage on the site of modern 177:, but there were 300 other settlements along the 165:, the Latin equivalent of the Greek-derived term 4759: 3081: 2802:Biogeography and Ecology of the Pityusic Islands 2633: 2435: 2397: 1724:"Carthage | History, Location, & Facts" 521:from lakeside deposits to improve the purity of 256:) and formed part of trading networks linked to 2490: 1516:Accorging to de Angelis, Veltre, Romboni, 2759: 2345:sfn error: no target: CITEREFStagerWolff1984 ( 1957:. Princeton University Press. pp. 33–35. 1758:Ancient Rome: A military and political history 100:, a modern structure incorporating Punic ruins 4746:in the 15th century; the Canary islands, the 4037: 3998:. Oxford University Press. pp. 141–152. 3952: 3638:Olalde, Inigo; et al. (15 March 2019) . 3321: 2323:sfn error: no target: CITEREFWarmington1995 ( 2260:sfn error: no target: CITEREFWarmington1995 ( 2134:. Oxford University Press. pp. 282–283. 2011:Salimbeti, Andrea; d'Amato, Raffaele (2014). 1781: 4750:occupied the territory until the Castilians. 2958: 2824: 901:was an important mining area for the metals 825:Punic control also extended inland over the 426:When our rural peasants are asked what they 4188: 3348: 2340: 1734: 1598:, Carthaginian admiral, brother of Hannibal 1371:in the 7th century AD. After the 813:peninsula, operating a sandstone quarry at 676: 670: 664: 658: 652: 638: 632: 413: 399: 389: 383: 343: 335: 4044: 4030: 3975:Dorey, Thomas Alan; Dudley, D. R. (1971). 3322:Jongeling, Karel; Kerr, Robert M. (2005). 3173:"Child Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East" 3138:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2979: 2952: 2318: 2255: 1761:. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. 1702:. Cambridge University Press. p. 12. 1610:, the main Carthaginian leader during the 1592:, Carthaginian general, father of Hannibal 1124:The Phoenicians integrated with the local 854:Ruins of the Punic and then Roman town of 697:) in western Tunisia and the sanctuary of 568:, but other deities are attested, such as 114:Model of the Punic military port, Carthage 3825: 3779: 3722: 3673: 3614: 3517: 3468: 3450: 3041: 2937:1983/49da5a29-8176-4afb-a4c9-bc4a118e216f 2935: 2745:sfn error: no target: CITEREFCasula1994 ( 2726:sfn error: no target: CITEREFCasula1994 ( 2178:sfn error: no target: CITEREFFantar2001 ( 2004: 1873: 1748: 1308:Carthage was rebuilt about 46 BC by 205:, the southern and eastern coasts of the 3303: 2600:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHoyos2019 ( 2581:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHoyos2019 ( 2544:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHoyos2019 ( 2383:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHoyos2021 ( 2364:sfn error: no target: CITEREFQuinn2011 ( 2241:sfn error: no target: CITEREFMiles2010 ( 2197:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHoyos2021 ( 2159:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHoyos2021 ( 2082: 1448:Zalloua, P., Collins, C.J., Gosling, A. 1191: 1032: 849: 809:Carthage gained direct control over the 312: 120: 3556: 2793: 2780:"Ibiza Literature, Literature in Ibiza" 2643:. Carlo Delfino Editore. pp. 38–39 2421:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHolm2005 ( 2211: 2063: 2035: 1854: 1571: 125:Carthaginian sphere of influence 264 BC 14: 4760: 3637: 3403:"Latino-Punic texts from North Africa" 3266:. London: Routledge. pp. 212–13. 3264:Septimius Severus: The African Emperor 3261: 3238:Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World 3012: 2962:Collected Papers on Greek Colonization 2740: 2721: 2173: 1857:Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau 1247:, they lost control of Sicily. In the 1224:, and Mogador, among other locations. 59:Phoenician grinning mask from Sardinia 4025: 3993: 3400: 3195: 3152: 3095:. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 143. 2909: 2844: 2595: 2576: 2558: 2539: 2527: 2512: 2454: 2378: 2359: 2291: 2279: 2236: 2192: 2154: 2125: 1977: 1949: 1901: 1695: 1586:, Carthaginian navigator and explorer 588:. The Carthaginians also adopted the 450:In modern academic writing, the term 3376:Dunn, Michael Collins (2013-07-30). 3375: 3234: 2416: 2013:The Carthaginians 6th-2nd Century BC 1924: 1918: 1822:Papers of the British School at Rome 1811: 1198:Young Hannibal Swears Enmity to Rome 998: 462:. (This practice has ancient roots: 3405:. Dept of Comparative Linguistics, 2071:A Historical Commentary on Polybius 1696:Aubet, Maria Eugenia (2001-09-06). 556:. At Carthage, the chief gods were 173:. The largest Punic settlement was 24: 2703:Brigaglia, Mastino & Ortu 2006 2684:Brigaglia, Mastino & Ortu 2006 2662:Brigaglia, Mastino & Ortu 2006 2615:Brigaglia, Mastino & Ortu 2006 2073:, Volume 2, Clarendon Press, p. 47 161:. In modern scholarship, the term 25: 4794: 3235:Cook, John Granger (2018-12-10). 2491:Maldonado López, Gabriel (2013), 1644:("The Puny Punic") – a comedy by 1441:Recent genetics studies based on 2916:Cambridge Archaeological Journal 2468:"Bizerte | Tunisia | Britannica" 1361:fall of the Western Roman Empire 1270: 921:, and founding new ones such as 107: 85: 66: 52: 4773:Ancient history of North Africa 3960:. London, UK: Draf Publishers. 3946: 3894: 3850: 3796: 3739: 3690: 3631: 3565: 3550: 3485: 3417: 3394: 3369: 3342: 3297: 3280: 3255: 3228: 3198:"Tertullian on Child Sacrifice" 3189: 3165: 3146: 3109: 3015:Mediterranean Historical Review 3006: 2903: 2860: 2850: 2818: 2772: 2627: 2552: 2484: 2460: 2285: 2205: 2119: 2076: 2069:Walbank, Frank William (1979). 2029: 1971: 1943: 1895: 1755:Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). 1480: 1476: 1369:Muslim conquest of North Africa 1291:(131–132). This is attested by 1037:Sicily at the beginning of the 1017:Sa Caleta Phoenician Settlement 845: 749: 319: 3908:Nature Ecology & Evolution 2300:. Cambridge University Press. 1929:. Cambridge University Press. 1867: 1848: 1805: 1791:. Cambridge University Press. 1775: 1716: 1689: 1680: 1373:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb 956:In 238 BC, following the 651:), led by high priests called 515:development of uncolored glass 394:, also used indiscriminately. 308: 43:Carthaginians (disambiguation) 13: 1: 3872:10.1080/03014460.2021.1944313 3818:10.1080/03014460.2021.1937699 3510:10.1080/03014460.2021.1937699 3241:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 204. 2986:Susan Rebecca Martin (2007). 2881:Mogens Herman Hansen (2000). 1812:Prag, Jonathan R.W. (2006). " 1673: 1187: 74: 3452:10.1371/journal.pone.0155046 3048:Henry Charles Boren (1992). 2436:Schwartz & Houghton 2017 2398:Schwartz & Houghton 2017 1955:In Search of the Phoenicians 1879:Hannibal: A Hellenistic life 1783:Aubet Semmler, María Eugenia 1305:as a romanization of Tanit. 1087:(an island near present-day 802:, and by a marked degree of 378: 364: 34:. For the civilisation, see 27:People from Ancient Carthage 7: 3262:Birley, Anthony R. (1999). 1668:Phoenician–Punic literature 1623: 1394: 1063:begin to settle in western 528: 477: 227:Northwest Semitic languages 10: 4799: 4013:Warmington, B. H. (1969). 3920:10.1038/s41559-023-02143-4 3772:10.1038/s41467-020-14523-6 3599:10.1038/s41598-018-35667-y 3155:"Mogador: Promontory fort" 2910:Hodos, Tamar (June 2009). 2298:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2212:Moscati, Sabatino (2001). 2036:Moscati, Sabatino (2001). 1563:According to the authors: 1251:, an invasion of Italy by 1136: 1131: 754: 600:in 396 BC, as well as the 560:(purportedly "Lord of the 554:ancient Canaanite religion 538: 532: 371: 357: 40: 29: 4778:Ancient peoples of Africa 4738:were not occupied by the 4724: 4696: 4663: 4647: 4574: 4429: 4256: 4179: 4091: 4063: 3979:. New York, NY: Vintage. 3715:10.1038/s41559-020-1102-0 3027:10.1080/09518960701539232 2928:10.1017/S0959774309000286 2634:Bartoloni, Piero (2004). 2292:Budin, Stephanie (2008). 2015:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 1834:10.1017/S0068246200003214 1556:Canary Island inhabitants 1477:Iran_Ganj_Dareh_Neolithic 1347:itself nothing else but ' 1067:, having already started 1026: 949:. Tharros, Nora, Bithia, 430:, they reply, in Punic, " 390: 323:in Greek), 4th century BC 171:Greek East and Latin West 73:Punic praying statuette, 3958:Carthage and Her Remains 3196:Rives, James B. (1994). 3177:www.ministrymagazine.org 1436: 1419: 1399: 1227:Being trade rivals with 984: 4017:(2d ed.). Praeger. 3860:Annals of Human Biology 3806:Annals of Human Biology 3666:10.1126/science.aav4040 3498:Annals of Human Biology 2341:Stager & Wolff 1984 1925:Shaw, Brant D. (2011). 1728:Encyclopedia Britannica 1608:Hasdrubal the Boetharch 1544:Steppe-related ancestry 1533:, spanning from modern 1467:According to Fernandes 1079:(Solunto), present day 1071:on the nearby parts of 677: 671: 665: 659: 653: 639: 633: 400: 133:, usually known as the 3056:. D.C. Heath. p. 2965:. Brill. p. 226. 1580:, Carthaginian general 1537:populations to modern 1200: 1041: 993:derives its name from 858: 442:It has been argued by 440: 414: 384: 344: 336: 324: 126: 4301:Celtici Supertamarici 4296:Celtici Praestamarici 3977:Rome Against Carthage 3557:Penninx, Wim (2019). 3159:The Megalithic Portal 2959:A. J. Graham (2001). 2760:Head & al. (1911) 2126:Xella, Paolo (2019). 1983:"The cultures of the 1744:Edward Lipiński p 466 1660:, known to Romans as 1619:, agricultural writer 1195: 1036: 853: 424: 422:), Augustine writes: 316: 197:, as well as western 155:Western Mediterranean 124: 1742:Itineraria Phoenicia 1635:Carthaginian coinage 1572:Notable Punic people 1487:According to Marcus 1455:According to Olalde 1430:History of the Arabs 1320:had Punic ancestry. 1259:in Spain and at the 887:Nuragic civilization 714:sacrificing children 3764:2020NatCo..11..939M 3658:2019Sci...363.1230O 3652:(6432): 1230–1234. 3591:2018NatSR...817567Z 3443:2016PLoSO..1155046M 3413:on 9 November 2005. 3117:Hanno the Navigator 2438:, pp. 443–444. 2362:, pp. 388–389. 1816:– but who were the 1664:("the Punic apple") 1584:Hanno the Navigator 1206:Hanno the Navigator 1170:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1091:). Others included 962:Corsica et Sardinia 786:and accompanied by 691:sacred prostitution 643:, cognate with the 564:") and his consort 408:"). A passage from 229:originating in the 221:, was a dialect of 139:Western Phoenicians 4655:Germani (Oretania) 3579:Scientific Reports 3401:Jongeling, Karel. 2579:, p. 157-159. 2542:, p. 158-159. 2530:, p. 147-150. 2515:, p. 142-146. 2472:www.britannica.com 1630:History of Tunisia 1201: 1042: 859: 728:at a place called 325: 217:. Their language, 137:(and sometimes as 127: 4783:Phoenician people 4755: 4754: 4648:Germanic peoples? 4570: 4569: 4057:Iberian Peninsula 4053:Pre-Roman peoples 3407:Leiden University 3382:MEI Editor's Blog 3362:978-92-3-102811-3 3335:978-3-1614-8728-6 3273:978-0-415-16591-4 3248:978-3-16-156001-9 3202:Museum Helveticum 3122:Periplus of Hanno 3102:978-3-515-08379-9 3067:978-0-669-17801-2 2999:978-0-549-52890-6 2972:978-90-04-11634-4 2896:978-87-7876-177-4 2811:978-90-6193-105-8 2686:, pp. 30–31. 2566:. 2.1273b: 19-20. 2223:978-1-85043-533-4 2141:978-0-19-049934-1 1798:978-0-521-79543-2 1768:978-0-521-80918-4 1709:978-0-521-79543-2 1604:, Sardinian rebel 1375:, the geographer 1318:Septimius Severus 1178:Achaemenid Empire 1039:Peloponnesian War 979:prestige language 207:Iberian Peninsula 16:(Redirected from 4790: 4635:Turdetani Proper 4186: 4185: 4046: 4039: 4032: 4023: 4022: 4018: 4009: 3990: 3971: 3940: 3939: 3914:(9): 1515–1524. 3898: 3892: 3891: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3829: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3783: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3726: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3677: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3618: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3521: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3472: 3454: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3409:. Archived from 3398: 3392: 3391: 3389: 3388: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3328:. Mohr Siebeck. 3319: 3313: 3312: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3232: 3226: 3225: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3184: 3183: 3169: 3163: 3162: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3137: 3129: 3127:5th century B. C 3113: 3107: 3106: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3055: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3010: 3004: 3003: 2983: 2977: 2976: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2939: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2878: 2872: 2864: 2858: 2854: 2848: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2826:Diodorus Siculus 2822: 2816: 2815: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2788: 2787: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2757: 2751: 2750: 2738: 2732: 2731: 2719: 2713: 2712: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2681: 2672: 2671: 2659: 2653: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2642: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2612: 2606: 2605: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2574: 2568: 2567: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2537: 2531: 2525: 2516: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2479: 2478: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2445: 2433: 2427: 2426: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2395: 2389: 2388: 2376: 2370: 2369: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2338: 2329: 2328: 2316: 2310: 2309: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2266: 2265: 2253: 2247: 2246: 2234: 2228: 2227: 2209: 2203: 2202: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2123: 2117: 2116: 2080: 2074: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2033: 2027: 2026: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1991: 1975: 1969: 1968: 1947: 1941: 1940: 1922: 1916: 1913:the Latin source 1910: 1899: 1893: 1892: 1871: 1865: 1864: 1852: 1846: 1845: 1814:Poenus plane est 1809: 1803: 1802: 1779: 1773: 1772: 1752: 1746: 1738: 1732: 1731: 1720: 1714: 1713: 1693: 1687: 1684: 1482: 1479:and 89.2 ± 2.7% 1478: 1325:northwest Africa 1257:Scipio Africanus 1249:Second Punic War 1097:Mazara del Vallo 1007:, "Dedicated to 1006: 1005: 1000: 769:Hippo Diarrhytus 707:Valerius Maximus 680: 674: 668: 662: 656: 642: 636: 484:Northwest Africa 472:Liby-Phoenicians 417: 403: 393: 392: 387: 381: 375: 374: 373: 367: 361: 360: 359: 349: 341: 322: 321: 175:Ancient Carthage 111: 89: 79: 76: 70: 56: 36:Ancient Carthage 21: 4798: 4797: 4793: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4788: 4787: 4758: 4757: 4756: 4751: 4720: 4697:Semitic peoples 4692: 4659: 4643: 4566: 4431: 4425: 4252: 4175: 4087: 4059: 4050: 4006: 3987: 3968: 3949: 3944: 3943: 3899: 3895: 3855: 3851: 3801: 3797: 3744: 3740: 3695: 3691: 3636: 3632: 3570: 3566: 3555: 3551: 3490: 3486: 3437:(5): e0155046. 3422: 3418: 3399: 3395: 3386: 3384: 3374: 3370: 3363: 3347: 3343: 3336: 3320: 3316: 3302: 3298: 3286: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3260: 3256: 3249: 3233: 3229: 3194: 3190: 3181: 3179: 3171: 3170: 3166: 3151: 3147: 3131: 3130: 3114: 3110: 3103: 3086: 3082: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3046: 3042: 3011: 3007: 3000: 2992:. p. 115. 2984: 2980: 2973: 2957: 2953: 2908: 2904: 2897: 2879: 2875: 2868:Natural History 2865: 2861: 2855: 2851: 2843: 2839: 2823: 2819: 2812: 2798: 2794: 2785: 2783: 2782:. Liveibiza.com 2778: 2777: 2773: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2744: 2739: 2735: 2725: 2720: 2716: 2706: 2701: 2697: 2687: 2682: 2675: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2632: 2628: 2618: 2613: 2609: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2557: 2553: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2526: 2519: 2511: 2507: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2476: 2474: 2466: 2465: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2420: 2419:, p. 1734. 2415: 2411: 2401: 2396: 2392: 2382: 2377: 2373: 2363: 2358: 2354: 2344: 2339: 2332: 2322: 2319:Warmington 1995 2317: 2313: 2290: 2286: 2278: 2269: 2259: 2256:Warmington 1995 2254: 2250: 2240: 2235: 2231: 2224: 2216:. I.B. Tauris. 2214:The Phoenicians 2210: 2206: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2177: 2172: 2168: 2158: 2153: 2149: 2142: 2124: 2120: 2097:10.2307/1357208 2081: 2077: 2068: 2064: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2042:. I.B. Tauris. 2039:The Phoenicians 2034: 2030: 2023: 2009: 2005: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1976: 1972: 1965: 1948: 1944: 1937: 1923: 1919: 1900: 1896: 1889: 1872: 1868: 1853: 1849: 1810: 1806: 1799: 1780: 1776: 1769: 1753: 1749: 1739: 1735: 1722: 1721: 1717: 1710: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1656:– the genus of 1626: 1612:Third Punic War 1596:Hasdrubal Barca 1574: 1439: 1422: 1402: 1397: 1329:Saint Augustine 1273: 1265:Third Punic War 1245:First Punic War 1190: 1143:Pliny the Elder 1139: 1134: 1046:11th century BC 1031: 1015:). A city, the 1003: 1002: 987: 958:First Punic War 945:and prohibited 848: 804:cosmopolitanism 757: 752: 549:variety of the 543: 537: 531: 517:and the use of 486:in what is now 480: 369: 368:), plural form 355: 311: 119: 118: 117: 116: 115: 112: 103: 102: 101: 90: 82: 81: 77: 71: 62: 61: 60: 57: 46: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4796: 4786: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4753: 4752: 4736:Canary Islands 4725: 4722: 4721: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4716: 4706: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4669: 4667: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4657: 4651: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4642: 4641: 4640: 4639: 4638: 4637: 4632: 4622: 4612: 4611: 4610: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4593: 4582: 4580: 4572: 4571: 4568: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4548: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4516: 4515: 4505: 4504: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4462: 4461: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4435: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4262: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4194: 4192: 4183: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4103: 4097: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4085: 4080: 4074: 4072: 4061: 4060: 4049: 4048: 4041: 4034: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4010: 4004: 3991: 3985: 3972: 3966: 3948: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3893: 3866:(3): 234–246. 3849: 3812:(3): 247–259. 3795: 3738: 3709:(3): 334–345. 3689: 3630: 3564: 3549: 3504:(3): 247–259. 3484: 3416: 3393: 3368: 3361: 3341: 3334: 3314: 3296: 3279: 3272: 3254: 3247: 3227: 3188: 3164: 3145: 3108: 3101: 3080: 3066: 3040: 3005: 2998: 2978: 2971: 2951: 2922:(2): 221–241. 2902: 2895: 2873: 2859: 2849: 2847:, p. 147. 2837: 2817: 2810: 2792: 2771: 2752: 2743:, p. 110. 2733: 2724:, p. 104. 2714: 2695: 2673: 2654: 2626: 2607: 2598:, p. 160. 2588: 2569: 2551: 2532: 2517: 2505: 2483: 2459: 2457:, p. 141. 2447: 2428: 2409: 2400:, p. 452. 2390: 2371: 2352: 2330: 2321:, p. 453. 2311: 2284: 2282:, p. 287. 2267: 2258:, p. 454. 2248: 2239:, p. 104. 2229: 2222: 2204: 2185: 2166: 2147: 2140: 2118: 2075: 2062: 2048: 2028: 2021: 2003: 1970: 1963: 1942: 1935: 1917: 1894: 1887: 1875:MacDonald, Eve 1866: 1847: 1804: 1797: 1785:(2001-09-06). 1774: 1767: 1747: 1733: 1715: 1708: 1688: 1678: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1670: 1665: 1649: 1637: 1632: 1625: 1622: 1621: 1620: 1614: 1605: 1599: 1593: 1590:Hamilcar Barca 1587: 1581: 1573: 1570: 1569: 1568: 1526: 1525: 1514: 1513: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1485: 1484: 1465: 1464: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1433: 1421: 1418: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1357: 1356: 1316:. The emperor 1303:Juno Caelestis 1278:Roman religion 1272: 1269: 1261:Battle of Zama 1189: 1186: 1174:Neo-Babylonian 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1119:6th century BC 1095:(Trapani) and 1030: 1025: 989:The island of 986: 983: 847: 844: 756: 753: 751: 748: 539:Main article: 535:Punic religion 533:Main article: 530: 527: 479: 476: 429: 388:, plural form 310: 307: 303:late antiquity 159:Early Iron Age 113: 106: 105: 104: 94:Punic Building 91: 84: 83: 72: 65: 64: 63: 58: 51: 50: 49: 48: 47: 32:Punic language 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4795: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4723: 4715: 4712: 4711: 4710: 4709:Carthaginians 4707: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4695: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4670: 4668: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4646: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4604: 4601: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4573: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4532: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4514: 4511: 4510: 4509: 4508:Eastern Celts 4506: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4491:Mirobrigenses 4489: 4488: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4460: 4457: 4456: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4436: 4434: 4428: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4259: 4255: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4178: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4090: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4069:Proto-Basques 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4042: 4040: 4035: 4033: 4028: 4027: 4024: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4005:9780190499341 4001: 3997: 3992: 3988: 3986:9780436131301 3982: 3978: 3973: 3969: 3967:9781850770336 3963: 3959: 3955: 3954:Davis, Nathan 3951: 3950: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3799: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3703:Nat Ecol Evol 3700: 3693: 3685: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3641: 3634: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3568: 3560: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3488: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3420: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3397: 3383: 3379: 3372: 3364: 3358: 3354: 3353: 3345: 3337: 3331: 3327: 3326: 3318: 3310: 3306: 3300: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3275: 3269: 3265: 3258: 3250: 3244: 3240: 3239: 3231: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3178: 3174: 3168: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3141: 3135: 3128: 3124: 3123: 3118: 3112: 3104: 3098: 3094: 3093: 3084: 3069: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3053: 3044: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3009: 3001: 2995: 2991: 2990: 2982: 2974: 2968: 2964: 2963: 2955: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2906: 2898: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2870: 2869: 2863: 2853: 2846: 2841: 2833: 2832: 2827: 2821: 2813: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2781: 2775: 2767: 2761: 2756: 2748: 2742: 2737: 2729: 2723: 2718: 2710: 2705:, p. 28. 2704: 2699: 2691: 2685: 2680: 2678: 2669: 2664:, p. 27. 2663: 2658: 2639: 2638: 2630: 2622: 2617:, p. 25. 2616: 2611: 2603: 2597: 2592: 2584: 2578: 2573: 2565: 2561: 2555: 2547: 2541: 2536: 2529: 2524: 2522: 2514: 2509: 2496: 2495: 2487: 2473: 2469: 2463: 2456: 2451: 2443: 2437: 2432: 2424: 2418: 2413: 2405: 2399: 2394: 2386: 2381:, p. 17. 2380: 2375: 2367: 2361: 2356: 2348: 2342: 2337: 2335: 2326: 2320: 2315: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2288: 2281: 2276: 2274: 2272: 2263: 2257: 2252: 2244: 2238: 2233: 2225: 2219: 2215: 2208: 2200: 2195:, p. 15. 2194: 2189: 2181: 2176:, p. 64. 2175: 2170: 2162: 2157:, p. 16. 2156: 2151: 2143: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2122: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2079: 2072: 2066: 2051: 2049:9781850435334 2045: 2041: 2040: 2032: 2024: 2022:9781782007777 2018: 2014: 2007: 1992:. p. 411 1988: 1986: 1980: 1974: 1966: 1964:9780691195964 1960: 1956: 1952: 1946: 1938: 1936:9780521196055 1932: 1928: 1921: 1914: 1908: 1904: 1898: 1890: 1888:9780300210156 1884: 1880: 1876: 1870: 1862: 1858: 1851: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1808: 1800: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1778: 1770: 1764: 1760: 1759: 1751: 1745: 1743: 1737: 1729: 1725: 1719: 1711: 1705: 1701: 1700: 1692: 1683: 1679: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1654: 1650: 1647: 1643: 1642: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1627: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1566: 1565: 1564: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1523: 1522: 1521: 1519: 1511: 1510: 1509: 1507: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1492: 1490: 1474: 1473: 1472: 1470: 1462: 1461: 1460: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1446: 1444: 1431: 1427: 1426: 1425: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1407:Mediterranean 1392: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1341: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1310:Julius Caesar 1306: 1304: 1300: 1299: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1281: 1279: 1271:146 BC–700 AD 1268: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1233:Sicilian Wars 1230: 1229:Magna Graecia 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1199: 1194: 1185: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1162: 1160: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1129: 1127: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1109: 1105: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1051: 1047: 1040: 1035: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 996: 992: 982: 980: 975: 972:and Tharros, 971: 967: 963: 959: 954: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 910: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 881:and Caralis ( 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 857: 852: 843: 841: 836: 832: 828: 823: 820: 816: 812: 807: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 776: 774: 770: 766: 762: 747: 745: 740: 739: 733: 732: 727: 723: 719: 715: 710: 708: 704: 700: 699:Venus Erycina 696: 692: 688: 684: 679: 673: 667: 661: 655: 650: 646: 641: 635: 629: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 584:, Sakon, and 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 552: 548: 542: 536: 526: 524: 520: 516: 511: 509: 505: 504:British Isles 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 475: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 448: 445: 439: 437: 433: 427: 423: 421: 416: 411: 407: 402: 395: 386: 380: 366: 353: 352:Ancient Greek 348: 347: 340: 339: 334: 330: 315: 306: 304: 300: 295: 290: 288: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 234: 232: 228: 225:, one of the 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 179:North African 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 135:Carthaginians 132: 123: 110: 99: 95: 88: 69: 55: 44: 37: 33: 19: 4713: 4430:Other Celtic 4190:Celtiberians 4014: 3995: 3976: 3957: 3947:Bibliography 3911: 3907: 3896: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3827:11585/830704 3809: 3805: 3798: 3758:(939): 939. 3755: 3751: 3741: 3706: 3702: 3692: 3649: 3643: 3633: 3585:(1): 17567. 3582: 3578: 3567: 3552: 3519:11585/830704 3501: 3497: 3487: 3434: 3430: 3419: 3411:the original 3396: 3385:. Retrieved 3381: 3371: 3351: 3344: 3324: 3317: 3308: 3299: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3263: 3257: 3237: 3230: 3208:(1): 54–63. 3205: 3201: 3191: 3180:. Retrieved 3176: 3167: 3158: 3148: 3126: 3125:. Carthage. 3121: 3111: 3090: 3083: 3071:. Retrieved 3051: 3043: 3018: 3014: 3008: 2988: 2981: 2961: 2954: 2919: 2915: 2905: 2886: 2876: 2866: 2862: 2852: 2840: 2829: 2820: 2801: 2795: 2784:. Retrieved 2774: 2762:, p. 3. 2755: 2736: 2717: 2698: 2657: 2645:. Retrieved 2636: 2629: 2610: 2591: 2572: 2563: 2554: 2535: 2508: 2502:(in Spanish) 2493: 2486: 2475:. Retrieved 2471: 2462: 2450: 2431: 2412: 2393: 2374: 2355: 2314: 2297: 2287: 2251: 2232: 2213: 2207: 2188: 2169: 2150: 2131: 2121: 2088: 2084: 2078: 2070: 2065: 2053:. Retrieved 2038: 2031: 2012: 2006: 1994:. Retrieved 1984: 1981:(Dec 2017). 1973: 1954: 1945: 1926: 1920: 1906: 1897: 1878: 1869: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1787: 1777: 1757: 1750: 1741: 1736: 1727: 1718: 1698: 1691: 1682: 1661: 1658:pomegranates 1651: 1639: 1527: 1517: 1515: 1505: 1502: 1488: 1486: 1468: 1466: 1456: 1454: 1449: 1447: 1440: 1429: 1423: 1415: 1403: 1387:, living in 1383:, Latin, or 1358: 1352: 1348: 1335:(modern-day 1322: 1314:Roman Empire 1307: 1298:Apologeticus 1296: 1282: 1274: 1226: 1202: 1197: 1163: 1155: 1140: 1123: 1101: 1073:North Africa 1043: 1027: 1012: 988: 955: 918: 911: 860: 846:Sardo-Punics 824: 808: 777: 765:Hippo Regius 758: 750:Distribution 743: 735: 729: 718:Hebrew Bible 711: 630: 626:Sardus Pater 551:polytheistic 544: 523:smelted iron 512: 481: 471: 467: 459: 456:Siculo-Punic 455: 451: 449: 441: 435: 431: 425: 396: 329:proper nouns 326: 291: 235: 193:in southern 183:Leptis Magna 166: 162: 138: 134: 131:Punic people 130: 128: 4704:Phoenicians 4586:Lusitanians 4520:Oestriminis 4233:Pellendones 4146:Ilercavones 3288:Ju. op. imp 3073:25 February 2834:. 5.16.2–3. 2831:Bibliotheca 2741:Casula 1994 2722:Casula 1994 2637:Monte Sirai 2174:Fantar 2001 2091:(279): 62. 1979:Quinn, J.C. 1951:Quinn, J.C. 1662:mala punica 1483:ancestry)." 1443:Ancient DNA 1111:city-states 951:Monte Sirai 947:fruit trees 815:El Haouaria 796:Baal Hammon 558:Baal Hammon 490:, Morocco, 464:Hellenistic 460:Sardo-Punic 391:"Phoenices" 379:"Phoinikes" 309:Terminology 201:, southern 181:coast from 157:during the 145:people who 4762:Categories 4744:Portuguese 4608:Bletonesii 4459:Suessetani 4449:Autrigones 4439:Allotriges 4346:Lapatianci 4341:Interamici 4243:Turboletae 4131:Contestani 4116:Castellani 4111:Bergistani 3752:Nat Commun 3387:2019-08-30 3311:. 1.24.34. 3182:2022-12-03 3021:(1): 102. 2845:Dridi 2019 2786:2013-03-26 2647:28 October 2596:Hoyos 2019 2577:Hoyos 2019 2540:Hoyos 2019 2528:Dridi 2019 2513:Dridi 2019 2477:2022-12-03 2455:Dridi 2019 2379:Hoyos 2021 2360:Quinn 2011 2280:Xella 2019 2237:Miles 2010 2193:Hoyos 2021 2155:Hoyos 2021 2128:"Religion" 2055:12 October 1674:References 1602:Hampsicora 1550:colony of 1481:Morocco_LN 1331:, born in 1293:Tertullian 1241:Punic Wars 1188:650–146 BC 1149:, such as 1147:Trojan War 1108:Phoenician 1050:Phoenician 1011:". (Latin 995:Phoenician 974:Hampsicora 964:, under a 899:Iglesiente 831:Althiburos 773:Hadrumetum 736:Tophet of 663:, female: 637:(singular 592:goddesses 547:Phoenician 444:J.C. Quinn 406:Canaanites 299:Punic wars 282:Phoenician 223:Phoenician 185:in modern 167:Phoenician 141:), were a 80:century BC 78: 3rd 4625:Turdetani 4615:Tartessos 4552:Turmodigi 4525:Plentauri 4481:Carpetani 4401:Quaquerni 4208:Cratistii 4156:Indigetes 4151:Ilergetes 4141:Indigetes 4126:Cessetani 4106:Bastetani 3936:247549249 3888:237348841 3844:237348871 3607:2045-2322 3544:237348871 3528:0301-4460 3461:1932-6203 3305:Augustine 3214:0027-4054 3134:cite book 3035:153480218 2946:162479420 2560:Aristotle 2417:Holm 2005 2306:1055-7660 2113:222426941 1903:Augustine 1842:162396151 1560:Levantine 1531:Kerkouane 1349:salvation 1239:in three 1218:Volubilis 1210:Essaouira 1053:merchants 1044:From the 840:onomastic 835:Aristotle 819:Kerkouane 687:Neo-Punic 519:limestone 410:Augustine 385:"Phoenix" 365:"Phoinix" 320:"Phoinix" 151:Phoenicia 4748:Guanches 4678:Aeolians 4673:Achaeans 4630:Mastieni 4603:Vettones 4579:peoples? 4540:Oppidani 4476:Caristii 4471:Cantabri 4416:Tamagani 4386:Nemetati 4376:Namarini 4326:Gallaeci 4316:Coelerni 4266:Albiones 4258:Gallaeci 4213:Lobetani 4171:Sedetani 4166:Laietani 4161:Lacetani 4121:Ceretani 4101:Ausetani 4093:Iberians 4083:Vascones 4078:Iacetani 4065:Aquitani 4015:Carthage 3956:(1985). 3928:37592021 3880:34459338 3836:34459340 3790:32094358 3733:32094539 3684:30872528 3625:30514893 3536:34459340 3479:27224451 3431:PLOS ONE 3355:UNESCO. 3290:. 6.18. 3222:24818326 3119:(1913). 2871:XVI; 216 2564:Politics 1953:(2019). 1911:(see in 1877:(2015). 1863:: 27–29. 1828:: 1–37. 1818:Punickes 1641:Poenulus 1624:See also 1578:Hannibal 1552:Empúries 1539:Sicilian 1535:Mozabite 1520:(2021): 1508:(2021): 1491:(2020): 1471:(2020): 1459:(2018): 1411:European 1395:Genetics 1377:al-Bakri 1333:Thagaste 1253:Hannibal 1159:Carthage 1115:Carthage 1104:Carthage 1069:colonies 1061:artisans 1021:Diodorus 999:𐤀𐤁𐤔𐤌 931:Neapolis 919:Suffetes 883:Cagliari 863:Sardinia 788:Cypriots 738:Salammbô 604:deities 602:Egyptian 529:Religion 508:Canaries 478:Overview 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