19160:
914:
99:
14819:
115:
4841:
15182:
15062:
3048:≈ 15 MK) and density (160 g/cm), the energy release rate is only 276 μW/cm—about a quarter of the volumetric rate at which a resting human body generates heat. Thus, reproduction of stellar core conditions in a lab for nuclear fusion power production is completely impractical. Because nuclear reaction rates depend on density as well as temperature and most fusion schemes operate at relatively low densities, those methods are strongly dependent on higher temperatures. The fusion rate as a function of temperature (exp(−
1713:
15484:
14687:
15650:
14958:
15691:
15455:
15315:
15074:
1238:
15718:
15547:
15496:
15438:
15398:
15357:
15303:
15120:
14699:
1320:. The Sun is a main-sequence star, and, as such, generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen and makes 616 million metric tons of helium each second. The fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it. For example, in the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium, 0.645% of the mass is carried away in the form of kinetic energy of an
65:
14911:
18992:
17575:
927:
15157:
1442:
19016:
10699:, meaning the particles have a range of energies centered around the plasma temperature. The sun, magnetically confined plasmas and inertial confinement fusion systems are well modeled to be in thermal equilibrium. In these cases, the value of interest is the fusion cross-section averaged across the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. The Naval Research Lab's plasma physics formulary tabulates Maxwell averaged fusion cross sections reactivities in
15038:
14923:
14899:
15256:
19172:
10635:
8775:
8494:
7816:
2979:
2682:
2248:
1601:
1473:, including the Sun. In the 20th century, it was recognized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounts for the longevity of stellar heat and light. The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial hydrogen and helium abundance, provides that energy and synthesizes new nuclei. Different reaction chains are involved, depending on the mass of the star (and therefore the pressure and temperature in its core).
142:
15638:
14946:
14787:
1968:
6877:= (4.03 MeV + 3.5 MeV) × 50% + (0.82 MeV) × 50% = 4.2 MeV. (Note: if the tritium ion reacts with a deuteron while it still has a large kinetic energy, then the kinetic energy of the helium-4 produced may be quite different from 3.5 MeV, so this calculation of energy in charged particles is only an approximation of the average.) The amount of energy per deuteron consumed is 2/5 of this, or 5.0 MeV (a
15222:
14999:
14770:
15679:
15662:
15386:
15050:
14982:
19148:
19028:
17563:
15345:
15016:
15615:
15244:
15194:
14875:
14858:
19004:
17587:
2516:
1454:
10080:
8194:
energy by
Bremsstrahlung. However, because the fusion products move much faster than the fuel ions, they will give up a significant fraction of their energy directly to the electrons. Secondly, the ions in the plasma are assumed to be purely fuel ions. In practice, there will be a significant proportion of impurity ions, which will then lower the ratio. In particular, the fusion products themselves
1980:(σ) is a measure of the probability of a fusion reaction as a function of the relative velocity of the two reactant nuclei. If the reactants have a distribution of velocities, e.g. a thermal distribution, then it is useful to perform an average over the distributions of the product of cross-section and velocity. This average is called the 'reactivity', denoted
9829:
8722:
2622:(fusion bombs) inside an underground cavity. As an energy source, the system is the only fusion power system that could be demonstrated to work using existing technology. However, it would also require a large, continuous supply of nuclear bombs, making the economics of such a system rather questionable.
1698:. So, for example, since two neutrons in a nucleus are identical to each other, the goal of distinguishing one from the other, such as which one is in the interior and which is on the surface, is in fact meaningless, and the inclusion of quantum mechanics is therefore necessary for proper calculations.
7911:
The ratio of fusion power produced to x-ray radiation lost to walls is an important figure of merit. This ratio is generally maximized at a much higher temperature than that which maximizes the power density (see the previous subsection). The following table shows estimates of the optimum temperature
7191:
Of course, the reactants should also be mixed in the optimal proportions. This is the case when each reactant ion plus its associated electrons accounts for half the pressure. Assuming that the total pressure is fixed, this means that particle density of the non-hydrogenic ion is smaller than that of
5287:
fusion bomb test in 1954. Being just the second fusion bomb ever tested (and the first to use lithium), the designers of the Castle Bravo "Shrimp" had understood the usefulness of Li in tritium production, but had failed to recognize that Li fission would greatly increase the yield of the bomb. While
3082:
In artificial fusion, the primary fuel is not constrained to be protons and higher temperatures can be used, so reactions with larger cross-sections are chosen. Another concern is the production of neutrons, which activate the reactor structure radiologically, but also have the advantages of allowing
9639:
2862:
A third confinement principle is to apply a rapid pulse of energy to a large part of the surface of a pellet of fusion fuel, causing it to simultaneously "implode" and heat to very high pressure and temperature. If the fuel is dense enough and hot enough, the fusion reaction rate will be high enough
1526:
had also recently shown that the mass of a helium atom was about 0.8% less than the mass of the four hydrogen atoms which would, combined, form a helium atom (according to the then-prevailing theory of atomic structure which held atomic weight to be the distinguishing property between elements; work
1304:
in the nucleus to repel each other. Lighter nuclei (nuclei smaller than iron and nickel) are sufficiently small and proton-poor to allow the nuclear force to overcome the
Coulomb force. This is because the nucleus is sufficiently small that all nucleons feel the short-range attractive force at least
2443:
are particularly relevant to this discussion. These small devices are miniature particle accelerators filled with deuterium and tritium gas in an arrangement that allows ions of those nuclei to be accelerated against hydride targets, also containing deuterium and tritium, where fusion takes place,
8193:
The actual ratios of fusion to
Bremsstrahlung power will likely be significantly lower for several reasons. For one, the calculation assumes that the energy of the fusion products is transmitted completely to the fuel ions, which then lose energy to the electrons by collisions, which in turn lose
2425:
Accelerating light ions is relatively easy, and can be done in an efficient manner—requiring only a vacuum tube, a pair of electrodes, and a high-voltage transformer; fusion can be observed with as little as 10 kV between the electrodes. The system can be arranged to accelerate ions into a static
1963:
is 13.6 eV. The (intermediate) result of the fusion is an unstable He nucleus, which immediately ejects a neutron with 14.1 MeV. The recoil energy of the remaining He nucleus is 3.5 MeV, so the total energy liberated is 17.6 MeV. This is many times more than what was needed to
7907:
for x-rays of this energy range. X-rays are difficult to reflect but they are effectively absorbed (and converted into heat) in less than mm thickness of stainless steel (which is part of a reactor's shield). This means the bremsstrahlung process is carrying energy out of the plasma, cooling it.
2455:
to capture ions into circular orbits and return them to the reaction area. Theoretical calculations made during funding reviews pointed out that the system would have significant difficulty scaling up to contain enough fusion fuel to be relevant as a power source. In the 1990s, a new arrangement
1915:
cannot exist in the same nucleus in exactly the same state. Each proton or neutron's energy state in a nucleus can accommodate both a spin up particle and a spin down particle. Helium-4 has an anomalously large binding energy because its nucleus consists of two protons and two neutrons (it is a
1688:
is added to a nucleus, the nuclear force attracts it to all the other nucleons of the nucleus (if the atom is small enough), but primarily to its immediate neighbors due to the short range of the force. The nucleons in the interior of a nucleus have more neighboring nucleons than those on the
7263:
for non-hydrogenic fuels arising from the fact that they require more electrons, which take up pressure without participating in the fusion reaction. (It is usually a good assumption that the electron temperature will be nearly equal to the ion temperature. Some authors, however, discuss the
8202:
remain for some time after that in any proposed confinement scheme. Finally, all channels of energy loss other than
Bremsstrahlung have been neglected. The last two factors are related. On theoretical and experimental grounds, particle and energy confinement seem to be closely related. In a
10620:
8554:
In a classical picture, nuclei can be understood as hard spheres that repel each other through the
Coulomb force but fuse once the two spheres come close enough for contact. Estimating the radius of an atomic nuclei as about one femtometer, the energy needed for fusion of two hydrogen is:
4942:
For reactions with two products, the energy is divided between them in inverse proportion to their masses, as shown. In most reactions with three products, the distribution of energy varies. For reactions that can result in more than one set of products, the branching ratios are given.
1720:
between the positively charged nuclei is repulsive, but when the separation is small enough, the quantum effect will tunnel through the wall. Therefore, the prerequisite for fusion is that the two nuclei be brought close enough together for a long enough time for quantum tunneling to
7163:
of the reaction, the fraction of the fusion energy released as neutrons. This is an important indicator of the magnitude of the problems associated with neutrons like radiation damage, biological shielding, remote handling, and safety. For the first two reactions it is calculated as
1920:
nucleus), so all four of its nucleons can be in the ground state. Any additional nucleons would have to go into higher energy states. Indeed, the helium-4 nucleus is so tightly bound that it is commonly treated as a single quantum mechanical particle in nuclear physics, namely, the
9062:
2937:. This device has a cathode inside an anode wire cage. Positive ions fly towards the negative inner cage, and are heated by the electric field in the process. If they miss the inner cage they can collide and fuse. Ions typically hit the cathode, however, creating prohibitory high
2390:. The nuclei do not actually have to have enough energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier completely. If they have nearly enough energy, they can tunnel through the remaining barrier. For these reasons fuel at lower temperatures will still undergo fusion events, at a lower rate.
3194:
At anything less than stellar densities, three-body collisions are too improbable. In inertial confinement, both stellar densities and temperatures are exceeded to compensate for the shortcomings of the third parameter of the Lawson criterion, ICF's very short confinement
2945:
are very low due to competing physical effects, such as energy loss in the form of light radiation. Designs have been proposed to avoid the problems associated with the cage, by generating the field using a non-neutral cloud. These include a plasma oscillating device, a
11628:
11463:
5743:
in reaction (9) before completely thermalizing. This produces an energetic proton, which in turn undergoes reaction (8) before thermalizing. Detailed analysis shows that this idea would not work well, but it is a good example of a case where the usual assumption of a
1971:
The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvin) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion
2434:
fusion. The key problem with accelerator-based fusion (and with cold targets in general) is that fusion cross sections are many orders of magnitude lower than
Coulomb interaction cross-sections. Therefore, the vast majority of ions expend their energy emitting
1535:
would later show that nucleic charge was the distinguishing property and that a helium nucleus, therefore, consisted of two hydrogen nuclei plus additional mass). This suggested that if such a combination could happen, it would release considerable energy as a
10075:{\displaystyle S^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )={\frac {A_{1}+\epsilon {\bigg (}A_{2}+\epsilon {\big (}A_{3}+\epsilon (A_{4}+\epsilon A_{5}){\big )}{\bigg )}}{1+\epsilon {\bigg (}B_{1}+\epsilon {\big (}B_{2}+\epsilon (B_{3}+\epsilon B_{4}){\big )}{\bigg )}}}}
9425:
2658:. Also, high temperatures imply high pressures. The plasma tends to expand immediately and some force is necessary to act against it. This force can take one of three forms: gravitation in stars, magnetic forces in magnetic confinement fusion reactors, or
8561:
1202:(toroid designs) and inertial confinement (laser designs). Workable designs for a toroidal reactor that theoretically will deliver ten times more fusion energy than the amount needed to heat plasma to the required temperatures are in development (see
1928:
The situation is similar if two nuclei are brought together. As they approach each other, all the protons in one nucleus repel all the protons in the other. Not until the two nuclei actually come close enough for long enough so the strong attractive
14884:
1578:
and other processes are more important. As a star uses up a substantial fraction of its hydrogen, it begins to synthesize heavier elements. The heaviest elements are synthesized by fusion that occurs when a more massive star undergoes a violent
1206:). The ITER facility is expected to finish its construction phase in 2025. It will start commissioning the reactor that same year and initiate plasma experiments in 2025, but is not expected to begin full deuterium–tritium fusion until 2035.
5295:. Any given fusion device has a maximum plasma pressure it can sustain, and an economical device would always operate near this maximum. Given this pressure, the largest fusion output is obtained when the temperature is chosen so that
1339:
grows rapidly once the nuclei are close enough, and the fusing nucleons can essentially "fall" into each other and the result is fusion and net energy produced. The fusion of lighter nuclei, which creates a heavier nucleus and often a
9452:
8470:
the
Bremsstrahlung losses appear to make a fusion reactor using these fuels with a quasineutral, isotropic plasma impossible. Some ways out of this dilemma have been considered but rejected. This limitation does not apply to
2590:. Although it makes a useful neutron generator, the apparatus is not intended for power generation since it requires far more energy than it produces. D–T fusion reactions have been observed with a tritiated erbium target.
9265:
10522:
8896:
7264:
possibility that the electrons could be maintained substantially colder than the ions. In such a case, known as a "hot ion mode", the "penalty" would not apply.) There is at the same time a "bonus" of a factor 2 for
1170:
While fusion was achieved in the operation of the hydrogen bomb (H-bomb), the reaction must be controlled and sustained in order for it to be a useful energy source. Research into developing controlled fusion inside
1542:
Further elements might also be fused, and other scientists had speculated that stars were the "crucible" in which light elements combined to create heavy elements, but without more accurate measurements of their
2308:
Thermonuclear fusion is the process of atomic nuclei combining or "fusing" using high temperatures to drive them close enough together for this to become possible. Such temperatures cause the matter to become a
1194:
announced that on 5 December 2022, they had successfully accomplished break-even fusion, "delivering 2.05 megajoules (MJ) of energy to the target, resulting in 3.15 MJ of fusion energy output."
8968:
2802:
also form these elements in the outer parts of the stars over long periods of time, by absorbing energy from fusion in the inside of the star, by absorbing neutrons that are emitted from the fusion process.
9170:
5288:
Li has a small neutron cross-section for low neutron energies, it has a higher cross section above 5 MeV. The 15 Mt yield was 150% greater than the predicted 6 Mt and caused unexpected exposure to fallout.
2653:
The key problem in achieving thermonuclear fusion is how to confine the hot plasma. Due to the high temperature, the plasma cannot be in direct contact with any solid material, so it has to be located in a
1693:
generally increases with the size of the nucleus but approaches a limiting value corresponding to that of a nucleus with a diameter of about four nucleons. It is important to keep in mind that nucleons are
7649:
is taken from a previous table. The "penalty/bonus" factor is that related to a non-hydrogenic reactant or a single-species reaction. The values in the column "inverse reactivity" are found by dividing
2381:
kinetic energy, implying that some nuclei at this temperature would actually have much higher energy than 0.1 MeV, while others would be much lower. It is the nuclei in the high-energy tail of the
2444:
releasing a flux of neutrons. Hundreds of neutron generators are produced annually for use in the petroleum industry where they are used in measurement equipment for locating and mapping oil reserves.
2863:
to burn a significant fraction of the fuel before it has dissipated. To achieve these extreme conditions, the initially cold fuel must be explosively compressed. Inertial confinement is used in the
11471:
11306:
1737:
becomes negative and very heavy nuclei (all with more than 208 nucleons, corresponding to a diameter of about 6 nucleons) are not stable. The four most tightly bound nuclei, in decreasing order of
2059:
1539:
If a star contained just 5% of fusible hydrogen, it would suffice to explain how stars got their energy. (It is now known that most 'ordinary' stars are usually made of around 70% to 75% hydrogen)
8206:
The temperatures maximizing the fusion power compared to the
Bremsstrahlung are in every case higher than the temperature that maximizes the power density and minimizes the required value of the
1520:
The only other known plausible source of energy was conversion of matter to energy; Einstein had shown some years earlier that a small amount of matter was equivalent to a large amount of energy.
12755:
J. Slough, G. Votroubek, and C. Pihl, "Creation of a high-temperature plasma through merging and compression of supersonic field reversed configuration plasmoids" Nucl. Fusion 51,053008 (2011).
12381:
8847:, which describes the probability that particles will fuse by giving a characteristic area of interaction. An estimation of the fusion cross-sectional area is often broken into three pieces:
7188:. For the last two reactions, where this calculation would give zero, the values quoted are rough estimates based on side reactions that produce neutrons in a plasma in thermal equilibrium.
13178:"Stable, thermal equilibrium, large-amplitude, spherical plasma oscillations in electrostatic confinement devices", DC Barnes and Rick Nebel, PHYSICS OF PLASMAS VOLUME 5, NUMBER 7 JULY 1998
12679:
8717:{\displaystyle E_{\ce {thresh}}={\frac {1}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}{\frac {Z_{1}Z_{2}}{r}}{\ce {->}}{\frac {1}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}{\frac {e^{2}}{1\ {\ce {fm}}}}\approx 1.4\ {\ce {MeV}}}
10500:
8963:
8926:
1209:
Private companies pursuing the commercialization of nuclear fusion received $ 2.6 billion in private funding in 2021 alone, going to many notable startups including but not limited to
16338:
9345:
8203:
confinement scheme that does a good job of retaining energy, fusion products will build up. If the fusion products are efficiently ejected, then energy confinement will be poor, too.
2213:
2165:
1484:. At that time, the source of stellar energy was unknown; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to
12038:
Landsberg, G.; Mandelstam, L. (1928). "Eine neue
Erscheinung bei der Lichtzerstreuung in Krystallen" [A new phenomenon in the case of the scattering of light in crystals].
11298:
9277:
contains all the nuclear physics of the specific reaction and takes very different values depending on the nature of the interaction. However, for most reactions, the variation of
12120:
Atkinson, R. d'E.; Houtermans, F. G. (1929). "Zur Frage der
Aufbaumöglichkeit der Elemente in Sternen" [On the question of the possibility of forming elements in stars].
10737:
14017:
12025:Ландсберг, Г.С.; Мандельштам, Л.И. (1928). "Новое явление в рассеянии света (предварительный отчет)" [A new phenomenon in the scattering of light (preliminary report)].
1305:
as strongly as they feel the infinite-range Coulomb repulsion. Building up nuclei from lighter nuclei by fusion releases the extra energy from the net attraction of particles.
16924:
1661:
A substantial energy barrier of electrostatic forces must be overcome before fusion can occur. At large distances, two naked nuclei repel one another because of the repulsive
1198:
Prior to this breakthrough, controlled fusion reactions had been unable to produce break-even (self-sustaining) controlled fusion. The two most advanced approaches for it are
13187:
Carr, M.; Khachan, J. (2013). "A biased probe analysis of potential well formation in an electron only, low beta Polywell magnetic field". Physics of Plasmas 20 (5): 052504.
11947:
11909:
5096:
In addition to the fusion reactions, the following reactions with neutrons are important in order to "breed" tritium in "dry" fusion bombs and some proposed fusion reactors:
12299:
1497:. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy had not yet been discovered, nor even that stars are largely composed of
13238:
10132:
2891:
to compress a fuel to fusion conditions. The UTIAS explosive-driven-implosion facility was used to produce stable, centred and focused hemispherical implosions to generate
9337:
9304:
1725:
The net result of the opposing electrostatic and strong nuclear forces is that the binding energy per nucleon generally increases with increasing size, up to the elements
11807:
7899:
The huge size of the Sun and stars means that the x-rays produced in this process will not escape and will deposit their energy back into the plasma. They are said to be
7252:
reaction has only one reactant, its rate is twice as high as when the fuel is divided between two different hydrogenic species, thus creating a more efficient reaction.
2099:
9109:
8759:
5335:). (A plasma is "ignited" if the fusion reactions produce enough power to maintain the temperature without external heating.) This optimum temperature and the value of
2223:. This is an extremely challenging barrier to overcome on Earth, which explains why fusion research has taken many years to reach the current advanced technical state.
12187:
2134:
17118:
2806:
All of the elements heavier than iron have some potential energy to release, in theory. At the extremely heavy end of element production, these heavier elements can
13153:
9089:
2313:
and, if confined, fusion reactions may occur due to collisions with extreme thermal kinetic energies of the particles. There are two forms of thermonuclear fusion:
13897:
1709:
the other protons in the nucleus. The electrostatic energy per nucleon due to the electrostatic force thus increases without limit as nuclei atomic number grows.
9339:, which is weakly varying in energy. Putting these dependencies together, one approximation for the fusion cross section as a function of energy takes the form:
6557:
reaction entails some difficulties, though. To begin with, one must average over the two branches (2i) and (2ii). More difficult is to decide how to treat the
13120:
9634:{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\text{NRL}}(\epsilon )={\frac {A_{5}+{\big (}(A_{4}-A_{3}\epsilon )^{2}+1{\big )}^{-1}A_{2}}{\epsilon (e^{A_{1}\epsilon ^{-1/2}}-1)}}}
16526:
13062:
2840:). The fusion fuel can therefore be trapped using a strong magnetic field. A variety of magnetic configurations exist, including the toroidal geometries of
1669:
protons. If two nuclei can be brought close enough together, however, the electrostatic repulsion can be overcome by the quantum effect in which nuclei can
15134:
1190:
fusion; the first large-scale laser target experiments were performed in June 2009 and ignition experiments began in early 2011. On 13 December 2022, the
5291:
To evaluate the usefulness of these reactions, in addition to the reactants, the products, and the energy released, one needs to know something about the
16053:
15744:
14791:
1948:
is not stable, so neutrons must also be involved, ideally in such a way that a helium nucleus, with its extremely tight binding, is one of the products.
1135:
of light elements to demonstrate that large amounts of energy could be released by fusing small nuclei. Building on the early experiments in artificial
16348:
12819:
13985:
13483:
12373:
2447:
A number of attempts to recirculate the ions that "miss" collisions have been made over the years. One of the better-known attempts in the 1970s was
13771:(and using relative masses of 1, 3, and 4 for the neutron, tritium, and helium) then the energy of the helium can be anything from /25 to /25. For E
17229:
10615:{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )={\frac {S^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )}{\epsilon \exp(\epsilon _{G}/{\sqrt {\epsilon }})}}}
5047:> 1 MeV, but at such high temperatures an endothermic, direct neutron-producing reaction also becomes very significant. Finally there is also a
13833:
13169:
Ion Flow and Fusion Reactivity, Characterization of a Spherically convergent ion Focus. PhD Thesis, Dr. Timothy A Thorson, Wisconsin-Madison 1996.
2526:
17374:
14967:
14779:
12764:
A. Asle Zaeem et al "Aneutronic Fusion in Collision of Oppositely Directed Plasmoids" Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 378–386 (2018).
9175:
8835:
The probability that fusion occurs is greatly increased compared to the classical picture, thanks to the smearing of the effective radius as the
2329:, where the fusion reactions take place in an environment allowing some or all of the energy released to be harnessed for constructive purposes.
13393:
3044:
At the temperatures and densities in stellar cores, the rates of fusion reactions are notoriously slow. For example, at solar core temperature (
1331:. When accelerated to high enough speeds, nuclei can overcome this electrostatic repulsion and be brought close enough such that the attractive
12653:
8853:
12671:
7888:. The electrons will generally have a temperature comparable to or greater than that of the ions, so they will collide with the ions and emit
18012:
16033:
14828:
2537:
16355:
15786:
2608:
during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to the delays in the realization of pure fusion.
9057:{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}\approx \lambda ^{2}={\bigg (}{\frac {\hbar }{m_{r}v}}{\bigg )}^{2}\propto {\frac {1}{\epsilon }}}
2961:. Starting in 1999, a number of amateurs have been able to do amateur fusion using these homemade devices. Other IEC devices include: the
17997:
15265:
14142:
14061:
13430:
12482:
8252:
very much because the Bremsstrahlung fraction is low, but it will push the other fuels into regimes where the power density relative to
16121:
14134:
6498:
production. In addition to the temperature and cross section discussed above, we must consider the total energy of the fusion products
2794:. Therefore, significant amounts of heavier elements are not formed during stable periods of massive star evolution, but are formed in
107:
is a collaboration of 33 countries researching fusion for eventual electricity generation. It is expected to complete assembly in 2033.
14106:
13300:
12734:
12075:
Landsberg, G.S.; Mandelstam, L.I. (1928). "Über die Lichtzerstreuung in Kristallen" [On the scattering of light in crystals].
7711:
and gives an indication of how much more difficult it is to achieve ignition with these reactions, relative to the difficulty for the
16624:
13808:
9120:
5761:
4929:
958:
872:
16863:
19066:
14691:
11927:
11889:
12295:
18105:
17074:
16914:
16853:
15149:
15088:
13242:
12935:
6728:
gets burned up and adds its energy to the net reaction, which means the total reaction would be the sum of (2i), (2ii), and (1):
2495:
in the early 1980s. Net energy production from this reaction has been unsuccessful because of the high energy required to create
2468:
as of 2021. A closely related approach is to merge two FRC's rotating in opposite directions, which is being actively studied by
1509:
The leading theory of stellar energy, the contraction hypothesis, should cause the rotation of a star to visibly speed up due to
16994:
7658:
by the product of the second and third columns. It indicates the factor by which the other reactions occur more slowly than the
1933:
can take over and overcome the repulsive electrostatic force. This can also be described as the nuclei overcoming the so-called
18725:
17966:
16819:
15447:
15407:
14762:
14181:
11792:
11623:{\displaystyle ({\overline {\sigma v}})_{DT}=3.68\times 10^{-12}\cdot T^{-2/3}\cdot e^{-19.94\ T^{-1/3}}\mathrm {~{cm}^{3}/s} }
11458:{\displaystyle ({\overline {\sigma v}})_{DD}=2.33\times 10^{-14}\cdot T^{-2/3}\cdot e^{-18.76\ T^{-1/3}}\mathrm {~{cm}^{3}/s} }
5765:
2662:
as the fusion reaction may occur before the plasma starts to expand, so the plasma's inertia is keeping the material together.
1053:
process), while the fusion of heavier nuclei results in energy retained by the product nucleons, and the resulting reaction is
1007:
12977:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
18769:
18444:
16048:
14823:
14100:
14021:
13937:
13380:"The Multiple Ambipolar Recirculating Beam Line Experiment" Poster presentation, 2011 US-Japan IEC conference, Dr. Alex Klein
13324:"Experimental Observation of a Periodically Oscillating Plasma Sphere in a Gridded Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device"
12720:
12515:
12418:
11647:
2559:
12521:
12183:
3111:
17992:
17961:
17906:
16870:
2006:
12899:
18911:
17625:
17591:
16787:
16333:
16298:
14735:
13150:
221:
15066:
13918:
13901:
2871:
created by a fission bomb. Inertial confinement is also attempted in "controlled" nuclear fusion, where the driver is a
2521:
17941:
17485:
17069:
14552:
14047:
13416:
12882:
12436:
10696:
9306:
is small compared to the variation from the Gamow factor and so is approximated by a function called the astrophysical
6870:= (4.03 MeV + 17.6 MeV) × 50% + (3.27 MeV) × 50% = 12.5 MeV and the energy in charged particles as
5757:
5745:
2926:
2920:
2907:, where a plane diaphragm was driven by the implosion wave into a secondary small spherical cavity that contained pure
2636:
which rose to prominence in the early 2000s. Subsequent attempts at replication failed and the principal investigator,
1425:, is more energetic per unit of mass than nuclear fusion. (The complete conversion of one gram of matter would release
1191:
12828:
Naranjo, B.; Gimzewski, J.K.; Putterman, S. (2005). "Observation of nuclear fusion driven by a pyroelectric crystal".
11758:
1409:
fusion ones, which are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions. Only direct conversion of
16149:
16028:
14229:
14055:
13465:
13424:
11971:
Hund, F. (October 1927). "Zur Deutung der Molekelspektren. I." [On the explanation of molecular spectra I.].
10682:
8822:
8541:
7863:
3056:)), leads to the need to achieve temperatures in terrestrial reactors 10–100 times higher than in stellar interiors:
3026:
2729:
2593:
2364:
2295:
1648:
13137:
12351:
10664:
8804:
8523:
7845:
7200:. Therefore, the rate for these reactions is reduced by the same factor, on top of any differences in the values of
3008:
2711:
2277:
1689:
surface. Since smaller nuclei have a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio, the binding energy per nucleon due to the
1630:
1558:
reaction), which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four
1151:
in 1932. In the remainder of that decade, the theory of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars was worked out by
18852:
18007:
17379:
17244:
15779:
15083:
14509:
13117:
1510:
1027:
525:
19159:
13785:
Rider, Todd Harrison (1995). "Fundamental Limitations on Plasma Fusion Systems not in Thermodynamic Equilibrium".
13054:
6926:
reaction is that there is only one reactant, which must be taken into account when calculating the reaction rate.
2774:, after the supply of hydrogen is exhausted in their cores, their cores (or a shell around the core) start fusing
2336:
of particles, so by heating the material it will gain energy. After reaching sufficient temperature, given by the
1554:
The primary source of solar energy, and that of similar size stars, is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium (the
913:
17322:
17156:
16758:
16636:
16293:
16154:
15749:
15591:
14725:
10656:
9420:{\displaystyle \sigma (\epsilon )\approx {\frac {S(\epsilon )}{\epsilon }}e^{-{\sqrt {\epsilon _{G}/\epsilon }}}}
8796:
8515:
7837:
3000:
2895:
from D-D reactions. The simplest and most direct method proved to be in a predetonated stoichiometric mixture of
2703:
2383:
2269:
1622:
717:
13269:
13104:
12958:
12329:
6821:
For calculating the power of a reactor (in which the reaction rate is determined by the D–D step), we count the
2814:. Nuclear fission thus releases energy that has been stored, sometimes billions of years before, during stellar
2552:
feasible. This is not near becoming a practical power source, due to the cost of manufacturing antimatter alone.
1309:, however, no energy is released, because the nuclear force is short-range and cannot act across larger nuclei.
18862:
17312:
17161:
16619:
15139:
13359:
12588:
12238:
11871:
10660:
10466:
9446:
as a function of the energy (in keV) of the incident particle towards a target ion at rest fit by the formula:
8941:
8904:
8800:
8519:
7841:
7760:. The final column indicates how much lower the fusion power density of the other reactions is compared to the
3184:
This is because the electrostatic repulsion that must be overcome before the nuclei are close enough to fuse (
3004:
2707:
2615:
2273:
1626:
422:
15270:
5314:
2618:(LANL) in the mid-1970s, explored the possibility of a fusion power system that would involve exploding small
2363:. Converting between energy and temperature shows that the 0.1 MeV barrier would be overcome at a temperature
2189:
2141:
18073:
17086:
16919:
16343:
16271:
15078:
14986:
13087:
12014:
4922:
1018:
between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Nuclear fusion is the process that powers active or
951:
17:
13993:
13745:
12816:
8843:
through the potential barrier. To determine the rate of fusion reactions, the value of most interest is the
2787:
1281:
The release of energy with the fusion of light elements is due to the interplay of two opposing forces: the
19059:
19032:
18392:
17429:
17166:
16875:
16629:
16126:
15566:
15505:
14413:
13480:
12018:
11272:
2457:
2352:
1124:
3201:
This allows simultaneous conservation of energy and momentum without relying on the electromagnetic force.
19197:
18951:
18210:
18098:
17829:
17579:
17492:
17464:
17421:
17386:
17224:
17051:
16989:
16814:
16718:
16604:
16072:
15772:
15520:
15442:
15412:
14752:
14745:
14632:
14537:
14524:
14405:
13731:
13216:
10702:
2857:
2827:
2064:
If a species of nuclei is reacting with a nucleus like itself, such as the DD reaction, then the product
1485:
1410:
1262:
1210:
1199:
1183:
735:
705:
206:
13822:
13756:
2954:. The technology is relatively immature, however, and many scientific and engineering questions remain.
1955:
fuel, the resulting energy barrier is about 0.1 MeV. In comparison, the energy needed to remove an
1937:. The kinetic energy to achieve this can be lower than the barrier itself because of quantum tunneling.
19212:
19202:
19138:
18061:
17916:
17889:
17413:
17272:
16951:
16469:
16426:
16278:
15576:
15124:
14991:
14730:
14621:
14597:
14224:
14219:
14174:
13929:
11732:
11682:
1179:
1098:
782:
332:
14128:
12184:"Nuclear fusion could give the world a limitless source of clean energy. We're closer than ever to it"
12163:
Oliphant, M.L.E.; Harteck, P.; Rutherford, E. (1934). "100 kilovolt discharges in deuterium plasmas".
1670:
98:
19152:
18857:
18715:
18377:
18322:
18302:
18297:
17946:
17799:
17567:
17249:
16858:
16641:
15500:
15349:
14663:
14267:
13709:
13389:
8761:, that is, fusion would never occur. However, fusion in the sun does occur due to quantum mechanics.
7876:
The ions undergoing fusion in many systems will essentially never occur alone but will be mixed with
7753:
reaction. The next-to-last column is labeled "power density" and weights the practical reactivity by
4860:
2597:
1912:
1584:
668:
12650:
1006:). The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or
19217:
19207:
18786:
18130:
17884:
17794:
17658:
17497:
17339:
17239:
17151:
16360:
16246:
16206:
16018:
15417:
15319:
15025:
14514:
12260:
Kramer, David (March 2011). "DOE looks again at inertial fusion as potential clean-energy source".
10645:
10110:
8785:
8504:
7826:
5705:
reaction if the energies are "right". An elegant idea is to combine the reactions (8) and (9). The
4946:
Some reaction candidates can be eliminated at once. The D–Li reaction has no advantage compared to
4915:
4855:
2989:
2692:
2545:
2258:
1611:
944:
931:
663:
367:
36:
9313:
9280:
2167:
increases from virtually zero at room temperatures up to meaningful magnitudes at temperatures of
1041:
will generally release energy. These elements have a relatively small mass and a relatively large
19192:
19052:
19008:
18946:
18931:
18327:
18307:
17824:
17618:
17402:
17369:
17344:
16958:
16735:
16541:
16464:
16421:
16404:
16365:
16288:
15727:
15473:
15402:
15361:
15129:
14501:
14386:
14361:
14317:
13192:
10649:
9823:. With energy in units of keV and cross sections in units of millibarn, the factor has the form:
9430:
More detailed forms of the cross-section can be derived through nuclear physics-based models and
8844:
8789:
8508:
7830:
6614:
burns so well in a deuterium plasma that it is almost impossible to extract from the plasma. The
4850:
2993:
2783:
2771:
2696:
2671:
2262:
1977:
1615:
1555:
1466:
1446:
1344:
or proton, generally releases more energy than it takes to force the nuclei together; this is an
1112:
658:
555:
520:
216:
17327:
12975:
Naranjo, B.; Putterman, S.; Venhaus, T. (2011). "Pyroelectric fusion using a tritiated target".
2067:
19094:
18459:
18355:
18282:
18272:
18153:
18091:
18065:
17976:
17650:
17234:
16521:
16065:
15288:
14668:
14435:
14381:
14366:
11727:
11687:
9094:
8734:
8728:
2582:
deuteride target. At the estimated energy levels, the D–D fusion reaction may occur, producing
1944:
is smallest for isotopes of hydrogen, as their nuclei contain only a single positive charge. A
1532:
1104:
1015:
712:
362:
327:
119:
14139:
14041:
13410:
12404:
2400:. If thermonuclear fusion becomes favorable to use, it would significantly reduce the world's
18399:
18190:
18069:
17804:
17528:
17264:
17219:
16681:
16609:
16536:
16531:
16496:
16283:
16251:
16038:
15965:
15324:
15020:
14740:
14602:
14585:
14167:
13085:
Conjectured Metastable Super-Explosives formed under High Pressure for Thermonuclear Ignition
12454:
5292:
4865:
2544:
to trigger a tiny fusion explosion. This has been studied primarily in the context of making
2488:
2413:
2104:
1523:
1136:
837:
722:
614:
43:
13858:
Bosch, H. S (1993). "Improved formulas for fusion cross-sections and thermal reactivities".
13292:
8731:
with a temperature of around 1.4 keV, the probability hydrogen would reach the threshold is
4971:
because it is roughly as difficult to burn but produces substantially more neutrons through
3211:
Few reactions meet these criteria. The following are those with the largest cross sections:
2373:
There are two effects that are needed to lower the actual temperature. One is the fact that
777:
19089:
18847:
18820:
18798:
18705:
18638:
18387:
18317:
18262:
17926:
17814:
17771:
17721:
17439:
17214:
17199:
16516:
16474:
16310:
16216:
16144:
15334:
15203:
14950:
14445:
14376:
14329:
14277:
14135:
Annotated bibliography for nuclear fusion from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
14078:
13790:
13335:
13188:
12984:
12837:
12783:
12702:
12623:
12556:
12466:
12269:
12222:
12129:
12084:
12047:
11980:
11939:
11901:
11845:
11737:
11677:
9819:
Bosch-Hale also reports a R-matrix calculated cross sections fitting observation data with
9271:
and comes from estimating the quantum tunneling probability through the potential barrier.
9067:
2775:
2419:
2318:
1480:
anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper
1156:
1144:
847:
822:
639:
12817:
Supplementary methods for "Observation of nuclear fusion driven by a pyroelectric crystal"
1327:
It takes considerable energy to force nuclei to fuse, even those of the lightest element,
1175:
has been ongoing since the 1930s, but the technology is still in its developmental phase.
8:
18926:
18869:
18791:
18764:
18449:
18312:
18287:
18043:
17921:
17834:
17538:
17349:
17134:
16728:
16596:
16574:
16399:
16256:
16023:
15985:
15818:
15144:
14607:
8472:
2904:
2641:
2555:
1717:
1662:
1345:
995:
742:
621:
515:
458:
451:
441:
382:
377:
211:
114:
18002:
13794:
13339:
12988:
12841:
12787:
12627:
12560:
12470:
12374:"Nuclear Fusion Breakthrough Set to Send Billions of Dollars Flowing to Atomic Startups"
12273:
12226:
12133:
12088:
12051:
11984:
11943:
11905:
11849:
9820:
3096:
To be a useful energy source, a fusion reaction must satisfy several criteria. It must:
2837:
2750:. The mass needed, however, is so great that gravitational confinement is only found in
2439:
radiation and the ionization of atoms of the target. Devices referred to as sealed-tube
19104:
18906:
18884:
18874:
18710:
18038:
17859:
17839:
17819:
17703:
17611:
17518:
17254:
17091:
17018:
16829:
16479:
16449:
16433:
16416:
16060:
15950:
15898:
15848:
15795:
15226:
14972:
14927:
14796:
14708:
14440:
13969:
13875:
12861:
12799:
12726:
12572:
12211:"The National Ignition Facility: Ushering in a new age for high energy density science"
12145:
12100:
12063:
11996:
11863:
11788:
11722:
2888:
2477:
2387:
1869:
1822:
1702:
1286:
1023:
1019:
685:
680:
495:
75:
15666:
14159:
12932:
4840:
2491:
is a fusion process that occurs at ordinary temperatures. It was studied in detail by
2422:
to achieve particle kinetic energies sufficient to induce light-ion fusion reactions.
19015:
18808:
18633:
18494:
18454:
18424:
18409:
18382:
18292:
18195:
18135:
18125:
17931:
17809:
17746:
17711:
16586:
16379:
16266:
16241:
16179:
16136:
15980:
15975:
15970:
15813:
14491:
14472:
14339:
14239:
14234:
14096:
14051:
13933:
13871:
13461:
13420:
13351:
13035:
12853:
12730:
12716:
12580:
12511:
12414:
12149:
12104:
12000:
11672:
8840:
7881:
7160:
5769:
3088:
2938:
2440:
1368:
1356:
1160:
1116:
857:
852:
812:
690:
429:
417:
400:
372:
342:
183:
13973:
13879:
12803:
12507:
Building for a Changing Climate: The Challenge for Construction, Planning and Energy
12067:
11867:
7302:
because each ion can react with any of the other ions, not just a fraction of them.
5309:
is a maximum. This is also the temperature at which the value of the triple product
2810:
in the process of being split again back toward the size of iron, in the process of
1574:(which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. In heavier stars, the
18967:
18941:
18936:
18916:
18901:
18742:
18732:
18512:
18439:
18175:
17936:
17434:
16489:
16454:
16211:
16201:
16089:
16077:
15918:
15913:
15903:
15893:
15888:
15654:
15390:
15231:
14862:
14720:
14542:
14418:
14287:
14272:
14088:
13961:
13956:
13867:
13343:
13196:
13025:
13016:
12992:
12865:
12845:
12791:
12708:
12631:
12564:
12478:
12474:
12277:
12230:
12137:
12092:
12055:
11988:
11853:
9442:
The Naval Research Lab's plasma physics formulary gives the total cross section in
8207:
7900:
7885:
7701:
5332:
2743:
2637:
2633:
2549:
2465:
2401:
2341:
2337:
2317:, in which the resulting energy is released in an uncontrolled manner, as it is in
2220:
2216:
1872:
more common. This is due to the fact that there is no easy way for stars to create
1846:
1477:
1352:
1294:
1222:
1140:
1128:
1108:
1086:
975:
877:
867:
797:
550:
468:
436:
256:
188:
14010:
13347:
6929:
With this choice, we tabulate parameters for four of the most important reactions
5349:
at that temperature is given for a few of these reactions in the following table.
1163:. Self-sustaining nuclear fusion was first carried out on 1 November 1952, in the
18996:
18977:
18891:
18658:
18573:
18429:
18419:
18404:
18362:
18267:
18217:
18168:
18048:
18033:
17849:
17761:
17751:
17603:
17332:
17292:
16746:
16560:
16484:
16459:
16305:
16098:
16000:
15990:
15955:
15833:
15823:
15571:
15375:
15236:
14962:
14903:
14867:
14713:
14423:
14371:
14257:
14146:
13809:
Fundamental limitations on plasma fusion systems not in thermodynamic equilibrium
13487:
13457:
13397:
13157:
13124:
13091:
12962:
12939:
12886:
12823:
12657:
12505:
12440:
11707:
11702:
6878:
6652:
reaction is optimized at a much higher temperature, so the burnup at the optimum
5610:
Note that many of the reactions form chains. For instance, a reactor fueled with
4903:
4832:
3185:
3077:
2815:
2811:
2601:
2563:
2492:
2473:
2461:
2356:
2345:
1941:
1934:
1695:
1666:
1398:
1317:
1298:
1172:
1058:
862:
842:
817:
747:
634:
562:
508:
473:
133:
90:. In its core, the Sun fuses about 600 billion kilograms of hydrogen each second.
50:
31:
This article is about the nuclear reaction. For its use in producing energy, see
16824:
12568:
1712:
19164:
18972:
18921:
18896:
18700:
18665:
18598:
18588:
18504:
18484:
18479:
18464:
18434:
18414:
18372:
18350:
18332:
18232:
18222:
18158:
17896:
17854:
17844:
17766:
17726:
17287:
17282:
17277:
17027:
16934:
16903:
16885:
16409:
16315:
16261:
16226:
16159:
16106:
15960:
15853:
15828:
15488:
15054:
14262:
14214:
13981:
12996:
12911:
11712:
11692:
8294:
is even lower and the required confinement even more difficult to achieve. For
7893:
3188:) is directly related to the number of protons it contains – its atomic number.
3134:
the most common product because of its extraordinarily tight binding, although
2833:
2571:
2504:
2436:
2333:
2310:
2180:
1922:
1738:
1734:
1563:
1394:
1360:
1321:
1290:
1258:
1218:
1120:
1042:
918:
772:
767:
579:
387:
322:
299:
286:
273:
173:
151:
17307:
14092:
13667:
12712:
2179:
energies (13.6 eV in the hydrogen case), the fusion reactants exist in a
1107:
was the first to propose the concept of nuclear fusion in 1915. Then in 1921,
19186:
19176:
19075:
19020:
18879:
18839:
18803:
18759:
18685:
18648:
18566:
18489:
18257:
18252:
18205:
18185:
17971:
17731:
17716:
17472:
16763:
16169:
16010:
15722:
15556:
15510:
15003:
14774:
14703:
14532:
14324:
14252:
13943:
13643:
13571:
11697:
11667:
8378:, Bremsstrahlung losses will be a serious, possibly prohibitive problem. For
7904:
2864:
2625:
2611:
2469:
1930:
1893:
1690:
1528:
1332:
1282:
1214:
1148:
1078:
979:
897:
892:
887:
882:
832:
490:
463:
307:
246:
199:
178:
13619:
13595:
13547:
12878:
12636:
12611:
12433:
18776:
18720:
18670:
18653:
18474:
18247:
18180:
17951:
17911:
17776:
17038:
16174:
16116:
16043:
15995:
15865:
15695:
15683:
15586:
15307:
14354:
14344:
14190:
13523:
13355:
13039:
12857:
12584:
11766:
11717:
11657:
10743:
NRL Formulary fusion reaction rates averaged over Maxwellian distributions
9268:
9260:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{G}=(\pi \alpha Z_{1}Z_{2})^{2}\times 2m_{r}c^{2}}
7805:
6495:
6489:
5284:
4881:
2947:
2452:
2397:
2360:
2232:
1952:
1917:
1705:, so a proton added to a nucleus will feel an electrostatic repulsion from
1449:
reaction, branch I, dominates in stars the size of the Sun or smaller.
1414:
1381:
1374:
1341:
1336:
1254:
1237:
827:
802:
787:
532:
480:
337:
32:
14152:
13767:
A momentum and energy balance shows that if the tritium has an energy of E
10695:
In fusion systems that are in thermal equilibrium, the particles are in a
2566:
crystal heated from −34 to 7 °C (−29 to 45 °F), combined with a
18781:
18747:
18621:
18611:
18554:
18537:
18522:
18469:
18367:
17693:
17449:
17096:
16686:
16193:
16164:
15596:
15561:
15551:
15198:
15102:
14462:
14450:
14428:
14084:
13965:
12359:
11652:
9443:
8891:{\displaystyle \sigma \approx \sigma _{\text{geometry}}\times T\times R,}
8836:
6399:
6369:
6339:
6159:
6129:
6099:
5777:
5074:
5053:
4426:
2845:
2791:
2759:
2396:
fusion is one of the methods being researched in the attempts to produce
2374:
1544:
1502:
1132:
1065:, which are in general more fusible; while the heavier elements, such as
1054:
792:
485:
407:
260:
64:
12849:
5283:
The latter of the two equations was unknown when the U.S. conducted the
2604:
processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by
1551:
All of these speculations were proven correct in the following decades.
1401:; the reactions produce far greater energy per unit of mass even though
19099:
18815:
18737:
18675:
18643:
18583:
18277:
17741:
17688:
16802:
15581:
13138:
Explosive-driven hemispherical implosions for generating fusion plasmas
13105:
Super compressed detonation method and device to effect such detonation
12141:
12096:
12059:
11992:
5799:
5093:
can be easily induced to split into two alpha particles and a neutron.
3156:
3101:
2957:
The most well known Inertial electrostatic confinement approach is the
2807:
2779:
2605:
2541:
1422:
1393:(D–T) reaction shown in the adjacent diagram. Fusion reactions have an
1226:
1187:
1152:
1050:
762:
752:
609:
589:
412:
282:
13775:=1.01 MeV this gives a range from 1.44 MeV to 6.73 MeV.
13689:
13265:
13200:
12281:
12234:
2782:), the process is continued until some of their energy is produced by
18825:
18752:
18626:
18606:
18578:
18517:
18028:
17901:
17736:
17683:
17673:
17634:
17444:
16807:
16797:
15925:
15878:
15843:
15764:
15619:
15260:
14757:
14477:
14396:
14391:
14334:
13499:
12795:
12410:
12321:
11858:
8426:
8338:
8317:
8296:
8254:
8212:
7762:
7713:
7660:
6882:
6734:
6690:
temperature may be low. Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume the
6309:
6279:
6249:
6219:
6189:
6069:
6039:
5979:
5949:
5829:
5773:
5317:
is a minimum, since that required value is inversely proportional to
5200:
5114:
5038:
reaction, but the cross section is far too low, except possibly when
5019:
4994:
4973:
4896:
4891:
4632:
4504:
4345:
4169:
4143:
4086:
3552:
3360:
3334:
3223:
2908:
2896:
2799:
2795:
2763:
2755:
2575:
2500:
1907:, the next heavier element. This is because protons and neutrons are
1874:
1827:
1803:
1743:
1580:
1575:
1458:
1386:
1306:
1242:
1082:
1074:
1038:
983:
807:
757:
584:
572:
567:
446:
17302:
13954:
G. Brumfiel (22 May 2006). "Chaos could keep fusion under control".
13323:
13030:
13011:
12955:
12576:
12544:
12296:"DOE National Laboratory Makes History by Achieving Fusion Ignition"
12210:
11833:
10634:
8774:
8638:
8493:
7815:
7802:
reaction and can be considered a measure of the economic potential.
3071:
2978:
2681:
2247:
1600:
1441:
1363:
that holds a nucleus together is greater than the energy that holds
18561:
18542:
18527:
18227:
17678:
17663:
17533:
17176:
17171:
17111:
16780:
16708:
16691:
16676:
16651:
16394:
15883:
15671:
14889:
14565:
9431:
9307:
9117:
can be approximated by the Gamow transparency, which has the form:
8451:
8401:
8380:
8359:
7877:
6780:
6755:
6009:
5919:
5889:
5252:
5166:
4952:
4764:
4737:
4659:
4606:
4567:
4530:
4270:
4244:
4196:
4049:
3959:
3907:
3837:
3811:
3785:
3715:
3604:
3578:
3475:
3275:
3136:
3116:
2962:
2951:
2880:
2742:
One force capable of confining the fuel well enough to satisfy the
2583:
2567:
2430:
fusion, or by accelerating two streams of ions towards each other,
2386:
that account for most of the fusion reactions. The other effect is
2172:
2168:
1960:
1956:
1945:
1900:
1571:
1567:
1498:
1364:
1328:
1250:
1164:
999:
991:
83:
13293:"Nuclear Ambitions: Amateur Scientists Get a Reaction From Fusion"
13084:
12900:"Pyrofusion: A Room-Temperature, Palm-Sized Nuclear Fusion Device"
2215:
as a function of temperature in a device with a particular energy
1033:
A nuclear fusion process that produces atomic nuclei lighter than
141:
19171:
19120:
19044:
18695:
18237:
17956:
17502:
17454:
17317:
17297:
16696:
16671:
16111:
15942:
15930:
15908:
15873:
15459:
15030:
14643:
14482:
14467:
14455:
14282:
13392:. Fusedweb.pppl.gov (9 November 1998). Retrieved 17 August 2011.
12672:"What Is The Lawson Criteria, Or How to Make Fusion Power Viable"
11662:
8275:
8233:
7783:
7734:
7681:
6775:
6459:
6429:
5859:
5272:
5226:
5190:
5140:
5104:
4451:
4298:
4002:
3933:
3750:
3689:
3663:
3511:
3386:
3311:
3249:
3084:
2892:
2884:
2841:
2767:
2747:
2659:
2587:
2480:
that are too difficult to attempt using conventional approaches.
2472:. Because these approaches all have ion energies well beyond the
1967:
1908:
1904:
1850:
1783:
1763:
1685:
1677:
1514:
1390:
1246:
1070:
1066:
1046:
1034:
1003:
987:
269:
242:
234:
166:
156:
123:
14039:
13690:
Nuclear fusion#Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions
13408:
8198:
remain in the plasma until they have given up their energy, and
3087:
breeding. Reactions that release no neutrons are referred to as
18242:
18163:
18114:
17106:
17101:
17081:
17061:
17046:
16929:
16666:
16646:
16614:
15042:
15008:
14850:
14008:
9165:{\displaystyle T\approx e^{-{\sqrt {\epsilon _{G}/\epsilon }}}}
8446:
8421:
7912:
and the power ratio at that temperature for several reactions:
6800:
5048:
5014:
4947:
4727:
4684:
4494:
4370:
3993:
3872:
3640:
3422:
2900:
2868:
2832:
Electrically charged particles (such as fuel ions) will follow
2655:
2619:
2579:
2476:, they often suggest the use of alternative fuel cycles like p-
2367:
1730:
1681:
1559:
1418:
1301:
1062:
1011:
161:
87:
79:
13212:
2574:
of about 25 gigavolts per meter to ionize and accelerate
2515:
17781:
17668:
17523:
17480:
17143:
16999:
16792:
16656:
15642:
15248:
15186:
15161:
14915:
14879:
14845:
14840:
14590:
14560:
7889:
2958:
2942:
2934:
2872:
2448:
1324:
or other forms of energy, such as electromagnetic radiation.
1061:. Nuclear fusion uses lighter elements, such as hydrogen and
8478:
8475:; however, these have their own challenges to contend with.
6494:
Any of the reactions above can in principle be the basis of
1453:
18616:
18549:
18532:
18200:
17004:
16893:
16703:
16661:
14833:
14658:
14349:
13103:
Zhang, Fan; Murray, Stephen Burke; Higgins, Andrew (2005) "
12325:
12027:Журнал Русского физико-химического общества, Раздел физики
12013:
Tunnelling was independently observed by Soviet scientists
8965:
is of the order of the square of the de Broglie wavelength
8727:
This would imply that for the core of the sun, which has a
7305:
We can now compare these reactions in the following table.
2751:
2496:
2322:
1726:
1470:
1313:
1289:, which holds protons and neutrons tightly together in the
1203:
994:), combine to form one or more different atomic nuclei and
104:
13916:
12660:. Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
10624:
3207:
The cross sections for the weak interaction are too small.
2533:
Some other confinement principles have been investigated.
1049:. Fusion of nuclei lighter than these releases energy (an
1014:. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in
18083:
16977:
16841:
13807:
Rostoker, Norman; Binderbauer, Michl and Qerushi, Artan.
13266:"Extreme DIY: Building a homemade nuclear reactor in NYC"
12827:
12162:
2930:
2876:
2754:—the least massive stars capable of sustained fusion are
2596:(hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating
2176:
1733:, and then decreases for heavier nuclei. Eventually, the
1405:
fission reactions are generally much more energetic than
71:
7806:
Bremsstrahlung losses in quasineutral, isotropic plasmas
6490:
Neutronicity, confinement requirement, and power density
5751:
2418:
Accelerator-based light-ion fusion is a technique using
1316:
and produces virtually all elements in a process called
14189:
13986:"Should Google Go Nuclear? Clean, Cheap, Nuclear Power"
12974:
12774:
Jones, S.E. (1986). "Muon-Catalysed Fusion Revisited".
8210:. This will not change the optimum operating point for
2503:, and the high chance that a muon will bind to the new
1057:. The opposite is true for the reverse process, called
12897:
12402:
7903:
to x-rays. But any terrestrial fusion reactor will be
2648:
1371:
gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is
19136:
14131:– A repository of documents related to nuclear power.
14080:
Atomic and Molecular Processes in Fusion Edge Plasmas
14009:
A. Wenisch; R. Kromp; D. Reinberger (November 2007).
13321:
11474:
11309:
11275:
10705:
10525:
10469:
10113:
10087:
Bosch-Hale coefficients for the fusion cross section
9832:
9455:
9348:
9316:
9283:
9178:
9123:
9097:
9070:
8971:
8944:
8907:
8856:
8737:
8564:
2790:, reactions producing heavier elements are generally
2192:
2175: keV. At these temperatures, well above typical
2144:
2107:
2070:
2054:{\displaystyle f=n_{1}n_{2}\langle \sigma v\rangle .}
2009:
1990:. The reaction rate (fusions per volume per time) is
1903:
nucleus, whose binding energy is higher than that of
14011:"Science or Fiction: Is there a Future for Nuclear?"
13784:
12881:. Rodan.physics.ucla.edu. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
12024:
9437:
8764:
2903:. The other successful method was using a miniature
2355:, for example, the energy necessary to overcome the
2000:
times the product of the reactant number densities:
1277:
is the decrease in the total rest mass of particles.
15745:
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility
12933:
Coming in out of the cold: nuclear fusion, for real
12074:
12037:
5072:reaction, which is not only difficult to burn, but
17633:
16527:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
12965:. MSNBC (27 April 2005). Retrieved 17 August 2011.
12119:
11787:
11622:
11457:
11292:
10731:
10614:
10494:
10126:
10074:
9633:
9419:
9331:
9298:
9259:
9164:
9103:
9083:
9056:
8957:
8920:
8890:
8753:
8716:
7892:radiation of 10–30 keV energy, a process known as
7700:reaction under comparable conditions. The column "
2933:using electrostatic fields. The best known is the
2632:was a proposed mechanism for achieving fusion via
2407:
2207:
2159:
2128:
2093:
2053:
1701:The electrostatic force, on the other hand, is an
13490:. Kayelaby.npl.co.uk. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
12616:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
10064:
9979:
9961:
9876:
9030:
9000:
8936:is the reaction characteristics of the reaction.
8483:
3072:Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions
2340:, the energy of accidental collisions within the
1335:is greater than the repulsive Coulomb force. The
122:curve. The formation of nuclei with masses up to
19184:
14040:M. Kikuchi, K. Lackner & M. Q. Tran (2012).
13409:M. Kikuchi, K. Lackner & M. Q. Tran (2012).
1261:of the products while a corresponding amount of
13241:. Clhsonline.net. 23 March 2012. Archived from
12406:Fundamentals of nuclear science and engineering
3083:volumetric extraction of the fusion energy and
1115:could be the primary source of stellar energy.
14305:
13746:Cold fusion#Lack of expected reaction products
13322:Park J, Nebel RA, Stange S, Murali SK (2005).
13151:Temperature Measurements Of An Implosion Focus
2600:by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and
1085:can produce enough energy to fuse nuclei into
19060:
18099:
17619:
17230:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
15780:
14205:
14175:
13474:
12259:
10057:
10002:
9954:
9899:
9549:
9496:
4923:
2887:. Another method is to use conventional high
1517:variable stars showed this was not happening.
952:
13980:
13454:Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion
13239:"Build a Nuclear Fusion Reactor? No Problem"
13009:
12446:
12208:
9111:is the center of mass energy of the system.
7880:that in aggregate neutralize the ions' bulk
6505:, the energy of the charged fusion products
2914:
2665:
2460:(FRC) as the storage system was proposed by
2202:
2193:
2154:
2145:
2045:
2036:
1348:that can produce self-sustaining reactions.
13953:
13451:
12773:
12612:"On the radiative equilibrium of the stars"
10663:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
8803:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
8522:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
7844:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3007:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2848:and open-ended mirror confinement systems.
2778:. In the most massive stars (at least 8–11
2710:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2276:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1629:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1583:at the end of its life, a process known as
19067:
19053:
18106:
18092:
17626:
17612:
15787:
15773:
14182:
14168:
14076:
12946:. (6 June 2005). Retrieved 17 August 2011.
12603:
12202:
4930:
4916:
3039:
1899:An exception to this general trend is the
959:
945:
13290:
13055:"Physicist is found guilty of misconduct"
13029:
12956:Nuclear fusion on the desktop ... really!
12635:
12609:
12542:
12536:
11925:
11887:
11857:
11831:
10683:Learn how and when to remove this message
10495:{\displaystyle (\Delta S)_{\text{max}}\%}
9646:NRL Formulary Cross Section Coefficients
8958:{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}}
8921:{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}}
8823:Learn how and when to remove this message
8542:Learn how and when to remove this message
8479:Mathematical description of cross section
7864:Learn how and when to remove this message
3027:Learn how and when to remove this message
2770:if they are of sufficient mass. In stars
2730:Learn how and when to remove this message
2296:Learn how and when to remove this message
1649:Learn how and when to remove this message
1253:, freeing a neutron, and releasing 17.59
17142:
13149:T. Saito, A. K. Kudian and I. I. Glass "
12545:"The Internal Constitution of the Stars"
12181:
11928:"The internal constitution of the stars"
11890:"The internal constitution of the stars"
11834:"The internal constitution of the stars"
9821:Padé rational approximating coefficients
2558:was reported in April 2005 by a team at
2527:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
2514:
2483:
2332:Temperature is a measure of the average
2208:{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }
2160:{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }
1966:
1711:
1461:dominates in stars heavier than the Sun.
1452:
1440:
1236:
1159:began in the early 1940s as part of the
113:
13263:
12707:. Particle Acceleration and Detection.
12670:Report, Science World (23 March 2013).
12443:. Ck12.org. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
12396:
11806:. National Academy of Sciences: 47–80.
10625:Maxwell-averaged nuclear cross sections
5667:, which is then possible to use in the
2851:
2821:
2237:
1547:nothing more could be said at the time.
126:releases energy, as illustrated above.
14:
19185:
18726:Integrated gasification combined cycle
17967:Wireless electronic devices and health
17157:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
15794:
13663:
13661:
13659:
13657:
13655:
13653:
13651:
13639:
13637:
13635:
13633:
13631:
13629:
13627:
13003:
12898:Schewe, Phil & Stein, Ben (2005).
12737:from the original on 23 September 2022
12700:
12669:
12663:
12403:Shultis, J.K. & Faw, R.E. (2002).
9641:with the following coefficient values:
9091:is the reduced mass of the system and
6810:= 4.03 + 17.6 + 3.27 = 24.9 MeV,
5766:Abundances of the elements (data page)
5762:Abundance of elements in Earth's crust
2968:
1482:The Internal Constitution of the Stars
19048:
18770:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
18445:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy
18087:
17607:
17399:
17162:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
16571:
16558:
15768:
14163:
13917:S. Atzeni; J. Meyer-ter-Vehn (2004).
13857:
13741:
13739:
13732:Aneutronic fusion#Candidate reactions
13727:
13725:
13723:
13721:
13719:
13717:
13705:
13703:
13701:
13699:
13697:
13685:
13683:
13681:
13679:
13677:
13675:
13615:
13613:
13611:
13609:
13607:
13605:
13603:
13591:
13589:
13587:
13585:
13583:
13581:
13579:
13567:
13565:
13563:
13561:
13559:
13557:
13555:
13543:
13541:
13539:
13537:
13535:
13533:
13531:
13519:
13517:
13515:
13513:
13511:
13509:
13507:
12503:
12452:
12302:from the original on 19 February 2023
12190:from the original on 13 December 2022
11648:China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor
11293:{\displaystyle T\leq 25{\text{ keV}}}
5752:Abundance of the nuclear fusion fuels
3106:This limits the reactants to the low
2348:and the particles may fuse together.
19003:
17993:List of civilian radiation accidents
17962:Wireless device radiation and health
17957:Biological dose units and quantities
17907:Electromagnetic radiation and health
17586:
16559:
14109:from the original on 16 January 2023
14064:from the original on 8 December 2015
14027:from the original on 26 January 2021
13820:
13787:Dissertation Abstracts International
13757:Aneutronic fusion#Residual radiation
13433:from the original on 8 December 2015
13362:from the original on 23 October 2020
13052:
13012:"Nuclear energy: The hybrid returns"
12524:from the original on 5 November 2023
12485:from the original on 14 January 2023
12384:from the original on 31 January 2023
11970:
11832:Eddington, A.S. (2 September 1920).
11793:"William Draper Harkins 1873 - 1951"
10661:adding citations to reliable sources
10628:
8801:adding citations to reliable sources
8768:
8520:adding citations to reliable sources
8487:
7842:adding citations to reliable sources
7809:
6817:= 4.03 + 3.5 + 0.82 = 8.35 MeV.
3005:adding citations to reliable sources
2972:
2708:adding citations to reliable sources
2675:
2274:adding citations to reliable sources
2241:
2226:
1627:adding citations to reliable sources
1594:
1505:). Eddington's paper reasoned that:
1167:hydrogen (thermonuclear) bomb test.
1077:, are more fissionable. The extreme
1028:large amounts of energy are released
19027:
18912:World energy supply and consumption
17167:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
13648:
13624:
12241:from the original on 12 August 2020
11950:from the original on 17 August 2022
11912:from the original on 17 August 2022
10732:{\displaystyle \mathrm {cm^{3}/s} }
8473:non-neutral and anisotropic plasmas
2649:Confinement in thermonuclear fusion
2510:
1465:An important fusion process is the
24:
19074:
17942:Radioactivity in the life sciences
16976:
16127:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
14048:International Atomic Energy Agency
13900:. NuclearFiles.org. Archived from
13890:
13839:from the original on 17 April 2018
13736:
13714:
13694:
13672:
13600:
13576:
13552:
13528:
13504:
13417:International Atomic Energy Agency
13219:from the original on 8 August 2014
13065:from the original on 17 April 2019
12682:from the original on 3 August 2021
12165:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
11616:
11601:
11598:
11451:
11436:
11433:
10725:
10711:
10707:
10489:
10473:
5758:Abundance of the chemical elements
3204:Conserve both protons and neutrons
2921:Inertial electrostatic confinement
2525:, research fusion reactor, at the
1192:United States Department of Energy
27:Process of combining atomic nuclei
25:
19229:
16150:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
16049:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
14122:
13710:Aneutronic fusion#Coulomb barrier
13303:from the original on 3 March 2014
13291:Schechner, Sam (18 August 2008).
13264:Danzico, Matthew (23 June 2010).
12591:from the original on 17 July 2022
12543:Eddington, A. S. (October 1920).
12459:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
12182:Videmšek, Boštjan (30 May 2022).
11874:from the original on 17 July 2022
11781:
9438:Formulas of fusion cross sections
8765:Parameterization of cross section
7214:. On the other hand, because the
5724:from reaction (8) can react with
2786:. As iron has one of the highest
2507:and thus stop catalyzing fusion.
2353:deuterium–tritium fusion reaction
19170:
19158:
19146:
19026:
19014:
19002:
18991:
18990:
17585:
17574:
17573:
17561:
17250:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
15716:
15689:
15677:
15660:
15648:
15636:
15613:
15545:
15494:
15482:
15453:
15436:
15396:
15384:
15355:
15343:
15313:
15301:
15254:
15242:
15220:
15192:
15180:
15155:
15118:
15072:
15060:
15048:
15036:
15014:
14997:
14980:
14956:
14944:
14921:
14909:
14897:
14873:
14856:
14817:
14785:
14768:
14697:
14685:
14306:
13272:from the original on 16 May 2018
12332:from the original on 1 June 2010
11926:Eddington, A.S. (October 1920).
11888:Eddington, A.S. (October 1920).
11813:from the original on 10 May 2017
11300:the data can be represented by:
10633:
8932:is the barrier transparency and
8928:is the geometric cross section,
8773:
8492:
7814:
6516:of the non-hydrogenic reactant.
5013:side reactions. There is also a
4839:
3110:(number of protons) side of the
2977:
2965:, MIX POPS and Marble concepts.
2927:electrostatic confinement fusion
2680:
2522:Tokamak à configuration variable
2246:
1599:
1511:conservation of angular momentum
1378:—less than one-millionth of the
1123:in 1927, and shortly afterwards
926:
925:
912:
140:
97:
63:
16339:Historical stockpiles and tests
15750:ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility
13851:
13814:
13801:
13778:
13761:
13750:
13493:
13445:
13402:
13383:
13374:
13315:
13284:
13257:
13231:
13205:
13181:
13172:
13163:
13143:
13136:D.Sagie and I.I. Glass (1982) "
13130:
13110:
13097:
13077:
13046:
12968:
12949:
12926:
12891:
12872:
12810:
12767:
12758:
12749:
12694:
12644:
12497:
12427:
12366:
12344:
12314:
12288:
12253:
7341:inverse ratio of power density
7192:the hydrogenic ion by a factor
2929:devices. These devices confine
2784:fusing lighter elements to iron
2464:and continues to be studied by
2451:, which used a unique particle
2408:Beam–beam or beam–target fusion
2344:is high enough to overcome the
2321:("hydrogen bombs") and in most
1590:
1367:to a nucleus. For example, the
17240:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
16122:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
13926:The Physics of Inertial Fusion
13116:I.I. Glass and J.C. Poinssot "
12479:10.1080/00963402.1950.11461231
12352:"ITER – the way to new energy"
12175:
12156:
12113:
12007:
11964:
11825:
11751:
11494:
11475:
11329:
11310:
10697:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
10606:
10581:
10567:
10561:
10542:
10536:
10480:
10470:
10082:, with the coefficient values:
10052:
10023:
9949:
9920:
9849:
9843:
9625:
9578:
9531:
9501:
9472:
9466:
9376:
9370:
9358:
9352:
9326:
9320:
9293:
9287:
9222:
9192:
8484:Fusion under classical physics
2941:losses. Also, fusion rates in
2616:Los Alamos National Laboratory
2426:fuel-infused target, known as
1186:, was designed with a goal of
13:
1:
17568:Nuclear technology portal
14018:Austrian Institute of Ecology
13348:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.015003
12944:The Christian Science Monitor
12651:The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei
12453:Bethe, Hans A. (April 1950).
12015:Grigory Samuilovich Landsberg
11744:
10127:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{G}}
7704:" weights these results with
7255:Thus there is a "penalty" of
6888:Another unique aspect of the
2594:Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid
2538:Antimatter-initialized fusion
1964:overcome the energy barrier.
1413:, such as that caused by the
17430:Field-reversed configuration
17040:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
14414:Field-reversed configuration
12019:Leonid Isaakovich Mandelstam
11765:. NASA. 2012. Archived from
11488:
11323:
9332:{\displaystyle S(\epsilon )}
9299:{\displaystyle R(\epsilon )}
6885:per kilogram of deuterium).
5787:Nuclear Fusion Fuel Isotope
2458:field-reversed configuration
2219:is found by considering the
1157:fusion for military purposes
7:
17830:Cosmic background radiation
17387:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
16572:
16334:States with nuclear weapons
13789:. 56–07 (Section B): 3820.
13390:FusEdWeb | Fusion Education
13213:"Fusor Forums • Index page"
13118:IMPLOSION DRIVEN SHOCK TUBE
12569:10.1126/science.52.1341.233
11640:
5748:plasma is not appropriate.
5100:
3215:
3177:Involve low atomic number (
2858:Inertial confinement fusion
2828:Magnetic confinement fusion
1436:
1211:Commonwealth Fusion Systems
1184:inertial confinement fusion
706:High-energy nuclear physics
10:
19234:
18113:
18059:
17917:Lasers and aviation safety
17400:
17225:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
16349:Tests in the United States
13930:University of Oxford Press
13919:"Nuclear fusion reactions"
13872:10.1088/0029-5515/32/4/I07
12997:10.1016/j.nima.2010.08.003
12510:. Earthscan. p. 129.
11733:Timeline of nuclear fusion
11683:List of fusion experiments
6881:of about 225 million
5755:
3075:
2918:
2855:
2825:
2669:
2499:, their short 2.2 μs
2411:
2230:
2094:{\displaystyle n_{1}n_{2}}
1566:, with the release of two
1297:, which causes positively
1232:
1182:, which uses laser-driven
1180:National Ignition Facility
1099:Timeline of nuclear fusion
1096:
1092:
29:
19113:
19082:
18986:
18960:
18836:
18716:Fossil fuel power station
18684:
18597:
18503:
18378:Electric potential energy
18343:
18323:Thermodynamic temperature
18303:Thermodynamic free energy
18298:Thermodynamic equilibrium
18144:
18121:
18057:
18021:
17985:
17947:Radioactive contamination
17872:
17800:Electromagnetic radiation
17790:
17702:
17649:
17642:
17555:
17511:
17463:
17420:
17410:
17362:
17350:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
17263:
17245:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
17210:
17193:
17133:
17060:
17052:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
17026:
17017:
16969:
16949:
16902:
16884:
16840:
16745:
16727:
16595:
16582:
16567:
16554:
16509:
16442:
16387:
16378:
16326:
16234:
16225:
16192:
16135:
16097:
16088:
16009:
15941:
15864:
15806:
15802:
15740:
15708:
15628:
15605:
15537:
15530:
15519:
15472:
15428:
15374:
15333:
15296:
15287:
15212:
15170:
15110:
15101:
14936:
14807:
14677:
14651:
14642:
14631:
14620:
14578:
14551:
14523:
14500:
14404:
14316:
14296:
14268:Fusion energy gain factor
14198:
14093:10.1007/978-1-4757-9319-2
13898:"What is Nuclear Fusion?"
12713:10.1007/978-3-030-62308-1
12610:Eddington, A. S. (1916).
10447:Applicable Energy Range
9104:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
8754:{\displaystyle 10^{-290}}
4861:Supernova nucleosynthesis
3198:Have two or more products
3078:Fusion power § Fuels
2915:Electrostatic confinement
2666:Gravitational confinement
1913:Pauli exclusion principle
1911:, which according to the
1585:supernova nucleosynthesis
1285:, a manifestation of the
18787:Concentrated solar power
18060:See also the categories
17998:1996 Costa Rica accident
17659:Acoustic radiation force
17255:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
16871:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
16207:Electron-beam processing
14077:R.K. Janev, ed. (1995).
12961:4 September 2016 at the
12504:Smith, Peter F. (2009).
12439:28 December 2011 at the
6512:, and the atomic number
4856:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
2562:. The scientists used a
2546:nuclear pulse propulsion
2365:in excess of 1.2 billion
1673:through coulomb forces.
1397:many times greater than
1351:Energy released in most
78:, and thus releases its
49:Not to be confused with
18328:Volume (thermodynamics)
18308:Thermodynamic potential
18211:Mass–energy equivalence
17972:Radiation heat-transfer
17825:Gravitational radiation
17370:Organic nuclear reactor
16542:Nuclear power phase-out
16465:Nuclear decommissioning
16405:Reactor-grade plutonium
16155:Targeted alpha-particle
16034:Accidents and incidents
14193:, processes and devices
14145:26 October 2020 at the
13396:24 October 2007 at the
13297:The Wall Street Journal
12938:22 January 2012 at the
12822:4 February 2017 at the
12040:Die Naturwissenschaften
7159:The last column is the
4851:Stellar nucleosynthesis
3114:. It also makes helium
3112:curve of binding energy
3040:Stellar reaction chains
2911:gas at one atmosphere.
2672:Stellar nucleosynthesis
2640:, was judged guilty of
2129:{\displaystyle n^{2}/2}
1467:stellar nucleosynthesis
1355:is much larger than in
1143:, laboratory fusion of
217:Interacting boson model
35:. For the journal, see
19095:Krypton fluoride laser
18283:Quantum thermodynamics
18273:Laws of thermodynamics
18154:Conservation of energy
18013:1990 Zaragoza accident
18008:1984 Moroccan accident
17977:Linear energy transfer
17651:Non-ionizing radiation
13823:"NRL PLASMA FORMULARY"
13486:16 August 2018 at the
12704:Accelerator Technology
12701:Möller, Sören (2020).
12549:The Scientific Monthly
12358:. 2014. Archived from
12122:Zeitschrift für Physik
12077:Zeitschrift für Physik
11973:Zeitschrift für Physik
11894:The Scientific Monthly
11688:List of Fusor examples
11624:
11459:
11294:
10733:
10616:
10496:
10128:
10076:
9635:
9421:
9333:
9300:
9261:
9166:
9105:
9085:
9058:
8959:
8922:
8892:
8755:
8729:Boltzmann distribution
8718:
2867:, where the driver is
2540:uses small amounts of
2530:
2209:
2161:
2130:
2095:
2055:
1973:
1845:, is more stable, the
1722:
1533:Antonius van den Broek
1513:. But observations of
1462:
1450:
1278:
1113:hydrogen–helium fusion
1105:William Draper Harkins
1016:nuclear binding energy
127:
120:nuclear binding energy
18400:Interatomic potential
18191:Energy transformation
18003:1987 Goiânia accident
17805:Synchrotron radiation
17795:Earth's energy budget
17777:Radioactive materials
17772:Particle accelerators
16532:Anti-nuclear movement
13010:Gerstner, E. (2009).
12637:10.1093/mnras/77.1.16
12362:on 22 September 2012.
12209:Moses, E. I. (2009).
11625:
11460:
11295:
10734:
10617:
10497:
10129:
10077:
9636:
9422:
9334:
9301:
9262:
9167:
9106:
9086:
9084:{\displaystyle m_{r}}
9059:
8960:
8923:
8893:
8837:de Broglie wavelength
8756:
8719:
8208:fusion triple product
7635:The maximum value of
6519:Specification of the
5293:nuclear cross section
4866:Cosmic ray spallation
2570:needle to produce an
2518:
2489:Muon-catalyzed fusion
2484:Muon-catalyzed fusion
2420:particle accelerators
2414:Colliding beam fusion
2384:velocity distribution
2319:thermonuclear weapons
2210:
2162:
2131:
2096:
2056:
1970:
1715:
1456:
1444:
1240:
1137:nuclear transmutation
978:in which two or more
604:High-energy processes
302:– equal all the above
200:Models of the nucleus
117:
82:by nuclear fusion of
44:Nuclear Fusion (song)
19090:Argon fluoride laser
18848:Efficient energy use
18821:Airborne wind energy
18799:Solar thermal energy
18706:Electricity delivery
18318:Thermodynamic system
18263:Irreversible process
18074:Radiation protection
17927:Radiation protection
17815:Black-body radiation
17722:Background radiation
17637:(physics and health)
17440:Reversed field pinch
17235:Traveling-wave (TWR)
16719:Supercritical (SCWR)
16217:Gemstone irradiation
14330:Triple-alpha process
14278:Magnetohydrodynamics
14230:List of technologies
14140:NRL Fusion Formulary
13966:10.1038/news060522-2
13904:on 28 September 2006
13452:K. Miyamoto (2005).
13123:2 April 2023 at the
13090:3 March 2023 at the
12676:Science World Report
12380:. 14 December 2022.
12322:"Progress in Fusion"
11800:Biographical Memoirs
11738:Triple-alpha process
11678:Joint European Torus
11472:
11307:
11273:
10703:
10657:improve this section
10523:
10467:
10111:
9830:
9453:
9346:
9314:
9281:
9176:
9121:
9095:
9068:
8969:
8942:
8905:
8854:
8797:improve this section
8735:
8562:
8516:improve this section
7838:improve this section
3001:improve this section
2852:Inertial confinement
2822:Magnetic confinement
2796:supernova explosions
2704:improve this section
2586:and a 2.45 MeV
2270:improve this section
2238:Thermonuclear fusion
2190:
2186:The significance of
2142:
2105:
2101:must be replaced by
2068:
2007:
1703:inverse-square force
1623:improve this section
1265:, in agreement with
1200:magnetic confinement
1147:was accomplished by
640:nuclear astrophysics
42:. For the song, see
18870:Energy conservation
18792:Photovoltaic system
18765:Nuclear power plant
18450:Quantum fluctuation
18313:Thermodynamic state
18288:Thermal equilibrium
18044:Radiation hardening
17986:Radiation incidents
17922:Medical radiography
17881:Radiation syndrome
17835:Cherenkov radiation
16605:Aqueous homogeneous
16400:Reprocessed uranium
16073:Safety and security
15408:Lockheed Martin CFR
14362:Proton–proton chain
14225:List of experiments
13984:(9 November 2006).
13949:on 24 January 2005.
13811:. fusion.ps.uci.edu
13795:1995PhDT........45R
13340:2005PhRvL..95a5003P
13193:2013PhPl...20e2504C
12989:2011NIMPA.632...43N
12914:on 12 November 2013
12910:(1). Archived from
12904:Physics News Update
12885:8 June 2015 at the
12879:UCLA Crystal Fusion
12850:10.1038/nature03575
12842:2005Natur.434.1115N
12836:(7037): 1115–1117.
12788:1986Natur.321..127J
12656:14 May 2011 at the
12628:1916MNRAS..77...16E
12561:1920Sci....52..233E
12471:1950BuAtS...6d..99B
12465:(4): 99–104, 125–.
12455:"The Hydrogen Bomb"
12274:2011PhT....64c..26K
12227:2009PhPl...16d1006M
12134:1929ZPhy...54..656A
12089:1928ZPhy...50..769L
12052:1928NW.....16..557.
11985:1927ZPhy...40..742H
11944:1920Obs....43..341E
11906:1920SciMo..11..297E
11850:1920Natur.106...14E
11769:on 3 September 2018
10744:
10088:
9647:
8644:
5783:
2969:Important reactions
2905:Voitenko compressor
2642:research misconduct
2556:Pyroelectric fusion
1718:electrostatic force
1663:electrostatic force
1556:proton–proton chain
1486:Einstein's equation
1447:proton–proton chain
1089:heavier than iron.
1020:main-sequence stars
996:subatomic particles
622:Photodisintegration
545:Capturing processes
459:Spontaneous fission
452:Internal conversion
383:Valley of stability
378:Island of stability
212:Nuclear shell model
19198:Physical phenomena
19153:Nuclear technology
19105:Xenon monochloride
18907:Sustainable energy
18885:Energy development
18875:Energy consumption
18711:Energy engineering
18039:Radioactive source
17860:Radiation exposure
17840:Askaryan radiation
17820:Particle radiation
17704:Ionizing radiation
17519:Dense plasma focus
16434:Actinide chemistry
15899:Isotope separation
15796:Nuclear technology
14441:Dense plasma focus
13668:CNO cycle#HCNO-III
13245:on 30 October 2014
13156:2012-07-20 at the
13053:Maugh II, Thomas.
12215:Physics of Plasmas
12142:10.1007/BF01341595
12097:10.1007/BF01339412
12083:(11–12): 769–780.
12060:10.1007/BF01506807
11993:10.1007/BF01400234
11789:Robert S. Mulliken
11728:Teller–Ulam design
11723:Pure fusion weapon
11620:
11455:
11290:
10742:
10729:
10612:
10492:
10124:
10086:
10072:
9645:
9631:
9417:
9329:
9296:
9257:
9162:
9101:
9081:
9054:
8955:
8918:
8888:
8751:
8714:
7332:inverse reactivity
5782:
3191:Have two reactants
2889:explosive material
2800:Some lighter stars
2531:
2441:neutron generators
2388:quantum tunnelling
2205:
2157:
2126:
2091:
2051:
1974:
1870:order of magnitude
1821:. Even though the
1723:
1667:positively charged
1463:
1451:
1357:chemical reactions
1346:exothermic process
1287:strong interaction
1279:
1131:used the measured
1119:was discovered by
919:Physics portal
713:Quark–gluon plasma
496:Radiogenic nuclide
128:
76:main-sequence star
19213:Nuclear chemistry
19203:Energy conversion
19134:
19133:
19042:
19041:
18809:Solar power tower
18455:Quantum potential
18293:Thermal reservoir
18196:Energy transition
18081:
18080:
18062:Radiation effects
17932:Radiation therapy
17868:
17867:
17810:Thermal radiation
17747:Neutron radiation
17712:Radioactive decay
17601:
17600:
17551:
17550:
17547:
17546:
17498:Magnetized-target
17395:
17394:
17358:
17357:
17189:
17188:
17185:
17184:
17129:
17128:
17013:
17012:
16945:
16944:
16550:
16549:
16505:
16504:
16374:
16373:
16361:Weapon-free zones
16188:
16187:
16180:Radiopharmacology
15762:
15761:
15758:
15757:
15736:
15735:
15704:
15703:
15655:Asterix IV (PALS)
15468:
15467:
15370:
15369:
15283:
15282:
15097:
15096:
14616:
14615:
14574:
14573:
14533:Bubble (acoustic)
14515:Magnetized target
14492:Toroidal solenoid
14248:
14247:
14102:978-1-4757-9319-2
13939:978-0-19-856264-1
13821:Huba, J. (2003).
13644:CNO cycle#HCNO-II
13572:CNO cycle#CNO-III
13481:Subsection 4.7.4c
13201:10.1063/1.4804279
13059:Los Angeles Times
12782:(6066): 127–133.
12722:978-3-030-62307-4
12517:978-1-84977-439-0
12420:978-0-8247-0834-4
12282:10.1063/1.3563814
12235:10.1063/1.3116505
12128:(9–10): 656–665.
11673:Impulse generator
11637:in units of keV.
11595:
11568:
11491:
11430:
11403:
11326:
11288:
11267:
11266:
10693:
10692:
10685:
10610:
10604:
10558:
10533:
10517:
10516:
10486:
10070:
9840:
9817:
9816:
9629:
9463:
9413:
9383:
9158:
9052:
9025:
8979:
8952:
8915:
8870:
8841:quantum tunneling
8833:
8832:
8825:
8712:
8708:
8698:
8695:
8691:
8671:
8645:
8642:
8630:
8601:
8572:
8552:
8551:
8544:
8191:
8190:
7882:electrical charge
7874:
7873:
7866:
7633:
7632:
7157:
7156:
6487:
6486:
5770:Aneutronic fusion
5608:
5607:
5279:
5278:
4940:
4939:
4825:
4824:
3037:
3036:
3029:
2762:are able to fuse
2740:
2739:
2732:
2614:, carried out at
2550:pure fusion bombs
2306:
2305:
2298:
2227:Artificial fusion
1953:deuterium–tritium
1741:per nucleon, are
1659:
1658:
1651:
1369:ionization energy
1353:nuclear reactions
1307:For larger nuclei
1215:Helion Energy Inc
1161:Manhattan Project
1145:hydrogen isotopes
1117:Quantum tunneling
1103:American chemist
969:
968:
655:
401:Radioactive decay
357:Nuclear stability
184:Nuclear structure
16:(Redirected from
19225:
19175:
19174:
19163:
19162:
19151:
19150:
19149:
19142:
19069:
19062:
19055:
19046:
19045:
19030:
19029:
19018:
19006:
19005:
18994:
18993:
18968:Carbon footprint
18902:Renewable energy
18743:Hydroelectricity
18733:Geothermal power
18176:Energy condition
18108:
18101:
18094:
18085:
18084:
18022:Related articles
17937:Radiation damage
17762:Nuclear reactors
17647:
17646:
17628:
17621:
17614:
17605:
17604:
17589:
17588:
17577:
17576:
17566:
17565:
17564:
17476:
17435:Levitated dipole
17405:
17397:
17396:
17345:Helium gas (GFR)
17208:
17207:
17203:
17140:
17139:
17024:
17023:
16974:
16973:
16967:
16966:
16962:
16961:
16743:
16742:
16739:
16738:
16577:
16569:
16568:
16561:Nuclear reactors
16556:
16555:
16455:High-level (HLW)
16385:
16384:
16232:
16231:
16212:Food irradiation
16202:Atomic gardening
16095:
16094:
16078:Nuclear meltdown
15904:Nuclear material
15894:Fissile material
15889:Fertile material
15804:
15803:
15789:
15782:
15775:
15766:
15765:
15721:
15720:
15719:
15694:
15693:
15692:
15682:
15681:
15680:
15665:
15664:
15663:
15653:
15652:
15651:
15641:
15640:
15639:
15618:
15617:
15616:
15550:
15549:
15548:
15535:
15534:
15528:
15527:
15499:
15498:
15497:
15487:
15486:
15485:
15474:Magneto-inertial
15458:
15457:
15456:
15441:
15440:
15439:
15401:
15400:
15399:
15389:
15388:
15387:
15360:
15359:
15358:
15348:
15347:
15346:
15318:
15317:
15316:
15306:
15305:
15304:
15294:
15293:
15274:
15259:
15258:
15257:
15247:
15246:
15245:
15232:Wendelstein 7-AS
15225:
15224:
15223:
15197:
15196:
15195:
15185:
15184:
15183:
15160:
15159:
15158:
15123:
15122:
15121:
15108:
15107:
15077:
15076:
15075:
15065:
15064:
15063:
15053:
15052:
15051:
15041:
15040:
15039:
15019:
15018:
15017:
15002:
15001:
15000:
14985:
14984:
14983:
14976:
14961:
14960:
14959:
14949:
14948:
14947:
14926:
14925:
14924:
14914:
14913:
14912:
14902:
14901:
14900:
14893:
14878:
14877:
14876:
14861:
14860:
14859:
14822:
14821:
14820:
14800:
14790:
14789:
14788:
14773:
14772:
14771:
14726:Electric Tokamak
14702:
14701:
14700:
14690:
14689:
14688:
14649:
14648:
14640:
14639:
14629:
14628:
14510:Magnetized liner
14502:Magneto-inertial
14419:Levitated dipole
14314:
14313:
14303:
14302:
14273:Lawson criterion
14203:
14202:
14184:
14177:
14170:
14161:
14160:
14156:
14129:NuclearFiles.org
14118:
14116:
14114:
14073:
14071:
14069:
14036:
14034:
14032:
14026:
14015:
14005:
14003:
14001:
13996:on 26 April 2007
13992:. Archived from
13990:Google TechTalks
13977:
13950:
13948:
13942:. Archived from
13923:
13913:
13911:
13909:
13884:
13883:
13855:
13849:
13848:
13846:
13844:
13838:
13827:
13818:
13812:
13805:
13799:
13798:
13782:
13776:
13765:
13759:
13754:
13748:
13743:
13734:
13729:
13712:
13707:
13692:
13687:
13670:
13665:
13646:
13641:
13622:
13620:CNO cycle#HCNO-I
13617:
13598:
13596:CNO cycle#CNO-IV
13593:
13574:
13569:
13550:
13548:CNO cycle#CNO-II
13545:
13526:
13521:
13502:
13497:
13491:
13478:
13472:
13471:
13449:
13443:
13442:
13440:
13438:
13406:
13400:
13387:
13381:
13378:
13372:
13371:
13369:
13367:
13319:
13313:
13312:
13310:
13308:
13288:
13282:
13281:
13279:
13277:
13261:
13255:
13254:
13252:
13250:
13235:
13229:
13228:
13226:
13224:
13209:
13203:
13185:
13179:
13176:
13170:
13167:
13161:
13147:
13141:
13134:
13128:
13114:
13108:
13101:
13095:
13081:
13075:
13074:
13072:
13070:
13050:
13044:
13043:
13033:
13007:
13001:
13000:
12972:
12966:
12953:
12947:
12930:
12924:
12923:
12921:
12919:
12895:
12889:
12876:
12870:
12869:
12814:
12808:
12807:
12796:10.1038/321127a0
12771:
12765:
12762:
12756:
12753:
12747:
12746:
12744:
12742:
12698:
12692:
12691:
12689:
12687:
12667:
12661:
12648:
12642:
12641:
12639:
12607:
12601:
12600:
12598:
12596:
12540:
12534:
12533:
12531:
12529:
12501:
12495:
12494:
12492:
12490:
12450:
12444:
12434:Physics Flexbook
12431:
12425:
12424:
12400:
12394:
12393:
12391:
12389:
12370:
12364:
12363:
12348:
12342:
12341:
12339:
12337:
12318:
12312:
12311:
12309:
12307:
12292:
12286:
12285:
12257:
12251:
12250:
12248:
12246:
12206:
12200:
12199:
12197:
12195:
12179:
12173:
12172:
12160:
12154:
12153:
12117:
12111:
12108:
12071:
12034:
12011:
12005:
12004:
11968:
11962:
11959:
11957:
11955:
11938:(557): 341–358.
11921:
11919:
11917:
11883:
11881:
11879:
11861:
11859:10.1038/106014a0
11829:
11823:
11822:
11820:
11818:
11812:
11797:
11785:
11779:
11778:
11776:
11774:
11755:
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11609:
11604:
11593:
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11590:
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11566:
11551:
11550:
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11526:
11505:
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11487:
11479:
11464:
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11454:
11450:
11445:
11444:
11439:
11428:
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11419:
11401:
11386:
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11339:
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11314:
11299:
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11263:
11261:
11254:
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11234:
11227:
11225:
11213:
11211:
11204:
11202:
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11193:
11186:
11184:
11177:
11175:
11163:
11161:
11154:
11152:
11145:
11143:
11136:
11134:
11127:
11125:
11113:
11111:
11104:
11102:
11095:
11093:
11086:
11084:
11077:
11075:
11063:
11061:
11054:
11052:
11045:
11043:
11036:
11034:
11027:
11025:
11013:
11011:
11004:
11002:
10995:
10993:
10986:
10984:
10977:
10975:
10963:
10961:
10954:
10952:
10945:
10943:
10936:
10934:
10927:
10925:
10913:
10911:
10904:
10902:
10895:
10893:
10886:
10884:
10877:
10875:
10863:
10861:
10854:
10852:
10845:
10843:
10836:
10834:
10827:
10825:
10813:
10811:
10804:
10802:
10795:
10793:
10786:
10784:
10777:
10775:
10745:
10741:
10738:
10736:
10735:
10730:
10728:
10724:
10719:
10718:
10688:
10681:
10677:
10674:
10668:
10637:
10629:
10621:
10619:
10618:
10613:
10611:
10609:
10605:
10600:
10598:
10593:
10592:
10570:
10560:
10559:
10556:
10549:
10535:
10534:
10531:
10501:
10499:
10498:
10493:
10488:
10487:
10484:
10442:
10440:
10419:
10417:
10407:
10405:
10390:
10388:
10378:
10376:
10361:
10359:
10349:
10347:
10329:
10327:
10317:
10315:
10303:
10301:
10294:
10292:
10282:
10280:
10268:
10266:
10259:
10257:
10250:
10248:
10241:
10239:
10227:
10225:
10218:
10216:
10209:
10207:
10200:
10198:
10186:
10184:
10177:
10175:
10168:
10166:
10159:
10157:
10133:
10131:
10130:
10125:
10123:
10122:
10089:
10085:
10081:
10079:
10078:
10073:
10071:
10069:
10068:
10067:
10061:
10060:
10051:
10050:
10035:
10034:
10016:
10015:
10006:
10005:
9993:
9992:
9983:
9982:
9966:
9965:
9964:
9958:
9957:
9948:
9947:
9932:
9931:
9913:
9912:
9903:
9902:
9890:
9889:
9880:
9879:
9867:
9866:
9856:
9842:
9841:
9838:
9764:
9762:
9755:
9753:
9746:
9744:
9737:
9735:
9728:
9726:
9648:
9644:
9640:
9638:
9637:
9632:
9630:
9628:
9618:
9617:
9616:
9615:
9611:
9595:
9594:
9573:
9572:
9571:
9562:
9561:
9553:
9552:
9539:
9538:
9526:
9525:
9513:
9512:
9500:
9499:
9490:
9489:
9479:
9465:
9464:
9461:
9426:
9424:
9423:
9418:
9416:
9415:
9414:
9409:
9404:
9403:
9394:
9384:
9379:
9365:
9338:
9336:
9335:
9330:
9305:
9303:
9302:
9297:
9276:
9266:
9264:
9263:
9258:
9256:
9255:
9246:
9245:
9230:
9229:
9220:
9219:
9210:
9209:
9188:
9187:
9171:
9169:
9168:
9163:
9161:
9160:
9159:
9154:
9149:
9148:
9139:
9116:
9110:
9108:
9107:
9102:
9090:
9088:
9087:
9082:
9080:
9079:
9063:
9061:
9060:
9055:
9053:
9045:
9040:
9039:
9034:
9033:
9026:
9024:
9020:
9019:
9006:
9004:
9003:
8994:
8993:
8981:
8980:
8977:
8964:
8962:
8961:
8956:
8954:
8953:
8950:
8935:
8931:
8927:
8925:
8924:
8919:
8917:
8916:
8913:
8897:
8895:
8894:
8889:
8872:
8871:
8868:
8828:
8821:
8817:
8814:
8808:
8777:
8769:
8760:
8758:
8757:
8752:
8750:
8749:
8723:
8721:
8720:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8706:
8699:
8697:
8696:
8693:
8689:
8684:
8683:
8674:
8672:
8670:
8669:
8668:
8649:
8647:
8646:
8643:
8640:
8634:
8631:
8626:
8625:
8624:
8615:
8614:
8604:
8602:
8600:
8599:
8598:
8579:
8574:
8573:
8570:
8547:
8540:
8536:
8533:
8527:
8496:
8488:
8469:
8467:
8466:
8459:
8458:
8444:
8442:
8441:
8434:
8433:
8419:
8417:
8416:
8409:
8408:
8398:
8396:
8395:
8388:
8387:
8377:
8375:
8374:
8367:
8366:
8356:
8354:
8353:
8346:
8345:
8335:
8333:
8332:
8325:
8324:
8314:
8312:
8311:
8304:
8303:
8293:
8291:
8290:
8283:
8282:
8272:
8270:
8269:
8262:
8261:
8251:
8249:
8248:
8241:
8240:
8230:
8228:
8227:
8220:
8219:
8181:
8180:
8179:
8172:
8171:
8152:
8151:
8150:
8143:
8142:
8123:
8122:
8121:
8114:
8113:
8104:
8103:
8102:
8095:
8094:
8076:
8075:
8074:
8067:
8066:
8057:
8056:
8055:
8048:
8047:
8029:
8028:
8027:
8020:
8019:
8010:
8009:
8008:
8001:
8000:
7982:
7981:
7980:
7973:
7972:
7963:
7962:
7961:
7954:
7953:
7915:
7914:
7869:
7862:
7858:
7855:
7849:
7818:
7810:
7801:
7799:
7798:
7791:
7790:
7780:
7778:
7777:
7770:
7769:
7752:
7750:
7749:
7742:
7741:
7731:
7729:
7728:
7721:
7720:
7702:Lawson criterion
7699:
7697:
7696:
7689:
7688:
7678:
7676:
7675:
7668:
7667:
7657:
7655:
7648:
7643:
7614:
7612:
7605:
7604:
7603:
7596:
7595:
7568:
7566:
7559:
7558:
7557:
7550:
7549:
7521:
7519:
7512:
7511:
7510:
7503:
7502:
7493:
7492:
7491:
7484:
7483:
7456:
7454:
7447:
7446:
7445:
7438:
7437:
7428:
7427:
7426:
7419:
7418:
7391:
7389:
7382:
7381:
7380:
7373:
7372:
7363:
7362:
7361:
7354:
7353:
7335:Lawson criterion
7326:
7321:
7308:
7307:
7301:
7300:
7299:
7292:
7291:
7282:
7281:
7280:
7273:
7272:
7262:
7251:
7250:
7249:
7242:
7241:
7232:
7231:
7230:
7223:
7222:
7213:
7208:
7199:
7187:
7141:
7140:
7139:
7132:
7131:
7106:
7105:
7104:
7097:
7096:
7087:
7086:
7085:
7078:
7077:
7053:
7052:
7051:
7044:
7043:
7034:
7033:
7032:
7025:
7024:
7000:
6999:
6998:
6991:
6990:
6981:
6980:
6979:
6972:
6971:
6932:
6931:
6925:
6924:
6923:
6916:
6915:
6906:
6905:
6904:
6897:
6896:
6861:per D–D reaction
6858:
6857:
6856:
6849:
6848:
6839:
6838:
6837:
6830:
6829:
6798:
6796:
6795:
6788:
6787:
6773:
6771:
6770:
6763:
6762:
6752:
6750:
6749:
6742:
6741:
6727:
6726:
6725:
6718:
6717:
6708:
6707:
6706:
6699:
6698:
6689:
6688:
6687:
6680:
6679:
6670:
6669:
6668:
6661:
6660:
6651:
6650:
6649:
6642:
6641:
6632:
6631:
6630:
6623:
6622:
6613:
6612:
6611:
6604:
6603:
6594:
6593:
6592:
6585:
6584:
6575:
6574:
6573:
6566:
6565:
6556:
6555:
6554:
6547:
6546:
6537:
6536:
6535:
6528:
6527:
6477:
6475:
6474:
6467:
6466:
6447:
6445:
6444:
6437:
6436:
6417:
6415:
6414:
6407:
6406:
6387:
6385:
6384:
6377:
6376:
6357:
6355:
6354:
6347:
6346:
6327:
6325:
6324:
6317:
6316:
6297:
6295:
6294:
6287:
6286:
6267:
6265:
6264:
6257:
6256:
6237:
6235:
6234:
6227:
6226:
6207:
6205:
6204:
6197:
6196:
6177:
6175:
6174:
6167:
6166:
6147:
6145:
6144:
6137:
6136:
6117:
6115:
6114:
6107:
6106:
6087:
6085:
6084:
6077:
6076:
6057:
6055:
6054:
6047:
6046:
6027:
6025:
6024:
6017:
6016:
5997:
5995:
5994:
5987:
5986:
5967:
5965:
5964:
5957:
5956:
5937:
5935:
5934:
5927:
5926:
5907:
5905:
5904:
5897:
5896:
5877:
5875:
5874:
5867:
5866:
5847:
5845:
5844:
5837:
5836:
5817:
5815:
5814:
5807:
5806:
5784:
5781:
5742:
5741:
5740:
5733:
5732:
5723:
5722:
5721:
5714:
5713:
5704:
5703:
5702:
5695:
5694:
5685:
5684:
5683:
5676:
5675:
5666:
5665:
5664:
5657:
5656:
5647:
5646:
5645:
5638:
5637:
5628:
5627:
5626:
5619:
5618:
5604:
5602:
5592:
5591:
5590:
5583:
5582:
5569:
5567:
5557:
5556:
5555:
5548:
5547:
5534:
5532:
5522:
5521:
5520:
5513:
5512:
5503:
5502:
5501:
5494:
5493:
5481:
5479:
5469:
5468:
5467:
5460:
5459:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5441:
5440:
5428:
5426:
5416:
5415:
5414:
5407:
5406:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5388:
5387:
5375:
5370:
5352:
5351:
5348:
5343:
5333:Lawson criterion
5330:
5325:
5312:
5308:
5303:
5270:
5268:
5267:
5260:
5259:
5244:
5242:
5241:
5234:
5233:
5218:
5216:
5215:
5208:
5207:
5184:
5182:
5181:
5174:
5173:
5158:
5156:
5155:
5148:
5147:
5132:
5130:
5129:
5122:
5121:
5101:
5092:
5090:
5089:
5082:
5081:
5071:
5069:
5068:
5061:
5060:
5037:
5035:
5034:
5027:
5026:
5012:
5010:
5009:
5002:
5001:
4991:
4989:
4988:
4981:
4980:
4970:
4968:
4967:
4960:
4959:
4932:
4925:
4918:
4843:
4829:
4828:
4821:
4782:
4780:
4779:
4772:
4771:
4755:
4753:
4752:
4745:
4744:
4719:
4677:
4675:
4674:
4667:
4666:
4650:
4648:
4647:
4640:
4639:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4614:
4613:
4594:
4585:
4583:
4582:
4575:
4574:
4557:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4538:
4537:
4522:
4520:
4519:
4512:
4511:
4486:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4434:
4433:
4405:
4363:
4361:
4360:
4353:
4352:
4324:
4288:
4286:
4285:
4278:
4277:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4252:
4251:
4223:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4204:
4203:
4187:
4185:
4184:
4177:
4176:
4161:
4159:
4158:
4151:
4150:
4113:
4104:
4102:
4101:
4094:
4093:
4076:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4057:
4056:
4022:
3977:
3975:
3974:
3967:
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3898:
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3803:
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3793:
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3413:
3404:
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3394:
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3378:
3376:
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3368:
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3352:
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3342:
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3322:
3302:
3293:
3291:
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3283:
3282:
3267:
3265:
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3257:
3256:
3241:
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3231:
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3216:
3173:
3171:
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3163:
3162:
3153:
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3150:
3143:
3142:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3123:
3122:
3067:
3065:
3032:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3012:
2981:
2973:
2788:binding energies
2776:helium to carbon
2744:Lawson criterion
2735:
2728:
2724:
2721:
2715:
2684:
2676:
2638:Rusi Taleyarkhan
2634:sonic cavitation
2511:Other principles
2466:TAE Technologies
2402:carbon footprint
2338:Lawson criterion
2301:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2281:
2250:
2242:
2221:Lawson criterion
2217:confinement time
2214:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2166:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2116:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2080:
2079:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2035:
2034:
2025:
2024:
1999:
1998:
1989:
1988:
1891:
1889:
1888:
1881:
1880:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1857:
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1844:
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1834:
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1820:
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1810:
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1777:
1770:
1769:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1750:
1749:
1654:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1634:
1603:
1595:
1496:
1478:Arthur Eddington
1432:
1430:
1411:mass into energy
1385:released in the
1384:
1377:
1223:TAE Technologies
1155:. Research into
1141:Patrick Blackett
1129:Fritz Houtermans
1109:Arthur Eddington
961:
954:
947:
934:
929:
928:
921:
917:
916:
793:Skłodowska-Curie
653:
469:Neutron emission
237:' classification
189:Nuclear reaction
144:
130:
129:
101:
67:
54:
47:
21:
19233:
19232:
19228:
19227:
19226:
19224:
19223:
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19218:Nuclear physics
19208:Neutron sources
19183:
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19169:
19157:
19147:
19145:
19137:
19135:
19130:
19109:
19078:
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19038:
18982:
18978:Waste-to-energy
18956:
18892:Energy security
18838:
18832:
18688:
18680:
18659:Natural uranium
18593:
18574:Mechanical wave
18505:Energy carriers
18499:
18339:
18268:Isolated system
18146:
18140:
18117:
18112:
18082:
18077:
18076:
18053:
18049:Havana syndrome
18034:Nuclear physics
18017:
17981:
17874:
17864:
17850:Unruh radiation
17786:
17767:Nuclear weapons
17752:Nuclear fission
17698:
17638:
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16898:
16880:
16845:
16836:
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16723:
16637:Natural fission
16591:
16590:
16578:
16573:
16563:
16546:
16522:Nuclear weapons
16501:
16460:Low-level (LLW)
16438:
16370:
16322:
16221:
16184:
16131:
16084:
16005:
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15860:
15798:
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15366:
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15329:
15314:
15312:
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15279:
15268:
15255:
15253:
15243:
15241:
15237:Wendelstein 7-X
15221:
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14673:
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14623:
14612:
14570:
14547:
14519:
14496:
14424:Magnetic mirror
14400:
14387:Silicon-burning
14372:Lithium burning
14309:
14298:
14292:
14258:Nuclear reactor
14244:
14194:
14188:
14151:
14147:Wayback Machine
14125:
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14067:
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13891:Further reading
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13553:
13546:
13529:
13524:CNO cycle#CNO-I
13522:
13505:
13498:
13494:
13488:Wayback Machine
13479:
13475:
13468:
13458:Springer-Verlag
13450:
13446:
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13407:
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13398:Wayback Machine
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13164:
13158:Wayback Machine
13148:
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13125:Wayback Machine
13115:
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13102:
13098:
13092:Wayback Machine
13083:F. Winterberg "
13082:
13078:
13068:
13066:
13051:
13047:
13031:10.1038/460025a
13024:(7251): 25–28.
13008:
13004:
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12969:
12963:Wayback Machine
12954:
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12940:Wayback Machine
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12896:
12892:
12887:Wayback Machine
12877:
12873:
12826:. Main article
12824:Wayback Machine
12815:
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12441:Wayback Machine
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12413:. p. 151.
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12046:(28): 557–558.
12012:
12008:
11979:(10): 742–764.
11969:
11965:
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11932:The Observatory
11915:
11913:
11877:
11875:
11844:(2653): 14–20.
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11708:Nuclear reactor
11703:Nuclear physics
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7277:
7276:
7275:
7271:
7268:
7267:
7266:
7265:
7256:
7248:
7246:
7245:
7244:
7240:
7237:
7236:
7235:
7234:
7229:
7227:
7226:
7225:
7221:
7218:
7217:
7216:
7215:
7202:
7201:
7193:
7186:
7179:
7172:
7165:
7138:
7136:
7135:
7134:
7130:
7127:
7126:
7125:
7124:
7103:
7101:
7100:
7099:
7095:
7092:
7091:
7090:
7089:
7084:
7082:
7081:
7080:
7076:
7073:
7072:
7071:
7070:
7050:
7048:
7047:
7046:
7042:
7039:
7038:
7037:
7036:
7031:
7029:
7028:
7027:
7023:
7020:
7019:
7018:
7017:
6997:
6995:
6994:
6993:
6989:
6986:
6985:
6984:
6983:
6978:
6976:
6975:
6974:
6970:
6967:
6966:
6965:
6964:
6956:
6948:
6922:
6920:
6919:
6918:
6914:
6911:
6910:
6909:
6908:
6903:
6901:
6900:
6899:
6895:
6892:
6891:
6890:
6889:
6879:specific energy
6876:
6869:
6855:
6853:
6852:
6851:
6847:
6844:
6843:
6842:
6841:
6836:
6834:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6825:
6824:
6823:
6822:
6816:
6809:
6794:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6786:
6783:
6782:
6781:
6779:
6769:
6767:
6766:
6765:
6761:
6758:
6757:
6756:
6754:
6748:
6746:
6745:
6744:
6740:
6737:
6736:
6735:
6733:
6724:
6722:
6721:
6720:
6716:
6713:
6712:
6711:
6710:
6705:
6703:
6702:
6701:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6692:
6691:
6686:
6684:
6683:
6682:
6678:
6675:
6674:
6673:
6672:
6667:
6665:
6664:
6663:
6659:
6656:
6655:
6654:
6653:
6648:
6646:
6645:
6644:
6640:
6637:
6636:
6635:
6634:
6629:
6627:
6626:
6625:
6621:
6618:
6617:
6616:
6615:
6610:
6608:
6607:
6606:
6602:
6599:
6598:
6597:
6596:
6591:
6589:
6588:
6587:
6583:
6580:
6579:
6578:
6577:
6572:
6570:
6569:
6568:
6564:
6561:
6560:
6559:
6558:
6553:
6551:
6550:
6549:
6545:
6542:
6541:
6540:
6539:
6534:
6532:
6531:
6530:
6526:
6523:
6522:
6521:
6520:
6511:
6504:
6492:
6473:
6471:
6470:
6469:
6465:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6458:
6450:1664.20(47) ms
6443:
6441:
6440:
6439:
6435:
6432:
6431:
6430:
6428:
6413:
6411:
6410:
6409:
6405:
6402:
6401:
6400:
6398:
6390:109.734(8) min
6383:
6381:
6380:
6379:
6375:
6372:
6371:
6370:
6368:
6353:
6351:
6350:
6349:
6345:
6342:
6341:
6340:
6338:
6323:
6321:
6320:
6319:
6315:
6312:
6311:
6310:
6308:
6293:
6291:
6290:
6289:
6285:
6282:
6281:
6280:
6278:
6263:
6261:
6260:
6259:
6255:
6252:
6251:
6250:
6248:
6233:
6231:
6230:
6229:
6225:
6222:
6221:
6220:
6218:
6203:
6201:
6200:
6199:
6195:
6192:
6191:
6190:
6188:
6173:
6171:
6170:
6169:
6165:
6162:
6161:
6160:
6158:
6143:
6141:
6140:
6139:
6135:
6132:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6113:
6111:
6110:
6109:
6105:
6102:
6101:
6100:
6098:
6083:
6081:
6080:
6079:
6075:
6072:
6071:
6070:
6068:
6053:
6051:
6050:
6049:
6045:
6042:
6041:
6040:
6038:
6023:
6021:
6020:
6019:
6015:
6012:
6011:
6010:
6008:
5993:
5991:
5990:
5989:
5985:
5982:
5981:
5980:
5978:
5963:
5961:
5960:
5959:
5955:
5952:
5951:
5950:
5948:
5933:
5931:
5930:
5929:
5925:
5922:
5921:
5920:
5918:
5903:
5901:
5900:
5899:
5895:
5892:
5891:
5890:
5888:
5873:
5871:
5870:
5869:
5865:
5862:
5861:
5860:
5858:
5843:
5841:
5840:
5839:
5835:
5832:
5831:
5830:
5828:
5813:
5811:
5810:
5809:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5800:
5798:
5780:
5754:
5739:
5737:
5736:
5735:
5731:
5728:
5727:
5726:
5725:
5720:
5718:
5717:
5716:
5712:
5709:
5708:
5707:
5706:
5701:
5699:
5698:
5697:
5693:
5690:
5689:
5688:
5687:
5682:
5680:
5679:
5678:
5674:
5671:
5670:
5669:
5668:
5663:
5661:
5660:
5659:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5650:
5649:
5644:
5642:
5641:
5640:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5631:
5630:
5625:
5623:
5622:
5621:
5617:
5614:
5613:
5612:
5611:
5600:
5598:
5589:
5587:
5586:
5585:
5581:
5578:
5577:
5576:
5575:
5565:
5563:
5554:
5552:
5551:
5550:
5546:
5543:
5542:
5541:
5540:
5530:
5528:
5519:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5511:
5508:
5507:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5498:
5497:
5496:
5492:
5489:
5488:
5487:
5486:
5477:
5475:
5466:
5464:
5463:
5462:
5458:
5455:
5454:
5453:
5452:
5447:
5445:
5444:
5443:
5439:
5436:
5435:
5434:
5433:
5424:
5422:
5413:
5411:
5410:
5409:
5405:
5402:
5401:
5400:
5399:
5394:
5392:
5391:
5390:
5386:
5383:
5382:
5381:
5380:
5364:
5363:
5337:
5336:
5319:
5318:
5310:
5297:
5296:
5266:
5264:
5263:
5262:
5258:
5255:
5254:
5253:
5251:
5240:
5238:
5237:
5236:
5232:
5229:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5214:
5212:
5211:
5210:
5206:
5203:
5202:
5201:
5199:
5180:
5178:
5177:
5176:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5165:
5154:
5152:
5151:
5150:
5146:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5139:
5128:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5120:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5113:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5084:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5067:
5065:
5064:
5063:
5059:
5056:
5055:
5054:
5052:
5046:
5033:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5008:
5006:
5005:
5004:
5000:
4997:
4996:
4995:
4993:
4987:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4974:
4972:
4966:
4964:
4963:
4962:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4953:
4951:
4936:
4904:Nuclear fission
4833:Nucleosynthesis
4819:
4778:
4776:
4775:
4774:
4770:
4767:
4766:
4765:
4763:
4751:
4749:
4748:
4747:
4743:
4740:
4739:
4738:
4736:
4717:
4673:
4671:
4670:
4669:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4646:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4620:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4592:
4581:
4579:
4578:
4577:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4568:
4566:
4555:
4544:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4536:
4533:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4518:
4516:
4515:
4514:
4510:
4507:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4484:
4440:
4438:
4437:
4436:
4432:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4403:
4359:
4357:
4356:
4355:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4344:
4322:
4284:
4282:
4281:
4280:
4276:
4273:
4272:
4271:
4269:
4258:
4256:
4255:
4254:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4221:
4210:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4202:
4199:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4183:
4181:
4180:
4179:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4170:
4168:
4157:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4149:
4146:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4111:
4100:
4098:
4097:
4096:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4074:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4020:
3973:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3947:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3917:
3913:
3910:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3896:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3825:
3823:
3822:
3821:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3799:
3797:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3774:
3729:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3721:
3718:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3703:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3695:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3677:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3649:
3629:
3618:
3616:
3615:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3592:
3590:
3589:
3588:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3579:
3577:
3566:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3520:
3500:
3489:
3487:
3486:
3485:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3474:
3431:
3411:
3400:
3398:
3397:
3396:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3348:
3346:
3345:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3320:
3300:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3186:Coulomb barrier
3169:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3161:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3149:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3080:
3074:
3063:
3061:
3042:
3033:
3022:
3016:
3013:
2998:
2982:
2971:
2925:There are also
2923:
2917:
2860:
2854:
2830:
2824:
2816:nucleosynthesis
2812:nuclear fission
2736:
2725:
2719:
2716:
2701:
2685:
2674:
2668:
2651:
2578:nuclei into an
2513:
2486:
2474:Coulomb barrier
2462:Norman Rostoker
2416:
2410:
2357:Coulomb barrier
2346:Coulomb barrier
2302:
2291:
2285:
2282:
2267:
2251:
2240:
2235:
2229:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2118:
2112:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2085:
2081:
2075:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2005:
2004:
1992:
1991:
1982:
1981:
1942:Coulomb barrier
1935:Coulomb barrier
1887:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1830:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1764:
1762:
1756:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1696:quantum objects
1655:
1644:
1638:
1635:
1620:
1604:
1593:
1488:
1439:
1428:
1426:
1399:nuclear fission
1379:
1372:
1318:nucleosynthesis
1263:mass disappears
1235:
1173:fusion reactors
1125:Robert Atkinson
1101:
1095:
1059:nuclear fission
965:
924:
911:
910:
903:
902:
738:
728:
727:
708:
698:
697:
642:
638:
635:Nucleosynthesis
627:
626:
605:
597:
596:
546:
538:
537:
511:
509:Nuclear fission
501:
500:
474:Proton emission
403:
393:
392:
358:
350:
349:
251:
238:
227:
226:
202:
134:Nuclear physics
112:
111:
110:
109:
108:
102:
93:
92:
91:
68:
55:
51:Nuclear fission
48:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
19231:
19221:
19220:
19215:
19210:
19205:
19200:
19195:
19193:Nuclear fusion
19180:
19179:
19167:
19155:
19132:
19131:
19129:
19128:
19126:Nuclear fusion
19123:
19117:
19115:
19111:
19110:
19108:
19107:
19102:
19097:
19092:
19086:
19084:
19080:
19079:
19076:Excimer lasers
19072:
19071:
19064:
19057:
19049:
19040:
19039:
19037:
19036:
19024:
19012:
19000:
18987:
18984:
18983:
18981:
18980:
18975:
18973:Jevons paradox
18970:
18964:
18962:
18958:
18957:
18955:
18954:
18949:
18944:
18939:
18934:
18929:
18924:
18919:
18914:
18909:
18904:
18899:
18897:Energy storage
18894:
18889:
18888:
18887:
18877:
18872:
18867:
18866:
18865:
18860:
18855:
18844:
18842:
18834:
18833:
18831:
18830:
18829:
18828:
18823:
18813:
18812:
18811:
18806:
18796:
18795:
18794:
18789:
18779:
18774:
18773:
18772:
18767:
18757:
18756:
18755:
18750:
18745:
18735:
18730:
18729:
18728:
18723:
18713:
18708:
18703:
18701:Electric power
18698:
18692:
18690:
18682:
18681:
18679:
18678:
18673:
18668:
18663:
18662:
18661:
18651:
18646:
18641:
18636:
18631:
18630:
18629:
18624:
18619:
18609:
18603:
18601:
18599:Primary energy
18595:
18594:
18592:
18591:
18586:
18581:
18576:
18571:
18570:
18569:
18559:
18558:
18557:
18547:
18546:
18545:
18540:
18530:
18525:
18520:
18515:
18509:
18507:
18501:
18500:
18498:
18497:
18492:
18487:
18482:
18477:
18472:
18467:
18462:
18457:
18452:
18447:
18442:
18437:
18432:
18427:
18422:
18417:
18412:
18407:
18402:
18397:
18396:
18395:
18385:
18380:
18375:
18370:
18365:
18360:
18359:
18358:
18347:
18345:
18341:
18340:
18338:
18337:
18336:
18335:
18330:
18325:
18320:
18315:
18310:
18305:
18300:
18295:
18290:
18285:
18280:
18275:
18270:
18265:
18260:
18255:
18250:
18245:
18240:
18235:
18233:Entropic force
18230:
18223:Thermodynamics
18220:
18215:
18214:
18213:
18208:
18198:
18193:
18188:
18183:
18178:
18173:
18172:
18171:
18161:
18156:
18150:
18148:
18142:
18141:
18139:
18138:
18133:
18128:
18122:
18119:
18118:
18111:
18110:
18103:
18096:
18088:
18079:
18078:
18058:
18055:
18054:
18052:
18051:
18046:
18041:
18036:
18031:
18025:
18023:
18019:
18018:
18016:
18015:
18010:
18005:
18000:
17995:
17989:
17987:
17983:
17982:
17980:
17979:
17974:
17969:
17964:
17959:
17954:
17949:
17944:
17939:
17934:
17929:
17924:
17919:
17914:
17909:
17904:
17899:
17897:Health physics
17894:
17893:
17892:
17887:
17878:
17876:
17870:
17869:
17866:
17865:
17863:
17862:
17857:
17855:Dark radiation
17852:
17847:
17845:Bremsstrahlung
17842:
17837:
17832:
17827:
17822:
17817:
17812:
17807:
17802:
17797:
17791:
17788:
17787:
17785:
17784:
17779:
17774:
17769:
17764:
17759:
17757:Nuclear fusion
17754:
17749:
17744:
17739:
17734:
17729:
17727:Alpha particle
17724:
17719:
17714:
17708:
17706:
17700:
17699:
17697:
17696:
17691:
17686:
17681:
17676:
17671:
17666:
17661:
17655:
17653:
17644:
17640:
17639:
17631:
17630:
17623:
17616:
17608:
17599:
17598:
17596:
17595:
17583:
17571:
17556:
17553:
17552:
17549:
17548:
17545:
17544:
17542:
17541:
17536:
17531:
17529:Muon-catalyzed
17526:
17521:
17515:
17513:
17509:
17508:
17506:
17505:
17500:
17495:
17490:
17489:
17488:
17478:
17469:
17467:
17461:
17460:
17458:
17457:
17452:
17447:
17442:
17437:
17432:
17426:
17424:
17418:
17417:
17411:
17408:
17407:
17393:
17392:
17390:
17389:
17384:
17383:
17382:
17377:
17366:
17364:
17360:
17359:
17356:
17355:
17353:
17352:
17347:
17342:
17337:
17336:
17335:
17330:
17325:
17320:
17315:
17310:
17305:
17300:
17295:
17290:
17285:
17280:
17269:
17267:
17261:
17260:
17258:
17257:
17252:
17247:
17242:
17237:
17232:
17227:
17222:
17220:Integral (IFR)
17217:
17211:
17205:
17194:
17191:
17190:
17187:
17186:
17183:
17182:
17180:
17179:
17174:
17169:
17164:
17159:
17154:
17148:
17146:
17137:
17131:
17130:
17127:
17126:
17124:
17123:
17122:
17121:
17116:
17115:
17114:
17109:
17104:
17099:
17084:
17079:
17078:
17077:
17066:
17064:
17058:
17057:
17055:
17054:
17049:
17044:
17035:
17033:
17029:
17021:
17015:
17014:
17011:
17010:
17008:
17007:
17002:
16997:
16992:
16986:
16984:
16979:
16971:
16964:
16950:
16947:
16946:
16943:
16942:
16940:
16939:
16938:
16937:
16932:
16927:
16922:
16911:
16909:
16905:
16900:
16899:
16897:
16896:
16890:
16888:
16882:
16881:
16879:
16878:
16873:
16868:
16867:
16866:
16861:
16850:
16848:
16843:
16838:
16837:
16835:
16834:
16833:
16832:
16827:
16822:
16817:
16812:
16811:
16810:
16805:
16800:
16790:
16785:
16784:
16783:
16778:
16775:
16772:
16769:
16755:
16753:
16748:
16740:
16725:
16724:
16722:
16721:
16716:
16715:
16714:
16711:
16706:
16701:
16700:
16699:
16694:
16684:
16679:
16674:
16669:
16664:
16659:
16654:
16649:
16639:
16634:
16633:
16632:
16627:
16622:
16617:
16607:
16601:
16599:
16593:
16592:
16584:
16583:
16580:
16579:
16565:
16564:
16552:
16551:
16548:
16547:
16545:
16544:
16539:
16537:Uranium mining
16534:
16529:
16524:
16519:
16513:
16511:
16507:
16506:
16503:
16502:
16500:
16499:
16494:
16493:
16492:
16487:
16477:
16472:
16467:
16462:
16457:
16452:
16446:
16444:
16440:
16439:
16437:
16436:
16431:
16430:
16429:
16419:
16414:
16413:
16412:
16410:Minor actinide
16407:
16402:
16391:
16389:
16382:
16376:
16375:
16372:
16371:
16369:
16368:
16363:
16358:
16353:
16352:
16351:
16346:
16336:
16330:
16328:
16324:
16323:
16321:
16320:
16319:
16318:
16308:
16303:
16302:
16301:
16296:
16286:
16281:
16276:
16275:
16274:
16264:
16259:
16254:
16249:
16244:
16238:
16236:
16229:
16223:
16222:
16220:
16219:
16214:
16209:
16204:
16198:
16196:
16190:
16189:
16186:
16185:
16183:
16182:
16177:
16172:
16167:
16162:
16157:
16152:
16147:
16141:
16139:
16133:
16132:
16130:
16129:
16124:
16119:
16114:
16109:
16107:Autoradiograph
16103:
16101:
16092:
16086:
16085:
16083:
16082:
16081:
16080:
16070:
16069:
16068:
16058:
16057:
16056:
16046:
16041:
16036:
16031:
16026:
16021:
16015:
16013:
16007:
16006:
16004:
16003:
15998:
15993:
15988:
15983:
15978:
15973:
15968:
15963:
15958:
15953:
15947:
15945:
15939:
15938:
15936:
15935:
15934:
15933:
15928:
15923:
15922:
15921:
15916:
15901:
15896:
15891:
15886:
15881:
15876:
15870:
15868:
15862:
15861:
15859:
15858:
15857:
15856:
15851:
15841:
15836:
15831:
15829:Atomic nucleus
15826:
15821:
15816:
15810:
15808:
15800:
15799:
15792:
15791:
15784:
15777:
15769:
15760:
15759:
15756:
15755:
15753:
15752:
15747:
15741:
15738:
15737:
15734:
15733:
15731:
15730:
15725:
15712:
15710:
15706:
15705:
15702:
15701:
15699:
15698:
15686:
15674:
15669:
15657:
15645:
15632:
15630:
15626:
15625:
15623:
15622:
15609:
15607:
15603:
15602:
15600:
15599:
15594:
15589:
15584:
15579:
15574:
15569:
15564:
15559:
15554:
15541:
15539:
15532:
15525:
15517:
15516:
15514:
15513:
15508:
15503:
15491:
15478:
15476:
15470:
15469:
15466:
15465:
15463:
15462:
15450:
15445:
15432:
15430:
15426:
15425:
15423:
15422:
15421:
15420:
15410:
15405:
15393:
15380:
15378:
15372:
15371:
15368:
15367:
15365:
15364:
15352:
15339:
15337:
15331:
15330:
15328:
15327:
15322:
15310:
15297:
15291:
15285:
15284:
15281:
15280:
15278:
15277:
15276:
15275:
15251:
15239:
15234:
15229:
15216:
15214:
15210:
15209:
15207:
15206:
15201:
15189:
15176:
15174:
15168:
15167:
15165:
15164:
15152:
15147:
15142:
15137:
15132:
15127:
15114:
15112:
15105:
15099:
15098:
15095:
15094:
15092:
15091:
15086:
15081:
15069:
15057:
15045:
15033:
15028:
15023:
15011:
15006:
14994:
14989:
14977:
14965:
14953:
14940:
14938:
14934:
14933:
14931:
14930:
14918:
14906:
14894:
14882:
14870:
14865:
14853:
14848:
14843:
14838:
14837:
14836:
14826:
14813:
14811:
14805:
14804:
14802:
14801:
14782:
14777:
14765:
14760:
14755:
14750:
14749:
14748:
14743:
14733:
14728:
14723:
14718:
14717:
14716:
14706:
14694:
14681:
14679:
14675:
14674:
14672:
14671:
14666:
14661:
14655:
14653:
14646:
14637:
14626:
14618:
14617:
14614:
14613:
14611:
14610:
14605:
14603:Muon-catalyzed
14600:
14595:
14594:
14593:
14586:Colliding beam
14582:
14580:
14576:
14575:
14572:
14571:
14569:
14568:
14563:
14557:
14555:
14549:
14548:
14546:
14545:
14540:
14535:
14529:
14527:
14521:
14520:
14518:
14517:
14512:
14506:
14504:
14498:
14497:
14495:
14494:
14489:
14488:
14487:
14486:
14485:
14475:
14465:
14460:
14459:
14458:
14453:
14448:
14446:Reversed field
14443:
14433:
14432:
14431:
14421:
14416:
14410:
14408:
14402:
14401:
14399:
14394:
14389:
14384:
14382:Oxygen-burning
14379:
14374:
14369:
14367:Carbon-burning
14364:
14359:
14358:
14357:
14347:
14342:
14337:
14332:
14327:
14322:
14320:
14311:
14300:
14294:
14293:
14291:
14290:
14285:
14280:
14275:
14270:
14265:
14263:Atomic nucleus
14260:
14255:
14249:
14246:
14245:
14243:
14242:
14237:
14232:
14227:
14222:
14217:
14215:Burning plasma
14211:
14209:
14207:Nuclear fusion
14200:
14196:
14195:
14187:
14186:
14179:
14172:
14164:
14158:
14157:
14149:
14137:
14132:
14124:
14123:External links
14121:
14120:
14119:
14101:
14074:
14056:
14050:. p. 22.
14043:Fusion Physics
14037:
14006:
13978:
13951:
13938:
13914:
13892:
13889:
13886:
13885:
13866:(4): 611–631.
13860:Nuclear Fusion
13850:
13813:
13800:
13777:
13772:
13768:
13760:
13749:
13735:
13713:
13693:
13671:
13647:
13623:
13599:
13575:
13551:
13527:
13503:
13492:
13473:
13466:
13444:
13425:
13419:. p. 22.
13412:Fusion Physics
13401:
13382:
13373:
13314:
13283:
13256:
13230:
13204:
13180:
13171:
13162:
13142:
13129:
13109:
13096:
13076:
13045:
13002:
12967:
12948:
12925:
12890:
12871:
12809:
12766:
12757:
12748:
12721:
12693:
12662:
12643:
12602:
12555:(4): 297–303.
12535:
12516:
12496:
12445:
12426:
12419:
12395:
12365:
12343:
12313:
12287:
12252:
12201:
12174:
12155:
12112:
12110:
12109:
12072:
12035:
12029:(in Russian).
12006:
11963:
11961:
11960:
11924:Reprinted in:
11922:
11900:(4): 297–303.
11886:Reprinted in:
11824:
11780:
11749:
11748:
11746:
11743:
11741:
11740:
11735:
11730:
11725:
11720:
11715:
11713:Periodic table
11710:
11705:
11700:
11698:Nuclear energy
11695:
11693:Neutron source
11690:
11685:
11680:
11675:
11670:
11665:
11660:
11655:
11650:
11644:
11642:
11639:
11631:
11630:
11618:
11614:
11608:
11603:
11600:
11587:
11583:
11579:
11576:
11572:
11565:
11562:
11558:
11554:
11549:
11545:
11541:
11538:
11534:
11530:
11525:
11522:
11518:
11514:
11511:
11508:
11503:
11500:
11496:
11490:
11486:
11483:
11477:
11466:
11465:
11453:
11449:
11443:
11438:
11435:
11422:
11418:
11414:
11411:
11407:
11400:
11397:
11393:
11389:
11384:
11380:
11376:
11373:
11369:
11365:
11360:
11357:
11353:
11349:
11346:
11343:
11338:
11335:
11331:
11325:
11321:
11318:
11312:
11284:
11281:
11278:
11265:
11264:
11255:
11246:
11237:
11228:
11219:
11215:
11214:
11205:
11196:
11187:
11178:
11169:
11165:
11164:
11155:
11146:
11137:
11128:
11119:
11115:
11114:
11105:
11096:
11087:
11078:
11069:
11065:
11064:
11055:
11046:
11037:
11028:
11019:
11015:
11014:
11005:
10996:
10987:
10978:
10969:
10965:
10964:
10955:
10946:
10937:
10928:
10919:
10915:
10914:
10905:
10896:
10887:
10878:
10869:
10865:
10864:
10855:
10846:
10837:
10828:
10819:
10815:
10814:
10805:
10796:
10787:
10778:
10769:
10765:
10764:
10761:
10758:
10755:
10752:
10749:
10727:
10723:
10717:
10713:
10709:
10691:
10690:
10641:
10639:
10632:
10626:
10623:
10608:
10603:
10597:
10591:
10587:
10583:
10580:
10577:
10574:
10569:
10566:
10563:
10554:
10547:
10544:
10541:
10538:
10529:
10515:
10514:
10511:
10508:
10505:
10502:
10491:
10482:
10478:
10475:
10472:
10461:
10460:
10457:
10454:
10451:
10448:
10444:
10443:
10434:
10431:
10428:
10425:
10421:
10420:
10411:
10408:
10399:
10396:
10392:
10391:
10382:
10379:
10370:
10367:
10363:
10362:
10353:
10350:
10341:
10338:
10334:
10333:
10330:
10321:
10318:
10309:
10305:
10304:
10295:
10286:
10283:
10274:
10270:
10269:
10260:
10251:
10242:
10233:
10229:
10228:
10219:
10210:
10201:
10192:
10188:
10187:
10178:
10169:
10160:
10151:
10147:
10146:
10143:
10140:
10137:
10134:
10121:
10117:
10105:
10104:
10101:
10098:
10095:
10092:
10084:
10083:
10066:
10059:
10054:
10049:
10045:
10041:
10038:
10033:
10029:
10025:
10022:
10019:
10014:
10010:
10004:
9999:
9996:
9991:
9987:
9981:
9976:
9973:
9970:
9963:
9956:
9951:
9946:
9942:
9938:
9935:
9930:
9926:
9922:
9919:
9916:
9911:
9907:
9901:
9896:
9893:
9888:
9884:
9878:
9873:
9870:
9865:
9861:
9854:
9851:
9848:
9845:
9836:
9815:
9814:
9811:
9808:
9805:
9802:
9799:
9796:
9792:
9791:
9788:
9785:
9782:
9779:
9776:
9773:
9769:
9768:
9765:
9756:
9747:
9738:
9729:
9720:
9716:
9715:
9712:
9709:
9706:
9703:
9700:
9697:
9693:
9692:
9689:
9686:
9683:
9680:
9677:
9674:
9670:
9669:
9666:
9663:
9660:
9657:
9654:
9651:
9643:
9642:
9627:
9624:
9621:
9614:
9610:
9606:
9603:
9599:
9593:
9589:
9584:
9580:
9577:
9570:
9566:
9560:
9557:
9551:
9545:
9542:
9537:
9533:
9529:
9524:
9520:
9516:
9511:
9507:
9503:
9498:
9493:
9488:
9484:
9477:
9474:
9471:
9468:
9459:
9439:
9436:
9428:
9427:
9412:
9408:
9402:
9398:
9392:
9388:
9382:
9378:
9375:
9372:
9369:
9363:
9360:
9357:
9354:
9351:
9328:
9325:
9322:
9319:
9295:
9292:
9289:
9286:
9254:
9250:
9244:
9240:
9236:
9233:
9228:
9224:
9218:
9214:
9208:
9204:
9200:
9197:
9194:
9191:
9186:
9182:
9157:
9153:
9147:
9143:
9137:
9133:
9129:
9126:
9100:
9078:
9074:
9051:
9048:
9043:
9038:
9032:
9023:
9018:
9014:
9009:
9002:
8997:
8992:
8988:
8984:
8975:
8948:
8911:
8899:
8898:
8887:
8884:
8881:
8878:
8875:
8866:
8862:
8859:
8831:
8830:
8781:
8779:
8772:
8766:
8763:
8748:
8745:
8741:
8725:
8724:
8705:
8702:
8688:
8682:
8678:
8667:
8663:
8659:
8656:
8652:
8637:
8629:
8623:
8619:
8613:
8609:
8597:
8593:
8589:
8586:
8582:
8577:
8568:
8550:
8549:
8500:
8498:
8491:
8485:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8464:
8455:
8439:
8430:
8414:
8405:
8393:
8384:
8372:
8363:
8351:
8342:
8330:
8321:
8309:
8300:
8288:
8279:
8267:
8258:
8246:
8237:
8225:
8216:
8189:
8188:
8185:
8182:
8177:
8168:
8160:
8159:
8156:
8153:
8148:
8139:
8131:
8130:
8127:
8124:
8119:
8110:
8100:
8091:
8084:
8083:
8080:
8077:
8072:
8063:
8053:
8044:
8037:
8036:
8033:
8030:
8025:
8016:
8006:
7997:
7990:
7989:
7986:
7983:
7978:
7969:
7959:
7950:
7943:
7942:
7940:Bremsstrahlung
7939:
7932:
7927:
7924:
7919:
7905:optically thin
7894:Bremsstrahlung
7872:
7871:
7822:
7820:
7813:
7807:
7804:
7796:
7787:
7775:
7766:
7757:
7747:
7738:
7726:
7717:
7708:
7694:
7685:
7673:
7664:
7631:
7630:
7627:
7624:
7621:
7618:
7615:
7606:
7601:
7592:
7584:
7583:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7569:
7560:
7555:
7546:
7538:
7537:
7534:
7531:
7528:
7525:
7522:
7513:
7508:
7499:
7489:
7480:
7473:
7472:
7469:
7466:
7463:
7460:
7457:
7448:
7443:
7434:
7424:
7415:
7408:
7407:
7404:
7401:
7398:
7395:
7392:
7383:
7378:
7369:
7359:
7350:
7343:
7342:
7339:
7338:power density
7336:
7333:
7330:
7327:
7312:
7297:
7288:
7278:
7269:
7247:
7238:
7228:
7219:
7184:
7177:
7170:
7155:
7154:
7151:
7148:
7145:
7142:
7137:
7128:
7120:
7119:
7116:
7113:
7110:
7107:
7102:
7093:
7083:
7074:
7067:
7066:
7063:
7060:
7057:
7054:
7049:
7040:
7030:
7021:
7014:
7013:
7010:
7007:
7004:
7001:
6996:
6987:
6977:
6968:
6961:
6960:
6957:
6954:
6949:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6921:
6912:
6902:
6893:
6874:
6867:
6859:fusion energy
6854:
6845:
6835:
6826:
6819:
6818:
6814:
6807:
6793:
6784:
6768:
6759:
6747:
6738:
6723:
6714:
6704:
6695:
6685:
6676:
6666:
6657:
6647:
6638:
6628:
6619:
6609:
6600:
6590:
6581:
6571:
6562:
6552:
6543:
6533:
6524:
6509:
6502:
6491:
6488:
6485:
6484:
6481:
6480:17.2569(19) s
6478:
6472:
6463:
6455:
6454:
6451:
6448:
6442:
6433:
6425:
6424:
6421:
6418:
6412:
6403:
6395:
6394:
6391:
6388:
6382:
6373:
6365:
6364:
6361:
6358:
6352:
6343:
6335:
6334:
6331:
6328:
6322:
6313:
6305:
6304:
6301:
6298:
6292:
6283:
6275:
6274:
6271:
6268:
6262:
6253:
6245:
6244:
6241:
6240:122.266(43) s
6238:
6232:
6223:
6215:
6214:
6211:
6208:
6202:
6193:
6185:
6184:
6181:
6178:
6172:
6163:
6155:
6154:
6151:
6148:
6142:
6133:
6125:
6124:
6121:
6118:
6112:
6103:
6095:
6094:
6091:
6088:
6082:
6073:
6065:
6064:
6061:
6058:
6052:
6043:
6035:
6034:
6031:
6028:
6022:
6013:
6005:
6004:
6001:
5998:
5992:
5983:
5975:
5974:
5971:
5968:
5962:
5953:
5945:
5944:
5941:
5938:
5932:
5923:
5915:
5914:
5911:
5908:
5902:
5893:
5885:
5884:
5881:
5878:
5872:
5863:
5855:
5854:
5851:
5848:
5842:
5833:
5825:
5824:
5821:
5818:
5812:
5803:
5795:
5794:
5791:
5788:
5753:
5750:
5738:
5729:
5719:
5710:
5700:
5691:
5681:
5672:
5662:
5653:
5643:
5634:
5624:
5615:
5606:
5605:
5596:
5593:
5588:
5579:
5571:
5570:
5561:
5558:
5553:
5544:
5536:
5535:
5526:
5523:
5518:
5509:
5499:
5490:
5483:
5482:
5473:
5470:
5465:
5456:
5446:
5437:
5430:
5429:
5420:
5417:
5412:
5403:
5393:
5384:
5377:
5376:
5361:
5356:
5281:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5265:
5256:
5249:
5246:
5239:
5230:
5223:
5220:
5213:
5204:
5197:
5194:
5187:
5186:
5179:
5170:
5163:
5160:
5153:
5144:
5137:
5134:
5127:
5118:
5111:
5108:
5087:
5078:
5066:
5057:
5042:
5032:
5023:
5007:
4998:
4986:
4977:
4965:
4956:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4934:
4927:
4920:
4912:
4909:
4908:
4907:
4906:
4901:
4900:
4899:
4894:
4887:Nuclear fusion
4884:
4876:
4875:
4874:Related topics
4871:
4870:
4869:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4845:
4844:
4836:
4835:
4827:
4826:
4823:
4822:
4817:
4814:
4811:
4808:
4805:
4802:
4799:
4796:
4793:
4790:
4787:
4784:
4777:
4768:
4760:
4757:
4750:
4741:
4734:
4731:
4725:
4721:
4720:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4706:
4703:
4700:
4697:
4694:
4691:
4688:
4682:
4679:
4672:
4663:
4655:
4652:
4645:
4636:
4629:
4626:
4619:
4610:
4603:
4599:
4598:
4595:
4590:
4587:
4580:
4571:
4564:
4561:
4558:
4553:
4550:
4543:
4534:
4527:
4524:
4517:
4508:
4501:
4498:
4492:
4488:
4487:
4482:
4479:
4476:
4473:
4470:
4467:
4464:
4461:
4458:
4455:
4449:
4446:
4439:
4430:
4423:
4420:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4407:
4406:
4401:
4398:
4395:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4383:
4380:
4377:
4374:
4368:
4365:
4358:
4349:
4342:
4339:
4336:
4333:
4330:
4326:
4325:
4320:
4317:
4314:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4302:
4296:
4293:
4290:
4283:
4274:
4267:
4264:
4257:
4248:
4241:
4238:
4235:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4224:
4219:
4216:
4209:
4200:
4192:
4189:
4182:
4173:
4166:
4163:
4156:
4147:
4140:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4126:
4123:
4120:
4117:
4114:
4109:
4106:
4099:
4090:
4083:
4080:
4077:
4072:
4069:
4062:
4053:
4046:
4043:
4040:
4037:
4034:
4030:
4029:
4026:
4023:
4018:
4015:
4012:
4009:
4006:
4000:
3997:
3991:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3979:
3972:
3963:
3956:
3953:
3946:
3937:
3930:
3927:
3920:
3911:
3904:
3900:
3899:
3894:
3891:
3888:
3885:
3882:
3879:
3876:
3869:
3866:
3863:
3860:
3857:
3850:
3841:
3834:
3831:
3824:
3815:
3808:
3805:
3798:
3789:
3782:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3769:
3766:
3763:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3747:
3744:
3741:
3738:
3735:
3728:
3719:
3712:
3709:
3702:
3693:
3686:
3683:
3676:
3667:
3660:
3656:
3655:
3652:
3647:
3644:
3638:
3635:
3632:
3627:
3624:
3617:
3608:
3601:
3598:
3591:
3582:
3575:
3572:
3565:
3556:
3549:
3545:
3544:
3541:
3538:
3535:
3532:
3529:
3526:
3523:
3518:
3515:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3498:
3495:
3488:
3479:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3456:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3429:
3426:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3409:
3406:
3399:
3390:
3383:
3380:
3373:
3364:
3357:
3354:
3347:
3338:
3331:
3327:
3326:
3323:
3321:14.06 MeV
3318:
3315:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3298:
3295:
3288:
3279:
3272:
3269:
3262:
3253:
3246:
3243:
3236:
3227:
3220:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3189:
3182:
3175:
3168:
3160:
3148:
3140:
3128:
3120:
3104:
3076:Main article:
3073:
3070:
3041:
3038:
3035:
3034:
2985:
2983:
2976:
2970:
2967:
2919:Main article:
2916:
2913:
2856:Main article:
2853:
2850:
2838:Guiding centre
2834:magnetic field
2826:Main article:
2823:
2820:
2808:produce energy
2738:
2737:
2688:
2686:
2679:
2670:Main article:
2667:
2664:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2623:
2620:hydrogen bombs
2609:
2591:
2572:electric field
2553:
2529:(Switzerland).
2512:
2509:
2505:alpha particle
2485:
2482:
2437:bremsstrahlung
2412:Main article:
2409:
2406:
2334:kinetic energy
2304:
2303:
2254:
2252:
2245:
2239:
2236:
2231:Main article:
2228:
2225:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2111:
2088:
2084:
2078:
2074:
2062:
2061:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2012:
1923:alpha particle
1886:
1878:
1862:
1854:
1839:
1831:
1823:nickel isotope
1815:
1807:
1795:
1787:
1775:
1767:
1755:
1747:
1739:binding energy
1735:binding energy
1665:between their
1657:
1656:
1607:
1605:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1564:alpha particle
1549:
1548:
1540:
1537:
1521:
1518:
1438:
1435:
1431:10 joules
1395:energy density
1361:binding energy
1359:, because the
1322:alpha particle
1312:Fusion powers
1291:atomic nucleus
1259:kinetic energy
1234:
1231:
1219:General Fusion
1121:Friedrich Hund
1097:Main article:
1094:
1091:
1043:binding energy
1024:high-magnitude
972:Nuclear fusion
967:
966:
964:
963:
956:
949:
941:
938:
937:
936:
935:
922:
905:
904:
901:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
739:
734:
733:
730:
729:
726:
725:
720:
715:
709:
704:
703:
700:
699:
696:
695:
694:
693:
688:
683:
674:
673:
672:
671:
666:
661:
650:
649:
647:Nuclear fusion
643:
633:
632:
629:
628:
625:
624:
619:
618:
617:
606:
603:
602:
599:
598:
595:
594:
593:
592:
587:
577:
576:
575:
570:
560:
559:
558:
547:
544:
543:
540:
539:
536:
535:
530:
529:
528:
518:
512:
507:
506:
503:
502:
499:
498:
493:
488:
483:
477:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
455:
454:
449:
439:
434:
433:
432:
427:
426:
425:
410:
404:
399:
398:
395:
394:
391:
390:
388:Stable nuclide
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
363:Binding energy
359:
356:
355:
352:
351:
348:
347:
346:
345:
335:
330:
325:
319:
318:
304:
303:
296:
295:
279:
278:
266:
265:
253:
252:
239:
233:
232:
229:
228:
225:
224:
219:
214:
209:
203:
198:
197:
194:
193:
192:
191:
186:
181:
176:
174:Nuclear matter
171:
170:
169:
164:
154:
146:
145:
137:
136:
103:
96:
95:
94:
69:
62:
61:
60:
59:
58:
38:Nuclear Fusion
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
19230:
19219:
19216:
19214:
19211:
19209:
19206:
19204:
19201:
19199:
19196:
19194:
19191:
19190:
19188:
19178:
19173:
19168:
19166:
19161:
19156:
19154:
19144:
19143:
19140:
19127:
19124:
19122:
19119:
19118:
19116:
19112:
19106:
19103:
19101:
19098:
19096:
19093:
19091:
19088:
19087:
19085:
19081:
19077:
19070:
19065:
19063:
19058:
19056:
19051:
19050:
19047:
19035:
19034:
19025:
19023:
19022:
19017:
19013:
19011:
19010:
19001:
18999:
18998:
18989:
18988:
18985:
18979:
18976:
18974:
18971:
18969:
18966:
18965:
18963:
18959:
18953:
18952:United States
18950:
18948:
18947:South America
18945:
18943:
18940:
18938:
18935:
18933:
18930:
18928:
18925:
18923:
18920:
18918:
18915:
18913:
18910:
18908:
18905:
18903:
18900:
18898:
18895:
18893:
18890:
18886:
18883:
18882:
18881:
18880:Energy policy
18878:
18876:
18873:
18871:
18868:
18864:
18861:
18859:
18856:
18854:
18851:
18850:
18849:
18846:
18845:
18843:
18841:
18835:
18827:
18824:
18822:
18819:
18818:
18817:
18814:
18810:
18807:
18805:
18804:Solar furnace
18802:
18801:
18800:
18797:
18793:
18790:
18788:
18785:
18784:
18783:
18780:
18778:
18775:
18771:
18768:
18766:
18763:
18762:
18761:
18760:Nuclear power
18758:
18754:
18751:
18749:
18746:
18744:
18741:
18740:
18739:
18736:
18734:
18731:
18727:
18724:
18722:
18719:
18718:
18717:
18714:
18712:
18709:
18707:
18704:
18702:
18699:
18697:
18694:
18693:
18691:
18687:
18686:Energy system
18683:
18677:
18674:
18672:
18669:
18667:
18664:
18660:
18657:
18656:
18655:
18652:
18650:
18647:
18645:
18642:
18640:
18639:Gravitational
18637:
18635:
18632:
18628:
18625:
18623:
18620:
18618:
18615:
18614:
18613:
18610:
18608:
18605:
18604:
18602:
18600:
18596:
18590:
18587:
18585:
18582:
18580:
18577:
18575:
18572:
18568:
18567:Hydrogen fuel
18565:
18564:
18563:
18560:
18556:
18553:
18552:
18551:
18548:
18544:
18541:
18539:
18536:
18535:
18534:
18531:
18529:
18526:
18524:
18521:
18519:
18516:
18514:
18511:
18510:
18508:
18506:
18502:
18496:
18493:
18491:
18488:
18486:
18483:
18481:
18478:
18476:
18473:
18471:
18468:
18466:
18463:
18461:
18458:
18456:
18453:
18451:
18448:
18446:
18443:
18441:
18438:
18436:
18433:
18431:
18428:
18426:
18423:
18421:
18418:
18416:
18413:
18411:
18408:
18406:
18403:
18401:
18398:
18394:
18391:
18390:
18389:
18388:Gravitational
18386:
18384:
18381:
18379:
18376:
18374:
18371:
18369:
18366:
18364:
18361:
18357:
18354:
18353:
18352:
18349:
18348:
18346:
18342:
18334:
18331:
18329:
18326:
18324:
18321:
18319:
18316:
18314:
18311:
18309:
18306:
18304:
18301:
18299:
18296:
18294:
18291:
18289:
18286:
18284:
18281:
18279:
18276:
18274:
18271:
18269:
18266:
18264:
18261:
18259:
18258:Heat transfer
18256:
18254:
18253:Heat capacity
18251:
18249:
18246:
18244:
18241:
18239:
18236:
18234:
18231:
18229:
18226:
18225:
18224:
18221:
18219:
18216:
18212:
18209:
18207:
18206:Negative mass
18204:
18203:
18202:
18199:
18197:
18194:
18192:
18189:
18187:
18186:Energy system
18184:
18182:
18179:
18177:
18174:
18170:
18167:
18166:
18165:
18162:
18160:
18157:
18155:
18152:
18151:
18149:
18143:
18137:
18134:
18132:
18129:
18127:
18124:
18123:
18120:
18116:
18109:
18104:
18102:
18097:
18095:
18090:
18089:
18086:
18075:
18071:
18067:
18066:Radioactivity
18063:
18056:
18050:
18047:
18045:
18042:
18040:
18037:
18035:
18032:
18030:
18027:
18026:
18024:
18020:
18014:
18011:
18009:
18006:
18004:
18001:
17999:
17996:
17994:
17991:
17990:
17988:
17984:
17978:
17975:
17973:
17970:
17968:
17965:
17963:
17960:
17958:
17955:
17953:
17950:
17948:
17945:
17943:
17940:
17938:
17935:
17933:
17930:
17928:
17925:
17923:
17920:
17918:
17915:
17913:
17910:
17908:
17905:
17903:
17900:
17898:
17895:
17891:
17888:
17886:
17883:
17882:
17880:
17879:
17877:
17871:
17861:
17858:
17856:
17853:
17851:
17848:
17846:
17843:
17841:
17838:
17836:
17833:
17831:
17828:
17826:
17823:
17821:
17818:
17816:
17813:
17811:
17808:
17806:
17803:
17801:
17798:
17796:
17793:
17792:
17789:
17783:
17780:
17778:
17775:
17773:
17770:
17768:
17765:
17763:
17760:
17758:
17755:
17753:
17750:
17748:
17745:
17743:
17740:
17738:
17735:
17733:
17732:Beta particle
17730:
17728:
17725:
17723:
17720:
17718:
17717:Cluster decay
17715:
17713:
17710:
17709:
17707:
17705:
17701:
17695:
17692:
17690:
17687:
17685:
17682:
17680:
17677:
17675:
17672:
17670:
17667:
17665:
17662:
17660:
17657:
17656:
17654:
17652:
17648:
17645:
17643:Main articles
17641:
17636:
17629:
17624:
17622:
17617:
17615:
17610:
17609:
17606:
17594:
17593:
17584:
17582:
17581:
17572:
17570:
17569:
17558:
17557:
17554:
17540:
17537:
17535:
17532:
17530:
17527:
17525:
17522:
17520:
17517:
17516:
17514:
17510:
17504:
17501:
17499:
17496:
17494:
17491:
17487:
17486:electrostatic
17484:
17483:
17482:
17479:
17477:
17471:
17470:
17468:
17466:
17462:
17456:
17453:
17451:
17448:
17446:
17443:
17441:
17438:
17436:
17433:
17431:
17428:
17427:
17425:
17423:
17419:
17415:
17409:
17404:
17398:
17388:
17385:
17381:
17378:
17376:
17373:
17372:
17371:
17368:
17367:
17365:
17361:
17351:
17348:
17346:
17343:
17341:
17338:
17334:
17331:
17329:
17326:
17324:
17321:
17319:
17316:
17314:
17311:
17309:
17306:
17304:
17301:
17299:
17296:
17294:
17291:
17289:
17286:
17284:
17281:
17279:
17276:
17275:
17274:
17271:
17270:
17268:
17266:
17265:Generation IV
17262:
17256:
17253:
17251:
17248:
17246:
17243:
17241:
17238:
17236:
17233:
17231:
17228:
17226:
17223:
17221:
17218:
17216:
17215:Breeder (FBR)
17213:
17212:
17209:
17206:
17201:
17192:
17178:
17175:
17173:
17170:
17168:
17165:
17163:
17160:
17158:
17155:
17153:
17150:
17149:
17147:
17145:
17141:
17138:
17136:
17132:
17120:
17117:
17113:
17110:
17108:
17105:
17103:
17100:
17098:
17095:
17094:
17093:
17090:
17089:
17088:
17085:
17083:
17080:
17076:
17073:
17072:
17071:
17068:
17067:
17065:
17063:
17059:
17053:
17050:
17048:
17045:
17043:
17041:
17037:
17036:
17034:
17032:
17025:
17022:
17020:
17016:
17006:
17003:
17001:
16998:
16996:
16993:
16991:
16988:
16987:
16985:
16983:
16975:
16972:
16968:
16965:
16960:
16953:
16948:
16936:
16933:
16931:
16928:
16926:
16923:
16921:
16918:
16917:
16916:
16913:
16912:
16910:
16908:
16901:
16895:
16892:
16891:
16889:
16887:
16883:
16877:
16874:
16872:
16869:
16865:
16862:
16860:
16857:
16856:
16855:
16852:
16851:
16849:
16847:
16839:
16831:
16828:
16826:
16823:
16821:
16818:
16816:
16813:
16809:
16806:
16804:
16801:
16799:
16796:
16795:
16794:
16791:
16789:
16786:
16782:
16779:
16776:
16773:
16770:
16767:
16766:
16765:
16762:
16761:
16760:
16757:
16756:
16754:
16752:
16744:
16741:
16737:
16730:
16726:
16720:
16717:
16712:
16710:
16707:
16705:
16702:
16698:
16695:
16693:
16690:
16689:
16688:
16685:
16683:
16680:
16678:
16675:
16673:
16670:
16668:
16665:
16663:
16660:
16658:
16655:
16653:
16650:
16648:
16645:
16644:
16643:
16640:
16638:
16635:
16631:
16628:
16626:
16623:
16621:
16618:
16616:
16613:
16612:
16611:
16608:
16606:
16603:
16602:
16600:
16598:
16594:
16589:
16588:
16581:
16576:
16570:
16566:
16562:
16557:
16553:
16543:
16540:
16538:
16535:
16533:
16530:
16528:
16525:
16523:
16520:
16518:
16517:Nuclear power
16515:
16514:
16512:
16508:
16498:
16497:Transmutation
16495:
16491:
16488:
16486:
16483:
16482:
16481:
16478:
16476:
16473:
16471:
16468:
16466:
16463:
16461:
16458:
16456:
16453:
16451:
16448:
16447:
16445:
16441:
16435:
16432:
16428:
16425:
16424:
16423:
16420:
16418:
16415:
16411:
16408:
16406:
16403:
16401:
16398:
16397:
16396:
16393:
16392:
16390:
16386:
16383:
16381:
16377:
16367:
16364:
16362:
16359:
16357:
16354:
16350:
16347:
16345:
16342:
16341:
16340:
16337:
16335:
16332:
16331:
16329:
16325:
16317:
16314:
16313:
16312:
16309:
16307:
16304:
16300:
16297:
16295:
16294:high-altitude
16292:
16291:
16290:
16287:
16285:
16284:Proliferation
16282:
16280:
16277:
16273:
16270:
16269:
16268:
16265:
16263:
16260:
16258:
16255:
16253:
16250:
16248:
16245:
16243:
16240:
16239:
16237:
16233:
16230:
16228:
16224:
16218:
16215:
16213:
16210:
16208:
16205:
16203:
16200:
16199:
16197:
16195:
16191:
16181:
16178:
16176:
16173:
16171:
16170:Brachytherapy
16168:
16166:
16163:
16161:
16158:
16156:
16153:
16151:
16148:
16146:
16143:
16142:
16140:
16138:
16134:
16128:
16125:
16123:
16120:
16118:
16115:
16113:
16110:
16108:
16105:
16104:
16102:
16100:
16096:
16093:
16091:
16087:
16079:
16076:
16075:
16074:
16071:
16067:
16064:
16063:
16062:
16059:
16055:
16052:
16051:
16050:
16047:
16045:
16042:
16040:
16037:
16035:
16032:
16030:
16027:
16025:
16022:
16020:
16017:
16016:
16014:
16012:
16008:
16002:
15999:
15997:
15994:
15992:
15989:
15987:
15984:
15982:
15979:
15977:
15974:
15972:
15969:
15967:
15966:Cross section
15964:
15962:
15959:
15957:
15954:
15952:
15949:
15948:
15946:
15944:
15940:
15932:
15929:
15927:
15924:
15920:
15917:
15915:
15912:
15911:
15910:
15907:
15906:
15905:
15902:
15900:
15897:
15895:
15892:
15890:
15887:
15885:
15882:
15880:
15877:
15875:
15872:
15871:
15869:
15867:
15863:
15855:
15852:
15850:
15847:
15846:
15845:
15842:
15840:
15837:
15835:
15832:
15830:
15827:
15825:
15822:
15820:
15817:
15815:
15812:
15811:
15809:
15805:
15801:
15797:
15790:
15785:
15783:
15778:
15776:
15771:
15770:
15767:
15751:
15748:
15746:
15743:
15742:
15739:
15729:
15726:
15724:
15714:
15713:
15711:
15707:
15697:
15687:
15685:
15675:
15673:
15670:
15668:
15658:
15656:
15646:
15644:
15634:
15633:
15631:
15627:
15621:
15611:
15610:
15608:
15604:
15598:
15595:
15593:
15590:
15588:
15585:
15583:
15580:
15578:
15575:
15573:
15570:
15568:
15565:
15563:
15560:
15558:
15555:
15553:
15543:
15542:
15540:
15536:
15533:
15529:
15526:
15524:
15518:
15512:
15511:Fusion Engine
15509:
15507:
15506:FRX-L – FRCHX
15504:
15502:
15492:
15490:
15480:
15479:
15477:
15475:
15471:
15461:
15451:
15449:
15446:
15444:
15434:
15433:
15431:
15427:
15419:
15416:
15415:
15414:
15411:
15409:
15406:
15404:
15394:
15392:
15382:
15381:
15379:
15377:
15373:
15363:
15353:
15351:
15341:
15340:
15338:
15336:
15332:
15326:
15323:
15321:
15311:
15309:
15299:
15298:
15295:
15292:
15290:
15286:
15272:
15267:
15264:
15263:
15262:
15252:
15250:
15240:
15238:
15235:
15233:
15230:
15228:
15218:
15217:
15215:
15211:
15205:
15202:
15200:
15190:
15188:
15178:
15177:
15175:
15169:
15163:
15153:
15151:
15148:
15146:
15143:
15141:
15138:
15136:
15133:
15131:
15128:
15126:
15116:
15115:
15113:
15109:
15106:
15104:
15100:
15090:
15087:
15085:
15082:
15080:
15070:
15068:
15058:
15056:
15046:
15044:
15034:
15032:
15029:
15027:
15024:
15022:
15012:
15010:
15007:
15005:
15004:ASDEX Upgrade
14995:
14993:
14990:
14988:
14978:
14974:
14969:
14966:
14964:
14954:
14952:
14942:
14941:
14939:
14935:
14929:
14919:
14917:
14907:
14905:
14895:
14891:
14886:
14883:
14881:
14871:
14869:
14866:
14864:
14854:
14852:
14849:
14847:
14844:
14842:
14839:
14835:
14832:
14831:
14830:
14827:
14825:
14815:
14814:
14812:
14806:
14798:
14793:
14783:
14781:
14778:
14776:
14766:
14764:
14761:
14759:
14756:
14754:
14751:
14747:
14744:
14742:
14739:
14738:
14737:
14734:
14732:
14729:
14727:
14724:
14722:
14719:
14715:
14712:
14711:
14710:
14707:
14705:
14704:Alcator C-Mod
14695:
14693:
14683:
14682:
14680:
14676:
14670:
14667:
14665:
14662:
14660:
14657:
14656:
14654:
14652:International
14650:
14647:
14645:
14641:
14638:
14636:
14630:
14627:
14625:
14619:
14609:
14606:
14604:
14601:
14599:
14598:Metal lattice
14596:
14592:
14589:
14588:
14587:
14584:
14583:
14581:
14577:
14567:
14564:
14562:
14559:
14558:
14556:
14554:
14553:Electrostatic
14550:
14544:
14541:
14539:
14536:
14534:
14531:
14530:
14528:
14526:
14522:
14516:
14513:
14511:
14508:
14507:
14505:
14503:
14499:
14493:
14490:
14484:
14481:
14480:
14479:
14476:
14474:
14471:
14470:
14469:
14466:
14464:
14461:
14457:
14454:
14452:
14449:
14447:
14444:
14442:
14439:
14438:
14437:
14434:
14430:
14427:
14426:
14425:
14422:
14420:
14417:
14415:
14412:
14411:
14409:
14407:
14403:
14398:
14395:
14393:
14390:
14388:
14385:
14383:
14380:
14378:
14375:
14373:
14370:
14368:
14365:
14363:
14360:
14356:
14353:
14352:
14351:
14348:
14346:
14343:
14341:
14338:
14336:
14333:
14331:
14328:
14326:
14325:Alpha process
14323:
14321:
14319:
14318:Gravitational
14315:
14312:
14308:
14304:
14301:
14295:
14289:
14286:
14284:
14281:
14279:
14276:
14274:
14271:
14269:
14266:
14264:
14261:
14259:
14256:
14254:
14253:Nuclear power
14251:
14250:
14241:
14238:
14236:
14233:
14231:
14228:
14226:
14223:
14221:
14218:
14216:
14213:
14212:
14210:
14208:
14204:
14201:
14197:
14192:
14185:
14180:
14178:
14173:
14171:
14166:
14165:
14162:
14154:
14150:
14148:
14144:
14141:
14138:
14136:
14133:
14130:
14127:
14126:
14108:
14104:
14098:
14094:
14090:
14086:
14082:
14081:
14075:
14063:
14059:
14057:9789201304100
14053:
14049:
14045:
14044:
14038:
14023:
14019:
14012:
14007:
13995:
13991:
13987:
13983:
13979:
13975:
13971:
13967:
13963:
13959:
13958:
13952:
13945:
13941:
13935:
13931:
13927:
13920:
13915:
13903:
13899:
13895:
13894:
13881:
13877:
13873:
13869:
13865:
13861:
13854:
13835:
13831:
13824:
13817:
13810:
13804:
13796:
13792:
13788:
13781:
13764:
13758:
13753:
13747:
13742:
13740:
13733:
13728:
13726:
13724:
13722:
13720:
13718:
13711:
13706:
13704:
13702:
13700:
13698:
13691:
13686:
13684:
13682:
13680:
13678:
13676:
13669:
13664:
13662:
13660:
13658:
13656:
13654:
13652:
13645:
13640:
13638:
13636:
13634:
13632:
13630:
13628:
13621:
13616:
13614:
13612:
13610:
13608:
13606:
13604:
13597:
13592:
13590:
13588:
13586:
13584:
13582:
13580:
13573:
13568:
13566:
13564:
13562:
13560:
13558:
13556:
13549:
13544:
13542:
13540:
13538:
13536:
13534:
13532:
13525:
13520:
13518:
13516:
13514:
13512:
13510:
13508:
13501:
13496:
13489:
13485:
13482:
13477:
13469:
13467:3-540-24217-1
13463:
13459:
13455:
13448:
13432:
13428:
13426:9789201304100
13422:
13418:
13414:
13413:
13405:
13399:
13395:
13391:
13386:
13377:
13361:
13357:
13353:
13349:
13345:
13341:
13337:
13334:(1): 015003.
13333:
13329:
13328:Phys Rev Lett
13325:
13318:
13302:
13298:
13294:
13287:
13271:
13267:
13260:
13244:
13240:
13234:
13218:
13215:. Fusor.net.
13214:
13208:
13202:
13198:
13194:
13190:
13184:
13175:
13166:
13159:
13155:
13152:
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13139:
13133:
13126:
13122:
13119:
13113:
13106:
13100:
13093:
13089:
13086:
13080:
13064:
13060:
13056:
13049:
13041:
13037:
13032:
13027:
13023:
13019:
13018:
13013:
13006:
12998:
12994:
12990:
12986:
12982:
12978:
12971:
12964:
12960:
12957:
12952:
12945:
12941:
12937:
12934:
12929:
12913:
12909:
12905:
12901:
12894:
12888:
12884:
12880:
12875:
12867:
12863:
12859:
12855:
12851:
12847:
12843:
12839:
12835:
12831:
12825:
12821:
12818:
12813:
12805:
12801:
12797:
12793:
12789:
12785:
12781:
12777:
12770:
12761:
12752:
12736:
12732:
12728:
12724:
12718:
12714:
12710:
12706:
12705:
12697:
12681:
12677:
12673:
12666:
12659:
12655:
12652:
12647:
12638:
12633:
12629:
12625:
12621:
12617:
12613:
12606:
12590:
12586:
12582:
12578:
12574:
12570:
12566:
12562:
12558:
12554:
12550:
12546:
12539:
12523:
12519:
12513:
12509:
12508:
12500:
12484:
12480:
12476:
12472:
12468:
12464:
12460:
12456:
12449:
12442:
12438:
12435:
12430:
12422:
12416:
12412:
12408:
12407:
12399:
12383:
12379:
12378:Bloomberg.com
12375:
12369:
12361:
12357:
12353:
12347:
12331:
12327:
12323:
12317:
12301:
12297:
12291:
12283:
12279:
12275:
12271:
12267:
12263:
12262:Physics Today
12256:
12240:
12236:
12232:
12228:
12224:
12221:(4): 041006.
12220:
12216:
12212:
12205:
12189:
12185:
12178:
12170:
12166:
12159:
12151:
12147:
12143:
12139:
12135:
12131:
12127:
12124:(in German).
12123:
12116:
12106:
12102:
12098:
12094:
12090:
12086:
12082:
12079:(in German).
12078:
12073:
12069:
12065:
12061:
12057:
12053:
12049:
12045:
12042:(in German).
12041:
12036:
12032:
12028:
12023:
12022:
12020:
12016:
12010:
12002:
11998:
11994:
11990:
11986:
11982:
11978:
11975:(in German).
11974:
11967:
11949:
11945:
11941:
11937:
11933:
11929:
11923:
11911:
11907:
11903:
11899:
11895:
11891:
11885:
11884:
11873:
11869:
11865:
11860:
11855:
11851:
11847:
11843:
11839:
11835:
11828:
11809:
11805:
11801:
11794:
11790:
11784:
11768:
11764:
11760:
11759:"Ask Us: Sun"
11754:
11750:
11739:
11736:
11734:
11731:
11729:
11726:
11724:
11721:
11719:
11716:
11714:
11711:
11709:
11706:
11704:
11701:
11699:
11696:
11694:
11691:
11689:
11686:
11684:
11681:
11679:
11676:
11674:
11671:
11669:
11668:Fusion rocket
11666:
11664:
11661:
11659:
11656:
11654:
11651:
11649:
11646:
11645:
11638:
11612:
11606:
11585:
11581:
11577:
11574:
11570:
11563:
11560:
11556:
11552:
11547:
11543:
11539:
11536:
11532:
11528:
11523:
11520:
11516:
11512:
11509:
11506:
11501:
11498:
11484:
11481:
11468:
11467:
11447:
11441:
11420:
11416:
11412:
11409:
11405:
11398:
11395:
11391:
11387:
11382:
11378:
11374:
11371:
11367:
11363:
11358:
11355:
11351:
11347:
11344:
11341:
11336:
11333:
11319:
11316:
11303:
11302:
11301:
11282:
11279:
11276:
11269:For energies
11256:
11247:
11238:
11229:
11220:
11217:
11216:
11206:
11197:
11188:
11179:
11170:
11167:
11166:
11156:
11147:
11138:
11129:
11120:
11117:
11116:
11106:
11097:
11088:
11079:
11070:
11067:
11066:
11056:
11047:
11038:
11029:
11020:
11017:
11016:
11006:
10997:
10988:
10979:
10970:
10967:
10966:
10956:
10947:
10938:
10929:
10920:
10917:
10916:
10906:
10897:
10888:
10879:
10870:
10867:
10866:
10856:
10847:
10838:
10829:
10820:
10817:
10816:
10806:
10797:
10788:
10779:
10770:
10767:
10766:
10762:
10759:
10756:
10753:
10750:
10748:Temperature
10747:
10746:
10740:
10721:
10715:
10698:
10687:
10684:
10676:
10666:
10662:
10658:
10652:
10651:
10647:
10642:This section
10640:
10636:
10631:
10630:
10622:
10601:
10595:
10589:
10585:
10578:
10575:
10572:
10564:
10552:
10545:
10539:
10527:
10512:
10509:
10506:
10503:
10476:
10463:
10462:
10458:
10455:
10452:
10449:
10446:
10445:
10435:
10432:
10429:
10426:
10423:
10422:
10412:
10409:
10400:
10397:
10394:
10393:
10383:
10380:
10371:
10368:
10365:
10364:
10354:
10351:
10342:
10339:
10336:
10335:
10331:
10322:
10319:
10310:
10307:
10306:
10296:
10287:
10284:
10275:
10272:
10271:
10261:
10252:
10243:
10234:
10231:
10230:
10220:
10211:
10202:
10193:
10190:
10189:
10179:
10170:
10161:
10152:
10149:
10148:
10144:
10141:
10138:
10135:
10119:
10115:
10107:
10106:
10102:
10099:
10096:
10093:
10091:
10090:
10047:
10043:
10039:
10036:
10031:
10027:
10020:
10017:
10012:
10008:
9997:
9994:
9989:
9985:
9974:
9971:
9968:
9944:
9940:
9936:
9933:
9928:
9924:
9917:
9914:
9909:
9905:
9894:
9891:
9886:
9882:
9871:
9868:
9863:
9859:
9852:
9846:
9834:
9826:
9825:
9824:
9822:
9812:
9809:
9806:
9803:
9800:
9797:
9794:
9793:
9789:
9786:
9783:
9780:
9777:
9774:
9771:
9770:
9766:
9757:
9748:
9739:
9730:
9721:
9718:
9717:
9713:
9710:
9707:
9704:
9701:
9698:
9695:
9694:
9690:
9687:
9684:
9681:
9678:
9675:
9672:
9671:
9667:
9664:
9661:
9658:
9655:
9652:
9650:
9649:
9622:
9619:
9612:
9608:
9604:
9601:
9597:
9591:
9587:
9582:
9575:
9568:
9564:
9558:
9555:
9543:
9540:
9535:
9527:
9522:
9518:
9514:
9509:
9505:
9491:
9486:
9482:
9475:
9469:
9457:
9449:
9448:
9447:
9445:
9435:
9433:
9410:
9406:
9400:
9396:
9390:
9386:
9380:
9373:
9367:
9361:
9355:
9349:
9342:
9341:
9340:
9323:
9317:
9309:
9290:
9284:
9272:
9270:
9252:
9248:
9242:
9238:
9234:
9231:
9226:
9216:
9212:
9206:
9202:
9198:
9195:
9189:
9184:
9180:
9155:
9151:
9145:
9141:
9135:
9131:
9127:
9124:
9112:
9098:
9076:
9072:
9049:
9046:
9041:
9036:
9021:
9016:
9012:
9007:
8995:
8990:
8986:
8982:
8973:
8946:
8937:
8909:
8885:
8882:
8879:
8876:
8873:
8864:
8860:
8857:
8850:
8849:
8848:
8846:
8845:cross section
8842:
8838:
8827:
8824:
8816:
8806:
8802:
8798:
8792:
8791:
8787:
8782:This section
8780:
8776:
8771:
8770:
8762:
8746:
8743:
8739:
8730:
8703:
8700:
8686:
8680:
8676:
8665:
8661:
8657:
8654:
8650:
8635:
8627:
8621:
8617:
8611:
8607:
8595:
8591:
8587:
8584:
8580:
8575:
8566:
8558:
8557:
8556:
8546:
8543:
8535:
8525:
8521:
8517:
8511:
8510:
8506:
8501:This section
8499:
8495:
8490:
8489:
8476:
8474:
8468:
8448:
8443:
8423:
8418:
8397:
8376:
8355:
8334:
8313:
8292:
8271:
8250:
8229:
8209:
8204:
8201:
8197:
8186:
8183:
8162:
8161:
8157:
8154:
8133:
8132:
8128:
8125:
8086:
8085:
8081:
8078:
8039:
8038:
8034:
8031:
7992:
7991:
7987:
7984:
7945:
7944:
7938:
7931:
7928:
7923:
7920:
7917:
7916:
7913:
7909:
7906:
7902:
7897:
7895:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7879:
7868:
7865:
7857:
7847:
7843:
7839:
7833:
7832:
7828:
7823:This section
7821:
7817:
7812:
7811:
7803:
7800:
7779:
7756:
7751:
7730:
7707:
7703:
7698:
7677:
7647:
7641:
7628:
7625:
7622:
7619:
7616:
7607:
7586:
7585:
7581:
7578:
7576:
7573:
7570:
7561:
7540:
7539:
7535:
7532:
7529:
7526:
7523:
7514:
7475:
7474:
7470:
7467:
7464:
7461:
7458:
7449:
7410:
7409:
7405:
7402:
7399:
7396:
7393:
7384:
7345:
7344:
7340:
7337:
7334:
7331:
7329:penalty/bonus
7328:
7325:
7319:
7313:
7310:
7309:
7306:
7303:
7260:
7253:
7212:
7206:
7197:
7189:
7183:
7176:
7169:
7162:
7152:
7149:
7146:
7143:
7122:
7121:
7117:
7114:
7111:
7108:
7069:
7068:
7064:
7061:
7058:
7055:
7016:
7015:
7011:
7008:
7005:
7002:
6963:
6962:
6959:neutronicity
6958:
6953:
6950:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6934:
6933:
6930:
6927:
6886:
6884:
6880:
6873:
6866:
6862:
6813:
6806:
6802:
6797:
6777:
6772:
6751:
6731:
6730:
6729:
6517:
6515:
6508:
6501:
6497:
6482:
6479:
6476:
6457:
6456:
6452:
6449:
6446:
6427:
6426:
6422:
6419:
6416:
6397:
6396:
6392:
6389:
6386:
6367:
6366:
6362:
6360:64.370(27) s
6359:
6356:
6337:
6336:
6332:
6329:
6326:
6307:
6306:
6302:
6299:
6296:
6277:
6276:
6272:
6269:
6266:
6247:
6246:
6242:
6239:
6236:
6217:
6216:
6212:
6210:70.621(11) s
6209:
6206:
6187:
6186:
6182:
6179:
6176:
6157:
6156:
6152:
6149:
6146:
6127:
6126:
6122:
6120:9.965(4) min
6119:
6116:
6097:
6096:
6092:
6089:
6086:
6067:
6066:
6062:
6059:
6056:
6037:
6036:
6032:
6029:
6026:
6007:
6006:
6002:
5999:
5996:
5977:
5976:
5972:
5969:
5966:
5947:
5946:
5942:
5939:
5936:
5917:
5916:
5912:
5909:
5906:
5887:
5886:
5882:
5879:
5876:
5857:
5856:
5852:
5849:
5846:
5827:
5826:
5822:
5819:
5816:
5797:
5796:
5792:
5789:
5786:
5785:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5749:
5747:
5648:creates some
5597:
5594:
5573:
5572:
5562:
5559:
5538:
5537:
5527:
5524:
5485:
5484:
5474:
5471:
5432:
5431:
5421:
5418:
5379:
5378:
5374:
5368:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5354:
5353:
5350:
5347:
5341:
5334:
5329:
5323:
5316:
5313:required for
5307:
5301:
5294:
5289:
5286:
5274:
5269:
5250:
5247:
5243:
5224:
5221:
5217:
5198:
5195:
5192:
5189:
5188:
5183:
5164:
5161:
5157:
5138:
5135:
5131:
5112:
5109:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5099:
5098:
5097:
5094:
5091:
5070:
5050:
5045:
5041:
5036:
5016:
5011:
4990:
4969:
4949:
4944:
4933:
4928:
4926:
4921:
4919:
4914:
4913:
4911:
4910:
4905:
4902:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4879:
4878:
4877:
4873:
4872:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4837:
4834:
4831:
4830:
4818:
4815:
4812:
4809:
4806:
4803:
4800:
4797:
4794:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4761:
4758:
4754:
4735:
4732:
4729:
4726:
4723:
4722:
4718:16.9 MeV
4716:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4704:
4701:
4698:
4695:
4692:
4689:
4686:
4683:
4680:
4676:
4656:
4653:
4649:
4630:
4627:
4623:
4604:
4601:
4600:
4596:
4591:
4588:
4584:
4565:
4562:
4559:
4554:
4551:
4547:
4528:
4525:
4521:
4502:
4499:
4496:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4483:
4480:
4477:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4459:
4456:
4453:
4450:
4447:
4443:
4424:
4421:
4418:
4415:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4402:
4399:
4396:
4393:
4390:
4387:
4384:
4381:
4378:
4375:
4372:
4369:
4366:
4362:
4343:
4340:
4337:
4334:
4331:
4328:
4327:
4323:2.56 MeV
4321:
4318:
4315:
4312:
4309:
4306:
4303:
4300:
4297:
4294:
4291:
4287:
4268:
4265:
4261:
4242:
4239:
4236:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4222:22.4 MeV
4220:
4217:
4213:
4193:
4190:
4186:
4167:
4164:
4160:
4141:
4138:
4137:
4133:
4130:
4127:
4124:
4121:
4118:
4115:
4110:
4107:
4103:
4084:
4081:
4078:
4073:
4070:
4066:
4047:
4044:
4041:
4038:
4035:
4032:
4031:
4027:
4024:
4021:12.1 MeV
4019:
4016:
4013:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3989:
3986:
3983:
3980:
3976:
3957:
3954:
3950:
3931:
3928:
3924:
3905:
3902:
3901:
3897:12.9 MeV
3895:
3892:
3889:
3886:
3883:
3880:
3877:
3874:
3870:
3867:
3864:
3861:
3858:
3854:
3835:
3832:
3828:
3809:
3806:
3802:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3775:11.3 MeV
3773:
3770:
3767:
3764:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3752:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3713:
3710:
3706:
3687:
3684:
3680:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3653:
3650:14.7 MeV
3648:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3628:
3625:
3621:
3602:
3599:
3595:
3576:
3573:
3569:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3521:2.45 MeV
3519:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3501:0.82 MeV
3499:
3496:
3492:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3432:3.02 MeV
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:1.01 MeV
3410:
3407:
3403:
3384:
3381:
3377:
3358:
3355:
3351:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3324:
3319:
3316:
3313:
3310:
3307:
3304:
3301:3.52 MeV
3299:
3296:
3292:
3273:
3270:
3266:
3247:
3244:
3240:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3174:also show up.
3172:
3152:
3132:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3079:
3069:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3031:
3028:
3020:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2991:
2986:This section
2984:
2980:
2975:
2974:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2922:
2912:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2865:hydrogen bomb
2859:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2804:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2734:
2731:
2723:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2694:
2689:This section
2687:
2683:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2663:
2661:
2657:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2626:Bubble fusion
2624:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2612:Project PACER
2610:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2534:
2528:
2524:
2523:
2517:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2470:Helion Energy
2467:
2463:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2445:
2442:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2423:
2421:
2415:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2394:Thermonuclear
2391:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2300:
2297:
2289:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2255:This section
2253:
2249:
2244:
2243:
2234:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2199:
2196:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2151:
2148:
2137:
2123:
2119:
2113:
2109:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2072:
2048:
2042:
2039:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2010:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1986:
1979:
1978:cross section
1976:The reaction
1969:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1931:nuclear force
1926:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1895:
1894:alpha process
1890:
1871:
1866:
1848:
1843:
1824:
1819:
1799:
1779:
1759:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1697:
1692:
1691:nuclear force
1687:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1653:
1650:
1642:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1608:This section
1606:
1602:
1597:
1596:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1546:
1545:atomic masses
1541:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1529:Henry Moseley
1525:
1524:Francis Aston
1522:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1476:Around 1920,
1474:
1472:
1468:
1460:
1455:
1448:
1443:
1434:
1424:
1420:
1417:collision of
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1376:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1333:nuclear force
1330:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1303:
1300:
1296:
1295:Coulomb force
1292:
1288:
1284:
1283:nuclear force
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1174:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1149:Mark Oliphant
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1100:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1079:astrophysical
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1026:stars, where
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
980:atomic nuclei
977:
973:
962:
957:
955:
950:
948:
943:
942:
940:
939:
933:
923:
920:
915:
909:
908:
907:
906:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
740:
737:
732:
731:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
710:
707:
702:
701:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
678:
676:
675:
670:
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
656:
652:
651:
648:
645:
644:
641:
636:
631:
630:
623:
620:
616:
615:by cosmic ray
613:
612:
611:
608:
607:
601:
600:
591:
588:
586:
583:
582:
581:
578:
574:
571:
569:
566:
565:
564:
561:
557:
554:
553:
552:
549:
548:
542:
541:
534:
531:
527:
526:pair breaking
524:
523:
522:
519:
517:
514:
513:
510:
505:
504:
497:
494:
492:
491:Decay product
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
478:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
464:Cluster decay
462:
460:
457:
453:
450:
448:
445:
444:
443:
440:
438:
435:
431:
428:
424:
421:
420:
419:
416:
415:
414:
411:
409:
406:
405:
402:
397:
396:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
360:
354:
353:
344:
341:
340:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
320:
317:
313:
309:
308:Mirror nuclei
306:
305:
301:
298:
297:
294:
293:
290: −
289:
284:
281:
280:
277:
276:
271:
268:
267:
264:
263:
258:
255:
254:
250:
249:
244:
241:
240:
236:
231:
230:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
204:
201:
196:
195:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
179:Nuclear force
177:
175:
172:
168:
165:
163:
160:
159:
158:
155:
153:
150:
149:
148:
147:
143:
139:
138:
135:
132:
131:
125:
121:
116:
106:
100:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
66:
57:
52:
45:
41:
39:
34:
19:
18:Thermonuclear
19125:
19031:
19019:
19007:
18995:
18777:Oil refinery
18721:Cogeneration
18654:Nuclear fuel
18460:Quintessence
18248:Free entropy
18181:Energy level
18145:Fundamental
18070:Radiobiology
17952:Radiobiology
17912:Laser safety
17756:
17590:
17578:
17559:
17539:Pyroelectric
17493:Laser-driven
17273:Sodium (SFR)
17200:fast-neutron
17039:
16585:
16475:Reprocessing
16356:WMD treaties
16175:Radiosurgery
16145:Fast-neutron
16117:Scintigraphy
15838:
15308:Perhapsatron
14608:Pyroelectric
14538:Laser-driven
14377:Neon-burning
14345:Helium flash
14206:
14191:Fusion power
14153:"FusionWiki"
14111:. Retrieved
14079:
14066:. Retrieved
14042:
14029:. Retrieved
13998:. Retrieved
13994:the original
13989:
13982:R.W. Bussard
13955:
13944:the original
13925:
13906:. Retrieved
13902:the original
13863:
13859:
13853:
13841:. Retrieved
13829:
13816:
13803:
13786:
13780:
13763:
13752:
13495:
13476:
13453:
13447:
13435:. Retrieved
13411:
13404:
13385:
13376:
13364:. Retrieved
13331:
13327:
13317:
13305:. Retrieved
13296:
13286:
13274:. Retrieved
13259:
13247:. Retrieved
13243:the original
13233:
13221:. Retrieved
13207:
13183:
13174:
13165:
13145:
13132:
13112:
13099:
13079:
13067:. Retrieved
13058:
13048:
13021:
13015:
13005:
12983:(1): 43–46.
12980:
12976:
12970:
12951:
12943:
12928:
12916:. Retrieved
12912:the original
12907:
12903:
12893:
12874:
12833:
12829:
12812:
12779:
12775:
12769:
12760:
12751:
12741:20 September
12739:. Retrieved
12703:
12696:
12684:. Retrieved
12675:
12665:
12646:
12619:
12615:
12605:
12593:. Retrieved
12552:
12548:
12538:
12526:. Retrieved
12506:
12499:
12489:14 September
12487:. Retrieved
12462:
12458:
12448:
12429:
12405:
12398:
12386:. Retrieved
12377:
12368:
12360:the original
12355:
12346:
12334:. Retrieved
12316:
12304:. Retrieved
12290:
12268:(3): 26–28.
12265:
12261:
12255:
12243:. Retrieved
12218:
12214:
12204:
12192:. Retrieved
12177:
12168:
12164:
12158:
12125:
12121:
12115:
12080:
12076:
12043:
12039:
12030:
12026:
12009:
11976:
11972:
11966:
11952:. Retrieved
11935:
11931:
11914:. Retrieved
11897:
11893:
11876:. Retrieved
11841:
11837:
11827:
11815:. Retrieved
11803:
11799:
11783:
11771:. Retrieved
11767:the original
11762:
11753:
11718:Pulsed power
11658:Focus fusion
11632:
11268:
10694:
10679:
10670:
10655:Please help
10643:
10518:
9818:
9441:
9429:
9273:
9269:Gamow factor
9113:
8938:
8900:
8834:
8819:
8810:
8795:Please help
8783:
8726:
8553:
8538:
8529:
8514:Please help
8502:
8205:
8199:
8195:
8192:
7936:
7929:
7921:
7910:
7898:
7875:
7860:
7851:
7836:Please help
7824:
7754:
7705:
7645:
7639:
7634:
7323:
7317:
7304:
7258:
7254:
7210:
7204:
7195:
7190:
7181:
7174:
7167:
7161:neutronicity
7158:
6951:
6943:
6938:
6928:
6887:
6871:
6864:
6860:
6820:
6811:
6804:
6709:but not the
6518:
6513:
6506:
6499:
6496:fusion power
6493:
5609:
5372:
5366:
5358:
5345:
5339:
5327:
5321:
5305:
5299:
5290:
5285:Castle Bravo
5282:
5275:− 2.467 MeV
5185:+ 4.784 MeV
5095:
5043:
5039:
4945:
4941:
4886:
4882:Astrophysics
4820:8.7 MeV
4593:2.3 MeV
4556:1.7 MeV
4485:3.4 MeV
4404:5.0 MeV
4329:(7iii)
4112:9.5 MeV
4075:4.8 MeV
3630:3.6 MeV
3210:
3178:
3107:
3095:
3089:
3081:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3043:
3023:
3014:
2999:Please help
2987:
2956:
2948:Penning trap
2924:
2861:
2846:stellarators
2831:
2805:
2780:solar masses
2772:heavy enough
2760:brown dwarfs
2741:
2726:
2717:
2702:Please help
2690:
2652:
2629:
2628:also called
2564:pyroelectric
2532:
2520:
2493:Steven Jones
2487:
2453:storage ring
2446:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2417:
2398:fusion power
2393:
2392:
2378:
2372:
2359:is 0.1
2350:
2331:
2326:
2315:uncontrolled
2314:
2307:
2292:
2283:
2268:Please help
2256:
2233:Fusion power
2185:
2138:
2063:
1994:
1984:
1975:
1950:
1939:
1927:
1918:doubly magic
1898:
1892:through the
1847:iron isotope
1724:
1706:
1700:
1675:
1660:
1645:
1636:
1621:Please help
1609:
1591:Requirements
1553:
1550:
1493:
1489:
1481:
1475:
1469:that powers
1464:
1433:of energy.)
1415:annihilatory
1406:
1402:
1350:
1342:free neutron
1337:strong force
1326:
1311:
1280:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1208:
1197:
1177:
1169:
1102:
1032:
971:
970:
646:
533:Photofission
481:Decay energy
408:Alpha α
315:
311:
291:
287:
274:
261:
247:
86:nuclei into
56:
37:
33:Fusion power
19033:WikiProject
18853:Agriculture
18782:Solar power
18748:Tidal power
18622:Natural gas
18612:Fossil fuel
18555:Latent heat
18523:Electricity
17694:Ultraviolet
17689:Radio waves
17450:Stellarator
17414:confinement
17308:Superphénix
17135:Molten-salt
17087:VHTR (HTGR)
16864:HW BLWR 250
16830:R4 Marviken
16759:Pressurized
16729:Heavy water
16713:many others
16642:Pressurized
16597:Light water
16299:underground
16257:Disarmament
16165:Tomotherapy
16160:Proton-beam
16024:Power plant
15986:Temperature
15819:Engineering
15523:confinement
15269: [
15199:Heliotron J
15103:Stellarator
14971: [
14888: [
14795: [
14635:confinement
14624:experiments
14579:Other forms
14463:Stellarator
14429:Bumpy torus
14307:Confinement
14199:Core topics
14085:Springer US
13843:11 November
13830:MIT Catalog
12336:15 February
12306:13 December
12194:13 December
11653:Cold fusion
10673:August 2023
8839:as well as
8813:August 2023
8532:August 2023
7884:and form a
7854:August 2023
5880:12.32(2) y
5778:Cold fusion
4410:(7iv)
4228:(7ii)
4033:(6ii)
3459:(2ii)
3017:August 2023
2883:beam, or a
2836:lines (see
2792:endothermic
2720:August 2023
2428:beam–target
2375:temperature
2286:August 2023
1639:August 2023
1503:metallicity
1081:event of a
1055:endothermic
838:Oppenheimer
516:Spontaneous
486:Decay chain
437:K/L capture
413:Beta β
283:Isodiaphers
207:Liquid drop
19187:Categories
19100:Nike laser
18816:Wind power
18738:Hydropower
18689:components
18644:Hydropower
18634:Geothermal
18584:Sound wave
18495:Zero-point
18425:Mechanical
18410:Ionization
18383:Electrical
18278:Negentropy
18159:Energetics
17875:and health
17873:Radiation
17742:Cosmic ray
17475:(acoustic)
17092:PBR (PBMR)
16480:Spent fuel
16470:Repository
16450:Fuel cycle
16417:Activation
16194:Processing
16061:Propulsion
16019:by country
15951:Activation
14543:Ion-driven
14297:Processes,
14240:Aneutronic
14235:Commercial
14113:16 January
14068:8 December
13908:12 January
13500:CNO cycle#
13437:8 December
13276:30 October
12388:10 January
12171:: 692–714.
11763:Cosmicopia
11745:References
10557:Bosch-Hale
10532:Bosch-Hale
9839:Bosch-Hale
6595:products.
5793:Abundance
5790:Half-Life
5756:See also:
5746:Maxwellian
4724:(10)
4139:(7i)
3903:(6i)
3330:(2i)
3102:exothermic
3090:aneutronic
2939:conduction
2756:red dwarfs
2630:sonofusion
2606:Hans Bethe
2542:antimatter
2327:controlled
2177:ionization
1680:such as a
1536:byproduct.
1423:antimatter
1407:individual
1403:individual
1380:17.6
1373:13.6
1293:; and the
1241:Fusion of
1227:Zap Energy
1188:break-even
1153:Hans Bethe
1111:suggested
1051:exothermic
1022:and other
1008:absorption
990:(hydrogen
982:, usually
868:Strassmann
858:Rutherford
736:Scientists
691:Artificial
686:Cosmogenic
681:Primordial
677:Nuclides:
654:Processes:
610:Spallation
18927:Australia
18863:Transport
18858:Computing
18826:Wind farm
18753:Wave farm
18627:Petroleum
18607:Bioenergy
18579:Radiation
18518:Capacitor
18440:Potential
18029:Half-life
17902:Dosimetry
17737:Gamma ray
17684:Microwave
17674:Starlight
17635:Radiation
17445:Spheromak
17144:Fluorides
16808:IPHWR-700
16803:IPHWR-540
16798:IPHWR-220
16587:Moderator
16267:Explosion
16242:Arms race
16029:Economics
15981:Reflector
15976:Radiation
15971:Generator
15926:Plutonium
15879:Deuterium
15844:Radiation
15814:Chemistry
15728:Z machine
15709:Non-laser
15620:GEKKO XII
15572:Long path
15266:Uragan-3M
15261:Uragan-2M
14758:Riggatron
14478:Spheromak
14473:Spherical
14397:S-process
14392:R-process
14335:CNO cycle
14031:8 October
13366:25 August
13307:24 August
13249:24 August
13223:24 August
12731:229610872
12622:: 16–35.
12411:CRC Press
12150:123658609
12105:119357805
12001:186239503
11954:17 August
11916:17 August
11817:23 August
11575:−
11561:−
11553:⋅
11537:−
11529:⋅
11521:−
11513:×
11489:¯
11482:σ
11410:−
11396:−
11388:⋅
11372:−
11364:⋅
11356:−
11348:×
11324:¯
11317:σ
11287: keV
11280:≤
10644:does not
10602:ϵ
10586:ϵ
10579:
10573:ϵ
10565:ϵ
10540:ϵ
10528:σ
10490:%
10474:Δ
10456:0.5–4900
10450:0.5–5000
10116:ϵ
10040:ϵ
10021:ϵ
9998:ϵ
9975:ϵ
9937:ϵ
9918:ϵ
9895:ϵ
9872:ϵ
9847:ϵ
9620:−
9602:−
9598:ϵ
9576:ϵ
9556:−
9528:ϵ
9515:−
9470:ϵ
9458:σ
9411:ϵ
9397:ϵ
9391:−
9381:ϵ
9374:ϵ
9362:≈
9356:ϵ
9350:σ
9324:ϵ
9291:ϵ
9232:×
9199:α
9196:π
9181:ϵ
9156:ϵ
9142:ϵ
9136:−
9128:≈
9099:ϵ
9050:ϵ
9042:∝
9008:ℏ
8987:λ
8983:≈
8974:σ
8947:σ
8910:σ
8880:×
8874:×
8865:σ
8861:≈
8858:σ
8784:does not
8744:−
8701:≈
8662:ϵ
8658:π
8641:2 protons
8592:ϵ
8588:π
8503:does not
7878:electrons
7825:does not
5943:99.9998%
5774:CNO cycle
4897:S-process
4892:R-process
4602:(9)
4491:(8)
3781:(5)
3659:(4)
3548:(3)
3219:(1)
3066:10 K
3062:(0.1–1.0)
2988:does not
2909:deuterium
2897:deuterium
2764:deuterium
2691:does not
2576:deuterium
2501:half-life
2432:beam–beam
2257:does not
2203:⟩
2197:σ
2194:⟨
2155:⟩
2149:σ
2146:⟨
2046:⟩
2040:σ
2037:⟨
1610:does not
1581:supernova
1576:CNO cycle
1572:neutrinos
1568:positrons
1562:into one
1459:CNO cycle
1387:deuterium
1365:electrons
1273:, where Δ
1267:kinetic E
1249:creating
1243:deuterium
1225:Inc. and
1083:supernova
1075:plutonium
1039:nickel-62
984:deuterium
873:Świątecki
788:Pi. Curie
783:Fr. Curie
778:Ir. Curie
773:Cockcroft
748:Becquerel
669:Supernova
373:Drip line
368:p–n ratio
343:Borromean
222:Ab initio
40:(journal)
18997:Category
18562:Hydrogen
18528:Enthalpy
18430:Negative
18420:Magnetic
18405:Internal
18363:Chemical
18228:Enthalpy
18147:concepts
17679:Sunlight
17664:Infrared
17580:Category
17534:Polywell
17465:Inertial
17422:Magnetic
17177:TMSR-LF1
17172:TMSR-500
17152:Fuji MSR
17112:THTR-300
16952:Graphite
16815:PHWR KWU
16781:ACR-1000
16709:IPWR-900
16692:ACPR1000
16687:HPR-1000
16677:CPR-1000
16652:APR-1400
16443:Disposal
16395:Actinide
16388:Products
16247:Delivery
16090:Medicine
15919:depleted
15914:enriched
15884:Helium-3
15849:ionizing
15672:LULI2000
15538:Americas
15521:Inertial
15111:Americas
14678:Americas
14633:Magnetic
14622:Devices,
14566:Polywell
14525:Inertial
14406:Magnetic
14355:remnants
14220:Timeline
14143:Archived
14107:Archived
14062:Archived
14022:Archived
14000:18 April
13974:62598131
13880:55303621
13834:Archived
13484:Archived
13431:Archived
13394:Archived
13360:Archived
13356:16090625
13301:Archived
13270:Archived
13217:Archived
13154:Archived
13121:Archived
13088:Archived
13069:17 April
13063:Archived
13040:19571861
12959:Archived
12936:Archived
12883:Archived
12858:15858570
12820:Archived
12804:39819102
12735:Archived
12686:14 March
12680:Archived
12654:Archived
12595:25 March
12589:Archived
12585:17747682
12522:Archived
12483:Archived
12437:Archived
12382:Archived
12330:Archived
12300:Archived
12245:25 March
12239:Archived
12188:Archived
12068:22492141
12021:. See:
11948:Archived
11910:Archived
11878:25 March
11872:Archived
11868:36422819
11808:Archived
11791:(1975).
11641:See also
10754:DD(2ii)
10459:0.5–550
10453:0.3–900
10145:34.3827
10142:31.3970
10139:68.7508
10136:31.3970
10097:DD(2ii)
9659:DD(2ii)
9434:theory.
9432:R-matrix
9308:S-factor
8978:geometry
8951:geometry
8914:geometry
8869:geometry
8636:→
7642:⟩
7638:⟨
7320:⟩
7316:⟨
7207:⟩
7203:⟨
5913:0.0002%
5369:⟩
5365:⟨
5342:⟩
5338:⟨
5324:⟩
5320:⟨
5315:ignition
5302:⟩
5298:⟨
3181:) nuclei
2963:Polywell
2952:polywell
2950:and the
2893:neutrons
2881:electron
2842:tokamaks
2758:, while
2660:inertial
2644:in 2008.
2584:helium-3
2568:tungsten
2456:using a
1997:⟩
1993:⟨
1987:⟩
1983:⟨
1961:hydrogen
1957:electron
1946:diproton
1909:fermions
1901:helium-4
1570:and two
1499:hydrogen
1437:In stars
1329:hydrogen
1251:helium-4
1165:Ivy Mike
1087:elements
1000:neutrons
992:isotopes
976:reaction
932:Category
833:Oliphant
818:Lawrence
798:Davisson
768:Chadwick
664:Big Bang
551:electron
521:Products
442:Isomeric
333:Even/odd
310: –
285:– equal
272:– equal
270:Isotones
259:– equal
245:– equal
243:Isotopes
235:Nuclides
157:Nucleons
84:hydrogen
19165:Physics
19139:Portals
19121:Excimer
19114:Aspects
19083:Excimer
19009:Commons
18837:Use and
18696:Biomass
18666:Radiant
18513:Battery
18485:Thermal
18480:Surface
18465:Radiant
18435:Phantom
18415:Kinetic
18393:Binding
18373:Elastic
18356:Nuclear
18351:Binding
18238:Entropy
18136:Outline
18126:History
17890:chronic
17592:Commons
17503:Z-pinch
17473:Bubble
17455:Tokamak
17318:FBR-600
17298:CFR-600
17293:BN-1200
16959:coolant
16886:Organic
16771:CANDU 9
16768:CANDU 6
16736:coolant
16697:ACP1000
16672:CAP1400
16610:Boiling
16575:Fission
16422:Fission
16366:Weapons
16306:Warfare
16289:Testing
16279:History
16272:effects
16227:Weapons
16137:Therapy
16112:RadBall
16099:Imaging
15991:Thermal
15956:Capture
15943:Neutron
15931:Thorium
15909:Uranium
15874:Tritium
15854:braking
15834:Fission
15824:Physics
15807:Science
15557:Cyclops
15489:SPECTOR
15460:Trisops
15320:Sceptre
15173:Oceania
15145:Model C
15031:IGNITOR
14963:COMPASS
14810:Oceania
14792:Novillo
14753:Pegasus
14644:Tokamak
14483:Dynomak
14468:Tokamak
14299:methods
14283:Neutron
13791:Bibcode
13336:Bibcode
13189:Bibcode
13127:". NASA
12985:Bibcode
12866:4407334
12838:Bibcode
12784:Bibcode
12624:Bibcode
12557:Bibcode
12528:20 June
12467:Bibcode
12270:Bibcode
12223:Bibcode
12186:. CNN.
12130:Bibcode
12085:Bibcode
12048:Bibcode
11981:Bibcode
11940:Bibcode
11902:Bibcode
11846:Bibcode
11773:13 July
11663:Fusenet
10763:The(6)
10757:DHe(3)
10665:removed
10650:sources
10373:−8.5530
10344:−3.1995
10324:−2.5151
10254:−1.2706
10236:−3.2638
10100:DHe(3)
9679:46.097
9668:The(6)
9662:DHe(3)
9656:DD(2i)
9267:is the
8805:removed
8790:sources
8524:removed
8509:sources
7846:removed
7831:sources
7153:≈0.001
6420:stable
6330:stable
6300:stable
6273:99.76%
6270:stable
6180:stable
6150:stable
6090:stable
6060:stable
6030:stable
6003:92.41%
6000:stable
5970:stable
5940:stable
5910:stable
5850:Stable
5823:99.98%
5820:Stable
5248:+
5222:→
5196:+
5162:+
5136:→
5110:+
4816:+
4762:3
4759:→
4733:+
4714:+
4681:+
4657:2
4654:→
4628:+
4589:(
4563:+
4560:)
4552:(
4526:→
4500:+
4481:+
4448:+
4422:→
4400:+
4367:+
4341:→
4319:+
4295:+
4266:+
4240:→
4218:+
4194:2
4191:→
4165:+
4116:)
4108:(
4082:+
4079:)
4071:(
4045:→
4017:+
3999:+
3990:+
3955:→
3929:+
3893:+
3871:2
3868:+
3833:→
3807:+
3771:+
3749:2
3746:+
3711:→
3685:+
3646:(
3637:+
3634:)
3626:(
3600:→
3574:+
3525:)
3517:(
3508:+
3505:)
3497:(
3471:→
3436:)
3428:(
3419:+
3416:)
3408:(
3382:→
3356:+
3317:(
3308:+
3305:)
3297:(
3271:→
3245:+
3085:tritium
3009:removed
2994:sources
2885:Z-pinch
2768:lithium
2748:gravity
2712:removed
2697:sources
2602:fission
2588:neutron
2379:average
2377:is the
2278:removed
2263:sources
2183:state.
1972:energy.
1905:lithium
1686:neutron
1678:nucleon
1676:When a
1631:removed
1616:sources
1560:protons
1515:Cepheid
1391:tritium
1302:protons
1299:charged
1247:tritium
1233:Process
1178:The US
1093:History
1071:thorium
1067:uranium
1047:nucleon
1035:iron-56
1004:protons
988:tritium
888:Thomson
878:Szilárd
848:Purcell
828:Meitner
763:N. Bohr
758:A. Bohr
743:Alvarez
659:Stellar
563:neutron
447:Gamma γ
300:Isomers
257:Isobars
152:Nucleus
124:iron-56
19177:Energy
19021:Portal
18942:Mexico
18937:Europe
18932:Canada
18917:Africa
18840:supply
18649:Marine
18538:Fossil
18490:Vacuum
18243:Exergy
18164:Energy
18115:Energy
18072:, and
17403:Fusion
17363:Others
17303:Phénix
17288:BN-800
17283:BN-600
17278:BN-350
17107:HTR-PM
17102:HTR-10
17082:UHTREX
17047:Magnox
17042:(UNGG)
16935:Lucens
16930:KS 150
16667:ATMEA1
16647:AP1000
16630:Kerena
16510:Debate
16262:Ethics
16252:Design
16235:Topics
16066:rocket
16044:Fusion
16039:Policy
16001:Fusion
15961:Poison
15839:Fusion
15696:Vulcan
15629:Europe
15403:Astron
15376:Mirror
15213:Europe
15079:MAST-U
15043:ISTTOK
15009:TEXTOR
14937:Europe
14863:ADITYA
14851:SUNIST
14721:DIII-D
14692:STOR-M
14288:Plasma
14099:
14054:
13972:
13957:Nature
13936:
13878:
13464:
13423:
13354:
13038:
13017:Nature
12864:
12856:
12830:Nature
12802:
12776:Nature
12729:
12719:
12583:
12575:
12514:
12417:
12148:
12103:
12066:
12033:: 335.
11999:
11866:
11838:Nature
11594:
11567:
11429:
11402:
10760:TT(4)
10751:DT(1)
10519:where
10402:5.9014
10312:1.8181
10298:5.2002
10289:2.9327
10277:1.4987
10245:4.5566
10213:3.3027
10204:2.5226
10195:2.1054
10172:5.3701
10163:5.7501
10154:5.5576
10094:DT(1)
9784:1.297
9781:1.177
9775:1.076
9714:11250
9708:25900
9699:50200
9691:123.1
9688:38.39
9685:89.27
9682:47.88
9676:45.95
9665:TT(4)
9653:DT(1)
9172:where
9064:where
8901:where
8707:
8690:
8571:thresh
7933:fusion
7901:opaque
7886:plasma
7118:≈0.05
6483:trace
6453:trace
6393:trace
6333:0.20%
6303:0.04%
6153:99.6%
6063:98.9%
5973:7.59%
5883:trace
5853:0.02%
5776:, and
5245:
5219:
5193:
5159:
5133:
5107:
4813:
4810:
4807:
4804:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4786:
4783:
4756:
4730:
4711:
4708:
4705:
4702:
4699:
4696:
4693:
4690:
4687:
4678:
4651:
4625:
4586:
4549:
4523:
4497:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4445:
4419:
4416:
4413:
4397:
4394:
4391:
4388:
4385:
4382:
4379:
4376:
4373:
4364:
4338:
4335:
4332:
4316:
4313:
4310:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4292:
4289:
4263:
4237:
4234:
4231:
4215:
4188:
4162:
4131:
4128:
4125:
4122:
4119:
4105:
4068:
4042:
4039:
4036:
4025:
4014:
4011:
4008:
4005:
3996:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3952:
3926:
3890:
3887:
3884:
3881:
3878:
3875:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3830:
3804:
3768:
3765:
3762:
3759:
3756:
3753:
3743:
3740:
3737:
3734:
3708:
3682:
3643:
3623:
3597:
3571:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3528:
3514:
3494:
3468:
3465:
3462:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3425:
3405:
3379:
3353:
3314:
3294:
3268:
3242:
2943:fusors
2901:oxygen
2869:x-rays
2656:vacuum
2580:erbium
2548:, and
2368:kelvin
2342:plasma
2325:; and
2311:plasma
2181:plasma
1951:Using
1868:is an
1801:, and
1731:nickel
1682:proton
1671:tunnel
1419:matter
1133:masses
1063:helium
1012:energy
930:
898:Wigner
893:Walton
883:Teller
813:Jensen
580:proton
323:Stable
88:helium
80:energy
18961:Misc.
18671:Solar
18475:Sound
18344:Types
18218:Power
18169:Units
18131:Index
17885:acute
17782:X-ray
17669:Light
17524:Migma
17512:Other
17481:Fusor
17380:Piqua
17375:Arbus
17333:PRISM
17075:MHR-T
17070:GTMHR
17000:EGP-6
16995:AMB-X
16970:Water
16915:HWGCR
16854:HWLWR
16793:IPHWR
16764:CANDU
16625:ESBWR
16380:Waste
16344:Tests
16327:Lists
16311:Yield
16054:MMRTG
16011:Power
15723:PACER
15684:ISKRA
15643:HiPER
15597:Shiva
15592:OMEGA
15562:Janus
15552:Argus
15531:Laser
15501:Linus
15429:Other
15289:Pinch
15273:]
15249:TJ-II
15187:H-1NF
15171:Asia,
15162:SCR-1
15135:HIDRA
15084:START
14975:]
14968:GOLEM
14916:KSTAR
14904:GLAST
14892:]
14885:QUEST
14880:JT-60
14868:SST-1
14846:HL-2M
14841:HL-2A
14824:CFETR
14808:Asia,
14799:]
14780:TCABR
14714:SPARC
14669:PROTO
14591:Migma
14561:Fusor
14451:Theta
14436:Pinch
14340:Fusor
14025:(PDF)
14014:(PDF)
13970:S2CID
13947:(PDF)
13922:(PDF)
13876:S2CID
13837:(PDF)
13826:(PDF)
12918:3 May
12862:S2CID
12800:S2CID
12727:S2CID
12573:JSTOR
12146:S2CID
12101:S2CID
12064:S2CID
11997:S2CID
11864:S2CID
11811:(PDF)
11796:(PDF)
11633:with
11564:19.94
11399:18.76
11218:1000
10437:1.728
10414:6.981
10385:−9.95
10263:2.050
10222:7.454
10181:6.927
9787:2.09
9778:1.22
9723:1.368
9444:barns
8187:0.57
8158:0.21
8129:0.72
7890:x-ray
7629:2500
7626:0.014
7582:6800
7579:0.005
7065:0.66
7012:0.80
6423:100%
6183:0.4%
6093:1.1%
5331:(see
3195:time.
2959:fusor
2935:fusor
2879:, or
2873:laser
2752:stars
2598:power
2497:muons
2449:Migma
2351:In a
2323:stars
1959:from
1501:(see
1471:stars
1314:stars
1245:with
1229:Inc.
974:is a
863:Soddy
843:Proca
823:Mayer
803:Fermi
753:Bethe
328:Magic
74:is a
18922:Asia
18676:Wind
18617:Coal
18589:Work
18550:Heat
18533:Fuel
18470:Rest
18368:Dark
18333:Work
18201:Mass
17340:Lead
17323:CEFR
17313:PFBR
17195:None
17005:RBMK
16990:AM-1
16920:EL-4
16894:WR-1
16876:AHWR
16820:MZFR
16788:CVTR
16777:AFCR
16704:VVER
16662:APWR
16657:APR+
16620:ABWR
16490:cask
16485:pool
16427:LLFP
16316:TNTe
15996:Fast
15866:Fuel
15606:Asia
15587:Nova
15582:Nike
15567:LIFE
15448:PFRC
15413:MFTF
15325:ZETA
15227:WEGA
15150:NCSX
15089:STEP
15055:T-15
14992:WEST
14928:TT-1
14834:HT-7
14829:EAST
14763:SSPX
14746:TFTR
14736:NSTX
14664:DEMO
14659:ITER
14456:Zeta
14350:Nova
14310:type
14115:2023
14097:ISBN
14070:2015
14052:ISBN
14033:2008
14002:2007
13934:ISBN
13910:2006
13845:2018
13462:ISBN
13439:2015
13421:ISBN
13368:2020
13352:PMID
13309:2014
13278:2014
13251:2014
13225:2014
13071:2019
13036:PMID
12920:2006
12854:PMID
12743:2022
12717:ISBN
12688:2021
12597:2020
12581:PMID
12577:6491
12530:2023
12512:ISBN
12491:2018
12415:ISBN
12390:2023
12356:ITER
12338:2010
12326:ITER
12308:2022
12247:2020
12196:2022
12017:and
11956:2022
11918:2022
11880:2020
11819:2023
11775:2017
11510:3.68
11345:2.33
11168:500
11118:200
11068:100
10648:any
10646:cite
10513:1.9
10510:2.5
10507:2.2
10504:2.0
10356:6.38
10103:The
9807:647
9798:409
9759:1.02
9750:3.98
9741:3.08
9732:4.36
9711:448
9705:482
9702:372
8788:any
8786:cite
8507:any
8505:cite
8445:and
8336:and
8200:will
8196:must
8126:1000
8082:5.3
8035:2.9
7988:140
7918:fuel
7829:any
7827:cite
7652:1.24
7620:1240
7609:3.01
7574:1700
7563:1.46
7533:0.43
7516:2.24
7451:1.28
7386:1.24
7311:fuel
7261:+ 1)
7198:+ 1)
7115:18.3
7112:18.3
7059:12.5
7006:17.6
6935:fuel
6774:+ 2
6576:and
6363:syn
6243:syn
6213:syn
6123:syn
6033:80%
5629:and
5599:3.01
5564:1.46
5529:2.24
5476:1.28
5423:1.24
5419:13.6
5355:fuel
4134:43%
4028:57%
3543:50%
3454:50%
3154:and
2992:any
2990:cite
2931:ions
2844:and
2766:and
2695:any
2693:cite
2560:UCLA
2519:The
2261:any
2259:cite
1940:The
1729:and
1727:iron
1721:act.
1716:The
1614:any
1612:cite
1531:and
1457:The
1445:The
1421:and
1204:ITER
1127:and
1073:and
1045:per
986:and
853:Rabi
808:Hahn
718:RHIC
338:Halo
118:The
105:ITER
70:The
18543:Oil
17412:by
17328:PFR
17119:PMR
17097:AVR
17019:Gas
16957:by
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430:β
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312:Z
292:Z
288:N
275:N
262:A
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167:n
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