Theory of constraints

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his own framework of profiting on his ideas. According to Gupta and Snyder (2009), despite being recognized as a genuine management philosophy nowadays, TOC has yet failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in the academic literature and as such, cannot be considered academically worthy to be called a widely recognized theory. TOC needs more case studies that prove a connection between implementation and improved financial performance. Nave (2002) argues that TOC does not take employees into account and fails to empower them in the production process. He also states that TOC fails to address unsuccessful policies as constraints. In contrast, Mukherjee and Chatterjee (2007) state that much of the criticism of Goldratt's work has been focused on the lack of rigour in his work, but not of the bottleneck approach, which are two different aspects of the issue.

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and nearly all tools can be used independently (Cox & Spencer, 1998). Since these thinking tools are designed to address successive "layers of resistance" and enable communication, it expedites securing "buy in" of groups. While CRT (current reality tree) represents the undesirable effects of the current situation, the FRT (the future reality tree), NBR (negative branch) help people plan and understand the possible results of their actions. The PRT (prerequisite tree) and TRT (transition tree) are designed to build collective buy in and aid in the Implementation phase. The logical constructs of these tools or diagrams are the necessary condition logic, the sufficient cause logic and the strict logic rules that are used to validate cause-effect relationships which are modelled with these tools (Dettmer W., 2006).

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distribution link simply extends its buffer sizing and management techniques to its customers' inventories. Doing so has the effect of smoothing the demand from the customer and reducing order sizes per SKU. VMI results in better availability and inventory turns for both supplier and customer. The benefits to the non-TOC customers are sufficient to meet the purpose of capitalizing on the competitive edge by giving the customer a reason to be more loyal and give more business to the upstream link. When the end consumers buy more, the whole supply chain sells more.

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internal or external to the system. An internal constraint is in evidence when the market demands more from the system than it can deliver. If this is the case, then the focus of the organization should be on discovering that constraint and following the five focusing steps to open it up (and potentially remove it). An external constraint exists when the system can produce more than the market will bear. If this is the case, then the organization should focus on mechanisms to create more demand for its products or services.

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priority system operate strictly based on the time an order is expected to be at the drum. Each work order will have a remaining buffer status that can be calculated. Based on this buffer status, work orders can be color coded into Red, Yellow and Green. The red orders have the highest priority and must be worked on first, since they have penetrated most into their buffers followed by yellow and green. As time evolves, this buffer status might change and the color assigned to the particular work order change with it.

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rule 3). Alternatively, when the on hand inventory is in the bottom one third of the buffer for too long, the buffer is increased by one third (and don't forget rule 4). The definition of "too long" may be changed depending on required service levels, however, a rule of thumb is 20% of the RT. Moving buffers up more readily than down is supported by the usually greater damage caused by shortages as compared to the damage caused by surpluses.

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In a balanced line, as espoused by kanban, when one work center goes down for a period longer than the buffer allows, then the entire system must wait until that work center is restored. In a TOC system, the only situation where work is in danger is if the constraint is unable to process (either due to malfunction, sickness or a "hole" in the buffer – if something goes wrong that the time buffer can not protect).

797:. For effective sales management one can apply Drum Buffer Rope to the sales process similar to the way it is applied to operations (see Reengineering the Sales Process book reference below). This technique is appropriate when your constraint is in the sales process itself, or if you just want an effective sales management technique which includes the topics of funnel management and conversion rates. 42: 340:. However, for many organizations and non-profit businesses, making money is a necessary condition for pursuing the goal. Whether it is the goal or a necessary condition, understanding how to make sound financial decisions based on throughput, inventory, and operating expense is a critical requirement. 777:(CCPM) are utilized in this area. CCPM is based on the idea that all projects look like A-plants: all activities converge to a final deliverable. As such, to protect the project, there must be internal buffers to protect synchronization points and a final project buffer to protect the overall project. 1045:

Goldratt has been criticized on lack of openness in his theories, an example being him not releasing the algorithm he used for the Optimum Performance Training system. Some view him as unscientific with many of his theories, tools and techniques not being a part of the public domain, rather a part of

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which dates back to World War II. And Noreen Smith and Mackey, in their independent report on TOC, point out that several key concepts in TOC "have been topics in management accounting textbooks for decades." It is also claimed that Goldratt's books fail to acknowledge that TOC borrows from more than

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To ensure buffers remain correctly sized even with changes in the rates of demand and replenishment, a simple recursive algorithm called Buffer Management is used. When the on hand inventory level is in the upper third of the buffer for a full RT, the buffer is reduced by one third (and don't forget

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is the work release mechanism for the plant. Orders are released to the shop floor at one "buffer time" before they are due to be processed by the constraint. In other words, if the buffer is 5 days, the order is released 5 days before it is due at the constraint. Putting work into the system earlier

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Drum-buffer-rope is a manufacturing execution methodology based on the fact the output of a system can only be the same as the output at the constraint of the system. Any attempt to produce more than what the constraint can process just leads to excess inventory piling up. The method is named for its

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and How Should it be Implemented?", and in his audio program, "Beyond The Goal". In these, Goldratt discusses the history of disciplinary sciences, compares the strengths and weaknesses of the various disciplines, and acknowledges the sources of information and inspiration for the thinking processes

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The process of change requires the identification and acceptance of core issues; the goal and the means to the goal. This comprehensive set of logical tools can be used for exploration, solution development and solution implementation for individuals, groups or organizations. Each tool has a purpose

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One caveat should be considered. Initially and only temporarily, the supply chain or a specific link may sell less as the surplus inventory in the system is sold. However, the sales lift due to improved availability is a countervailing factor. The current levels of surpluses and shortages make each

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A typical line setup is such that in normal operation the upstream conveyors from the constraint machine are always run full to prevent starvation at the constraint and the downstream conveyors are run empty to prevent a back up at the constraint. The overall aim is to prevent minor stoppages at the

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V-plant: The general flow of material is one-to-many, such as a plant that takes one raw material and can make many final products. Classic examples are meat rendering plants or a steel manufacturer. The primary problem in V-plants is "robbing," where one operation (A) immediately after a diverging

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Buffers can be a bank of physical objects before a work center, waiting to be processed by that work center. Buffers ultimately buy you time, as in the time before work reaches the constraint and are often verbalized as time buffers. There should always be enough (but not excessive) work in the time

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The TOC distribution solution is effective when used to address a single link in the supply chain and more so across the entire system, even if that system comprises many different companies. The purpose of the TOC distribution solution is to establish a competitive advantage based on extraordinary

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is the rate at which the physical constraint of the plant can work: the work center or machine or operation that limits the ability of the entire system to produce more. The rest of the plant follows the beat of the drum. Schedule at the drum decides what the system should produce, in what sequence

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system although it is similar if you regard the assembly line as the governing constraint. A prerequisite in the theory is that with one constraint in the system, all other parts of the system must have sufficient capacity to keep up with the work at the constraint and to catch up if time was lost.

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TOC was initiated by Goldratt, who until his death was still the main driving force behind the development and practice of TOC. There is a network of individuals and small companies loosely coupled as practitioners around the world. TOC is sometimes referred to as "constraint management". TOC is a

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Buffers are used throughout the theory of constraints. They often result as part of the exploit and subordinate steps of the five focusing steps. Buffers are placed before the governing constraint, thus ensuring that the constraint is never starved. Buffers are also placed behind the constraint to

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If a constraint's throughput capacity is elevated to the point where it is no longer the system's limiting factor, this is said to "break" the constraint. The limiting factor is now some other part of the system, or may be external to the system (an external constraint). This is not to be confused

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In all stocking locations, initial inventory buffers are set which effectively create an upper limit of the inventory at that location. The buffer size is equal to the maximum expected consumption within the average Replenishment Time ("RT"), plus additional stock to protect in case a delivery is

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Inventory is held at an aggregation point(s) as close as possible to the source. This approach ensures smoothed demand at the aggregation point, requiring proportionally less inventory. The distribution centers holding the aggregated stock are able to ship goods downstream to the next link in the

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A constraint is anything that prevents the system from achieving its goal. There are many ways that constraints can show up, but a core principle within TOC is that there are not tens or hundreds of constraints. There is at least one, but at most only a few in any given system. Constraints can be

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to identify the constraint and restructure the rest of the organization around it. TOC adopts the common idiom "a chain is no stronger than its weakest link". That means that organizations and processes are vulnerable because the weakest person or part can always damage or break them, or at least

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To be able to maximize the throughput, the production line usually has a designed constraint. This constraint is typically the slowest and often the most expensive machine on the line. The overall throughput of the line is determined by this machine. All other machines can operate faster and are

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From the above list, one can deduce that for non-material systems one could draw the flow of work or the flow of processes, instead of physical flows, and arrive at similar basic V, A, T, or I structures. A project, for example, is an A-shaped sequence of work, culminating in a delivered product

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T-plant: The general flow is that of an I-plant (or has multiple lines), which then splits into many assemblies (many-to-many). Most manufactured parts are used in multiple assemblies and nearly all assemblies use multiple parts. Customized devices, such as computers, are good examples. T-plants

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The primary measures for a TOC view of finance and accounting are: throughput, operating expense and investment. Throughput is calculated from sales minus "totally variable cost", where totally variable cost is usually calculated as the cost of raw materials that go into creating the item sold.

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A stocking location that manages inventory according to the TOC should help a non-TOC customer (downstream link in a supply chain, whether internal or external) manage their inventory according to the TOC process. This type of help can take the form of a vendor managed inventory (VMI). The TOC

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protects the drum, so that it always has work flowing to it. Buffers in DBR provide the additional lead time beyond the required set up and process times, for materials in the product flow. Since these buffers have time as their unit of measure, rather than quantity of material, this makes the

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There are four primary types of plants in the TOC lexicon. Draw the flow of material from the bottom of a page to the top, and you get the four types. They specify the general flow of materials through a system, and also provide some hints about where to look for typical problems. This type of

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Buffer management, therefore, represents a crucial attribute of the theory of constraints. There are many ways to apply buffers, but the most often used is a visual system of designating the buffer in three colors: green (okay), yellow (caution) and red (action required). Creating this kind of

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The Theory of Constraints International Certification Organization (TOCICO) is an independent not-for-profit incorporated society that sets exams to ensure a consistent standard of competence. It is overseen by a board of academic and industrial experts. It also hosts an annual international

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referenced foundational materials. Goldratt published an article and gave talks with the title "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants" in which he gives credit for many of the core ideas of Theory of Constraints. Goldratt has sought many times to show the correlation between various improvement

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Despite its origins as a manufacturing approach (Goldratt & Cox, The Goal: A process of Ongoing Improvement, 1992), Goldratt's Theory of Constraints (TOC) methodology is now regarded as a systems methodology with strong foundations in the hard sciences (Mabin, 1999). Through its tools for

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Use of these tools are based on the fundamental beliefs of TOC that organizations a) are inherently simple (interdependencies exist in organizations) b) desire inherent harmony (win – win solutions are possible) c) are inherently good (people are good) and have inherent potential (people and

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Automated production lines achieve high throughput rates and output quantities by deploying automation solutions that are highly task-specific. Depending on their design and construction, these machines operate at different speeds and capacities and therefore have varying efficiency levels.

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late. In other words, there is no advantage in holding more inventory in a location than the amount that might be consumed before more could be ordered and received. Typically, the sum of the on hand value of such buffers are 25–75% less than currently observed average inventory levels

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Once buffers have been established, no replenishment orders are placed as long as the quantity inbound (already ordered but not yet received) plus the quantity on hand are equal to or greater than the buffer size. Following this rule causes surplus inventory to be bled off as it is

333:. Inventory is all the money that the system has invested in purchasing things which it intends to sell. Operational expense is all the money the system spends in order to turn inventory into throughput. Throughput is the rate at which the system generates money through sales. 559:

A-plant: The general flow of material is many-to-one, such as in a plant where many sub-assemblies converge for a final assembly. The primary problem in A-plants is in synchronizing the converging lines so that each supplies the final assembly point at the right

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A prominent example is the use of automated production lines in the beverage industry. Filling systems usually have several machines executing parts of the complete bottling process, from filling primary containers to secondary packaging and palletisation.

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Traditional DBR usually calls for buffers at several points in the system: the constraint, synchronization points and at shipping. S-DBR has a buffer at shipping and manages the flow of work across the drum through a load planning mechanism.

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prevent downstream failure from blocking the constraint's output. Buffers used in this way protect the constraint from variations in the rest of the system and should allow for normal variation of processing time and the occasional upset (

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analysis is known as VATI analysis as it uses the bottom-up shapes of the letters V, A, T, and I to describe the types of plants. The four types can be combined in many ways in larger facilities, e.g. "an A plant feeding a V plant".

492:. In TOC, the constraint is used as a focusing mechanism for management of the system. In optimization, the constraint is written into the mathematical expressions to limit the scope of the solution (X can be no greater than 5). 856:

convergent thinking and synthesis, the "Thinking processes", which underpin the entire TOC methodology, help identify and manage constraints and guide continuous improvement and change in organizations (Dettmer H., 1998).

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D. Trietsch, From the Flawed "Theory of Constraints" to Hierarchically Balancing Criticalities (HBC), Department of Information Systems and Operations Management, University of Auckland, Working Paper No. 281, May

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Replenishment Time (RT) is the sum of the delay, after the first consumption following a delivery, before an order is placed plus the delay after the order is placed until the ordered goods arrive at the ordering

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The conveyors usually have the ability to buffer product. In the event of a stoppage at a machine other than the constraint, the conveyor can buffer the product enabling the constraint machine to keep on running.

620:, the solution seeks to pull materials through the system, rather than push them into the system. The primary methodology used is drum-buffer-rope (DBR) and a variation called simplified drum-buffer-rope (S-DBR). 542:

visibility enables the system as a whole to align and thus subordinate to the need of the constraint in a holistic manner. This can also be done daily in a central operations room that is accessible to everybody.

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Please note: organizations have many problems with equipment, people, policies, etc. (A breakdown is just that – a breakdown – and is not a constraint in the true sense of the TOC concept). The constraint is the

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is as follows: If there was nothing preventing a system from achieving higher throughput (i.e., more goal units in a unit of time), its throughput would be infinite – which is impossible in a real-life system.

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For any reason, when on hand plus inbound inventory is less than the buffer, orders are placed as soon as practical to increase the inbound inventory so that the relationship on Hand + Inbound = Buffer is

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organizations have potential to do better) (Goldratt E., 2009). In the book "Through the clouds to solutions" Jelena Fedurko (Fedurko, 2013) states that the major areas for application of TP tools as:

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suffer from both synchronization problems of A-plants (parts aren't all available for an assembly) and the robbing problems of V-plants (one assembly steals parts that could have been used in another).

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Following this rule may result in a make-to-order manufacturer converting to make-to-stock. The inventory added at the aggregation point is significantly less than the inventory reduction downstream.

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While TOC has been compared favorably to linear programming techniques, D. Trietsch from University of Auckland argues that DBR methodology is inferior to competing methodologies. Linhares, from the

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and per order) and customer order batching. Any improvements in these areas will automatically improve both availability and inventory turns, thanks to the adaptive nature of Buffer Management.

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Before the goal itself can be reached, necessary conditions must first be met. These typically include safety, quality, legal obligations, etc. For most businesses, the goal itself is to make

758:. Throughput accounting suggests that one examine the impact of investments and operational changes in terms of the impact on the throughput of the business. It is an alternative to 567:

I-plant: Material flows in a sequence, such as in an assembly line. The primary work is done in a straight sequence of events (one-to-one). The constraint is the slowest operation.

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The thinking processes are a set of tools to help managers walk through the steps of initiating and implementing a project. When used in a logical flow, they help walk through a

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Rahman, Shams-ur. "Theory of constraints: a review of the philosophy and its applications." International Journal of Operations & Production Management 18.4 (1998): 336-355.

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point "steals" materials meant for the other operation (B). Once the material has been processed by A, it cannot come back and be run through B without significant rework.

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The five focusing steps aim to ensure ongoing improvement efforts are centered on the organization's constraint(s). In the TOC literature, this is referred to as the

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Once inventory is managed as described above, continuous efforts should be undertaken to reduce RT, late deliveries, supplier minimum order quantities (both per

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Gupta, Mahesh, and Doug Snyder. "Comparing TOC with MRP and JIT: a literature review." International Journal of Production Research 47.13 (2009): 3705-3739

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For this reason as the machines get further from the constraint, they have the ability to run faster than the previous machine and this creates a V curve.

1508:'The planning flexibility bottleneck in food processing industries' (2006) Journal of Operations Management 24(3):287-300, DOI:10.1016/j.jom.2004.11.001 4285: 2201: 282: 3837: 890: 844: 321:

The underlying premise of the theory of constraints is that organizations can be measured and controlled by variations on three measures:

274:, that is geared to help organizations continually achieve their goals. Goldratt adapted the concept to project management with his book 806: 218: 992:, has shown that the TOC approach to establishing an optimal product mix is unlikely to yield optimum results, as it would imply that 596:/distribution generated specific solutions. Other tools (mainly the "thinking process") also led to TOC applications in the fields of 863:

A summary of these tools, the questions they help answer and the associated logical constructs used is presented in the table below.

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to produce and how much to produce. They make sure the drum has work and that anything the drum has processed does not get wasted.

25: 500:

that is preventing the organization from getting more throughput (typically, revenue through sales) even when nothing goes wrong.

1018: 1760:"Standing on the shoulders of giants: production concepts versus production applications. The Hitachi Tool Engineering example" 1632:. In Death And Anti-Death, ed. Charles Tandy, 6: Thirty Years After Kurt Gödel (1906–1978) pp. 285-318. Ria University Press.) 3911: 2185: 1932: 1527: 1327: 1276: 1254: 1237: 4410: 4278: 2692: 1795: 3855: 2650: 2308: 466:

Equipment: The way equipment is currently used limits the ability of the system to produce more salable goods/services.

3865: 2289: 2270: 2251: 2236: 2162: 2143: 2124: 2103: 2082: 2059: 2036: 2017: 1995: 1974: 1955: 1913: 1894: 1843:

Mukherjee, S. M. and Chatterjee, A. K. (2007). The concept of bottleneck. Working Paper No. 2006-05-01, IIM Ahmedabad

1613: 1588: 1563: 1433: 1404: 1217: 1161: 774: 422:

The goal of a commercial organization is: "Make more money now and in the future", and its measurements are given by

295: 4096: 3715: 2389: 303:. The publications of Wolfgang Mewes are marketed through the FAZ Verlag, publishing house of the German newspaper 97: 1716:

Linhares, Alexandre (2009). "Theory of constraints and the combinatorial complexity of the product-mix decision".

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This approach uses several new rules to protect availability with less inventory than is conventionally required.

4420: 4271: 1834:

Nave, Dave. "How to compare six sigma, lean and the theory of constraints." Quality Progress 35.3 (2002): 73-80.

989: 4405: 3860: 3218: 2218: 1126: 305: 211: 697:

availability by reducing the damages caused when the flow of goods is interrupted by shortages and surpluses.

3931: 3484: 3007: 2584: 2574: 439: 182: 1055:

conference. The work presented at these conferences constitutes a core repository of the current knowledge.

3737: 3720: 3442: 3282: 2717: 2633: 2606: 1111: 906: 243:

that views any manageable system as being limited in achieving more of its goals by a very small number of

158: 112: 102: 3034: 2596: 1106: 1013: 4229: 4101: 3963: 3875: 3245: 2784: 489: 187: 649:

than this buffer time is likely to generate too-high work-in-process and slow down the entire system.

4058: 3727: 3342: 3337: 3267: 3012: 2997: 2808: 2724: 2301:

Velocity: Combining Lean, Six Sigma and the Theory of Constraints to Achieve Breakthrough Performance

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Steyn, Herman (2000). "An Investigation into the Fundamentals of Critical Chain Project Scheduling".

1088: 794: 204: 1375: 4063: 3820: 3732: 3494: 3208: 3181: 3111: 2972: 2828: 2739: 2613: 485: 127: 107: 4215: 4028: 3993: 3921: 3880: 3832: 3690: 3509: 3467: 3432: 3412: 3176: 1791: 1026: 4243: 2171: 378:

Assuming the goal of a system has been articulated and its measurements defined, the steps are:

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The concept of the constraint in Theory of Constraints is analogous to but differs from the

4364: 4336: 4183: 4038: 3998: 3752: 3705: 3526: 3474: 3397: 3387: 3287: 3250: 3230: 3161: 3151: 2559: 2549: 2506: 2484: 2439: 2382: 1022: 368: 8: 4415: 4331: 3978: 3901: 3810: 3695: 3543: 3521: 3427: 3407: 3272: 3131: 3116: 3029: 2796: 2749: 2530: 2357: 1092: 326: 265: 240: 76: 2319: 1344: 947:

To develop responsibility for one's own actions through understanding their consequences

4353: 4316: 4091: 4043: 4018: 3457: 3292: 3277: 3136: 2952: 2823: 2769: 2501: 2352: 2195: 1548: 1286: 1069: 735: 589: 431: 337: 71: 4384: 4311: 4198: 4168: 3973: 3926: 3782: 3772: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3553: 3392: 3377: 3332: 3322: 3307: 3302: 3235: 3171: 3166: 3069: 2904: 2801: 2779: 2729: 2687: 2677: 2591: 2469: 2409: 2304: 2285: 2266: 2247: 2232: 2214: 2181: 2158: 2139: 2120: 2099: 2093: 2078: 2055: 2032: 2013: 1991: 1985: 1970: 1951: 1928: 1909: 1890: 1630:

The Future of Scientific Simulations: from Artificial Life to Artificial Cosmogenesis

1609: 1584: 1559: 1523: 1429: 1422: 1400: 1345:"Simplified Drum-Buffer-Rope: A Whole System Approach to High Velocity Manufacturing" 1323: 1272: 1250: 1233: 1213: 1157: 912: 689:

is to create flow of inventory so as to ensure greater availability and to eliminate

92: 1776: 1759: 1702: 375:

Only by increasing flow through the constraint can overall throughput be increased.

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and critical chain methodologies. Articles published in the now-defunct Journal of

786: 270: 56: 33: 1670: 1319: 1313: 4359: 4306: 4163: 4143: 4123: 4118: 4108: 4003: 3638: 3628: 3613: 3573: 3538: 3531: 3462: 3422: 3191: 3064: 3054: 2962: 2919: 2899: 2628: 2579: 2375: 1983: 1396: 1390: 1101: 1079: 1017:

40 years of previous management science research and practice, particularly from

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queue before the constraint and adequate offloading space behind the constraint.

519: 497: 66: 4369: 4321: 4188: 4133: 4086: 4068: 3870: 3618: 3608: 3603: 3578: 3372: 3352: 3225: 3196: 3146: 3079: 3049: 3039: 3002: 2924: 2882: 2877: 2759: 2754: 2744: 2662: 2640: 2474: 2464: 1944: 1729: 785:

While originally focused on manufacturing and logistics, TOC has expanded into

61: 4250: 1801: 1671:"From Management by Constraints (MBC) to Management By Criticalities (MBC II)" 835:

TOC practitioners sometimes refer to these in the negative as working through

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The focusing steps, this process of ongoing improvement, have been applied to

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Supply chain management at warp speed: integrating the system from end to end

1009: 585: 353: 4236: 4222: 1487: 4076: 4053: 4023: 4008: 3297: 2914: 2855: 2667: 2618: 2569: 2544: 2496: 2489: 1925:

The Logical Thinking Process: A Systems Approach to Complex Problem Solving

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Policy: A written or unwritten policy prevents the system from making more.

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Manufacturing at warp speed: optimizing supply chain financial performance

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Schragenheim, Eli, Dettmer, H. William, and Patterson, J. Wayne. (2009).

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Eliyahu M. Goldratt. 2004. _The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement,

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Qui, Mabel; Fredendall, Lawrence; Zhu, Zhiwei (2002). "TOC or LP? ".

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A rebuttal to these criticisms is offered in Goldratt's "What is the

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Holistic thinking applied to the finance application has been termed

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supply chain much more quickly than a make-to-order manufacturer can.

597: 427: 330: 163: 122: 2213:. Great Barrington (Massachusetts): North River Press. p. 179. 1608:. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: ASQ Quality Press. pp. 33–35, 264–268. 972:

large body of knowledge with a strong guiding philosophy of growth.

608:. The solution as applied to each of these areas are listed below. 3367: 2414: 2298: 1629: 1342: 446:

These focusing steps are the key steps to developing the specific

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The Haystack Syndrome:: Sifting Information out of the Data Ocean

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The haystack syndrome: sifting information out of the data ocean

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the small queue of work that sits before every work center in a

289:(Machtorientierte Führungstheorie, 1963) and following with his 3747: 2398: 2112: 956:

Assist in evaluating conditions for achieving a desired outcome

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Constraint Theory A Logic-Based Approach to System Improvement

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Carol A. Ptak; Goldratt, Eliyahu M.; Eli Schragenheim (2000).

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Duncan (as cited by Steyn) says that TOC borrows heavily from

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Through Clouds to Solutions: Working with UDEs and UDE clouds

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Strategic Navigation: A Systems Approach to Business Strategy

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To handle conflicts with more confidence and win-win outcomes

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held by people can cause behaviour that becomes a constraint.

470: 192: 1478: 1311: 983: 852:(FRT) have been applied to an argumentative academic paper. 3499: 2299:

Jacob, Dee; Bergland, Suzan; Cox, Jeff (29 December 2009).

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Order review/release and lot splitting in drum-buffer-rope

1395:. Croton-on Hudson, New York: North River Press. pp. 2367: 1479:

Schragenheim, e; Dettmer, H. W; Patterson, J. W. (2009).

962:

To assist in relationship between subordinates and bosses

652: 247:. There is always at least one constraint, and TOC uses 980:

Criticisms that have been leveled against TOC include:

2246:. North River Press, Great Barrington, Massachusetts. 2048:

Beyond the Goal : Eliyahu Goldratt Speaks on the

1583:. Great Barrington, Massachusetts: North River Press. 1266: 1065:

Index of articles related to the theory of constraints

828:

Agree to overcome any potential negative ramifications

793:. Its role is explicitly acknowledged in the field of 2153:

Schragenheim, Eli & Dettmer, H. William. (2000).

2241: 2091: 2026: 2004: 1964: 1941: 1922: 1903: 1578: 1451:

DBR, Buffer Management, and VATI flow classification

1204: 825:

Gain agreement that the solution solves the problem

2208: 2133: 1943: 1882: 1547: 1546:Eric Noreen; Debra Smith; James T. Mackey (1995). 1421: 1343:Eli Schragenheim & H. William Dettmer (2000). 1149: 941:To create and enhance thinking and learning skills 2348:A Guide to Implementing the Theory of Constraints 1703:http://ac.aua.am/trietsch/web/WorkingPaper281.pdf 953:To correct behavior with undesirable consequences 831:Agree to overcome any obstacles to implementation 299:(Bottleneck-focused Strategy) as a more advanced 4397: 2279: 2260: 2209:Lepore & Cohen, Domenico & Oded (1999). 2045: 1641: 1517: 281:An earlier propagator of a similar concept was 2075:Strategic Approach to Rapid Sustainable Growth 1606:Sales Process Engineering: A Personal Workshop 1603: 1554:and its implications for Management Accounting 1448: 1271:. Chicago: APICS self-published. p. 186. 1049: 822:Gain agreement on the direction for a solution 4279: 2383: 1718:International Journal of Production Economics 1572: 680: 348:TOC is based on the premise that the rate of 212: 2200:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1799: 248: 1784: 1745:International Journal of Project Management 1226: 966: 4293: 4286: 4272: 2390: 2376: 2363:Theory of Constraints: A Research Database 2113:Fox, Robert; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). 1885:The goal: a process of ongoing improvement 1810: 1493: 1468:. New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 175–210. 1152:The goal: a process of ongoing improvement 807:Thinking processes (theory of constraints) 411: 343: 219: 205: 2068: 1819: 1775: 1428:. New York: New York: North River Press. 984:Claimed suboptimality of drum-buffer-rope 749: 574:i.e., the intended outcome of the project 3907:Good Design Award (Museum of Modern Art) 1881:Cox, Jeff; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). 1828: 1757: 1715: 1668: 1541: 1539: 1419: 1388: 1267:Blackstone Jr., editor, John H. (2013). 1200: 1198: 1148:Cox, Jeff; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). 674:machines from impacting the constraint. 503: 260:The theory of constraints is an overall 2317: 2263:Re-Engineering The Manufacturing System 1312:Goldratt, Eliyahu; Fox, Robert (1986). 1019:program evaluation and review technique 4398: 1751: 1597: 1143: 1141: 999: 780: 414:, go back to step 1, but do not allow 398:everything else to the above decision. 4267: 3952: 3912:Good Design Award (Chicago Athenaeum) 3655: 3100: 2427: 2371: 2280:Stein, Robert E. (14 February 1997). 2244:Production the TOC Way with Simulator 1742: 1736: 1536: 1481:Supply Chain Management at Warp Speed 1195: 800: 769: 653:High-speed automated production lines 1927:. : ASQ Quality Press. p. 413. 1908:. : ASQ Quality Press. p. 302. 1483:. Boca Raton: Auerbach publications. 1464:J. F. Cox III & J. J. Schleier. 616:Within manufacturing operations and 522:) before and behind the constraint. 291:Energo-Kybernetic System (EKS, 1971) 2331: 2229:TOC Executive Challenge A Goal Game 1803:Standing on the Shoulders of Giants 1511: 1336: 1305: 1138: 13: 3953: 3856:American Institute of Graphic Arts 2211:Deming and Goldratt: The Decalogue 2157:. : St. Lucie Press. p. 342. 2138:. : St. Lucie Press. p. 209. 1874: 1522:. North River Press. p. 160. 1494:Russell, G. R.; Fry, T. D (1997). 14: 4432: 3866:Design and Industries Association 2341: 1628:See the annex of: Vidal, C. 2008. 775:Critical Chain Project Management 447: 316: 2358:Theory of Constraints Essentials 2261:Stein, Robert E. (3 June 2003). 1318:. : North River Press. pp. 1249:Theory of Constraints Handbook, 462:Types of (internal) constraints 361: 287:power-oriented management theory 285:in Germany with publications on 244: 40: 2428: 2071:Achieving a Viable Vision: The 1846: 1837: 1777:10.1590/S0104-530X2009000300002 1709: 1696: 1662: 1635: 1622: 1502: 1472: 1457: 1442: 1413: 579: 418:to cause a system's constraint. 3861:Chartered Society of Designers 3101: 2077:. Throughput Publishing, Inc. 1466:Theory of Constraints Handbook 1382: 1269:APICS Dictionary, 13th Edition 1260: 1243: 1170: 545: 488:that shows up in mathematical 453: 440:process of ongoing improvement 306:Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 296:Engpasskonzentrierte Strategie 252:adversely affect the outcome. 1: 3932:Prince Philip Designers Prize 2575:Architectural lighting design 2242:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (2003). 2092:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1990). 2027:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1990). 2005:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1998). 1965:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1997). 1942:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1994). 1923:Dettmer, H. William. (2007). 1904:Dettmer, H. William. (2003). 1758:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (2009). 1579:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1997). 1389:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). 1205:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1998). 1132: 819:Gain agreement on the problem 685:In general, the solution for 611: 360:) is limited by at least one 141:Information and communication 3738:Electronic design automation 3721:Virtual home design software 2693:Automotive suspension design 1987:Necessary But Not Sufficient 975: 907:Negative Branch Reservations 313:was first used by Goldratt. 7: 4411:Business process management 2597:Environmental impact design 2134:Schragenheim, Eli. (1999). 1127:Liebig's law of the minimum 1107:Constraint (disambiguation) 1058: 1050:Certification and education 1014:statistical process control 959:To assist in peer mediation 934:TOC Thinking Process Tools: 410:If in the previous steps a 404:the system's constraint(s). 392:the system's constraint(s). 385:the system's constraint(s). 356:system (i.e., the system's 10: 4437: 3876:International Forum Design 3246:Engineering design process 2397: 2069:Lisa Lang (January 2006). 1730:10.1016/j.ijpe.2009.04.023 1449:Shri Shrikanth, M (2010). 1420:Goldratt, Eliyahu (1990). 804: 681:Supply chain and logistics 512: 473:people limits the system. 412:constraint has been broken 255: 4345: 4299: 4211: 3959: 3948: 3889: 3848: 3791: 3681: 3677: 3651: 3107: 3096: 2998:Integrated circuit design 2933: 2920:Stage/set lighting design 2852: 2809:Hardware interface design 2768: 2725:Hardware interface design 2676: 2558: 2438: 2434: 2423: 2405: 2336:. Estonia: Ou Vali Press. 2303:. Free Pre. p. 320. 2282:The Theory of Constraints 1178:"Beratergruppe Strategie" 1089:Critical systems thinking 990:Getulio Vargas Foundation 795:sales process engineering 3833:Industrial design rights 3821:Fashion design copyright 3733:Design quality indicator 3182:Creative problem-solving 2973:Electrical system design 2829:Sonic interaction design 2740:Photographic lens design 2614:Healthy community design 1678:Human Systems Management 1518:Corbett, Thomas (1998). 967:Development and practice 944:To make better decisions 666:connected by conveyors. 309:. However, the paradigm 268:in his 1984 book titled 4029:New product development 3994:Enterprise architecture 3922:IF Product Design Award 3881:Design Research Society 3433:Reliability engineering 2119:. : North River Press. 2098:. : North River Press. 2031:. : North River Press. 2012:. : North River Press. 1990:. : North River Press. 1969:. : North River Press. 1950:. : North River Press. 1889:. : North River Press. 1604:Paul H. Selden (1997). 1212:. : North River Press. 1156:. : North River Press. 344:The five focusing steps 85:Industrial technologies 4421:Engineering management 4294:Engineering approaches 3485:Top-down and bottom-up 2834:User experience design 2735:Packaging and labeling 2708:Electric guitar design 2646:Landscape architecture 1690:10.3233/HSM-2005-24109 1644:Manufacturing Engineer 1498:. pp. 35:827–845. 1370:Cite journal requires 1098:Twelve leverage points 1075:Industrial engineering 1012:in the 1950s and from 879:"In order to…we must" 750:Finance and accounting 624:three components. The 4406:Theory of constraints 4375:Theory of constraints 4322:Keep It Simple Stupid 4014:Innovation management 3897:European Design Award 3663:Intellectual property 3480:Theory of constraints 3443:Responsibility-driven 3283:For manufacturability 3187:Creativity techniques 3025:Nuclear weapon design 2839:User interface design 2703:Corrugated box design 2624:Interior architecture 2073:Theory of Constraints 2052:(Your Coach in a Box) 2050:Theory of Constraints 2046:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. 2029:Theory of Constraints 2009:Theory of Constraints 1764:Gestão & Produção 1669:Trietsch, D. (2005). 1558:. North River Press. 1552:Theory of Constraints 1520:Throughput Accounting 1209:Theory of Constraints 1122:Rate-determining step 1039:Theory of Constraints 1034:Theory of Constraints 756:throughput accounting 618:operations management 504:Breaking a constraint 424:throughput accounting 311:Theory of constraints 301:theory of bottlenecks 278:, published in 1997. 262:management philosophy 233:theory of constraints 49:Manufacturing methods 4365:Planned obsolescence 4337:User-centered design 4059:Unintelligent design 4039:Philosophy of design 3753:Design specification 3706:Comprehensive layout 3278:For behaviour change 3251:Probabilistic design 3013:Power network design 2550:Visual merchandising 2507:Instructional design 2485:Postage stamp design 1182:www.wolfgangmewes.de 1093:Joint decision traps 1023:critical path method 904:Future Reality Tree 891:Current reality tree 871:Sufficient thinking 845:current reality tree 837:layers of resistance 369:reductio ad absurdum 4332:Use-centered design 3979:Creative industries 3902:German Design Award 3811:Design infringement 3696:Architectural model 3035:Organization design 3030:Nucleic acid design 2978:Experimental design 2531:Traffic sign design 2353:Five focusing Steps 2318:Dettmer, H (1998). 2136:Management dilemmas 1656:10.1049/me:20020411 1025:(PERT/CPM) and the 1000:Unacknowledged debt 877:Necessary Thinking 850:future reality tree 781:Marketing and sales 327:operational expense 266:Eliyahu M. Goldratt 241:management paradigm 77:Agile manufacturing 16:Management paradigm 4354:Ornament and Crime 4317:Kansei engineering 4044:Process simulation 4019:Intelligent design 3343:Intelligence-based 3338:Integrated topside 3268:Framework-oriented 2953:Behavioural design 2824:Information design 2502:Information design 1800:Eliyahu Goldratt. 1297:has generic name ( 1070:Linear programming 927:Prerequisite Tree 900:What to change to? 801:Thinking processes 770:Project management 590:project management 509:with a breakdown. 432:operating expenses 249:a focusing process 72:Lean manufacturing 4393: 4392: 4385:Value engineering 4312:Frugal innovation 4261: 4260: 4207: 4206: 3974:Conceptual design 3944: 3943: 3940: 3939: 3927:James Dyson Award 3783:Website wireframe 3773:Technical drawing 3647: 3646: 3495:Transgenerational 3236:Ecological design 3112:Activity-centered 3092: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3070:Spacecraft design 2864:Public art design 2802:Video game design 2780:Experience design 2750:Production design 2730:Motorcycle design 2688:Automotive design 2592:Ecological design 2470:Film title design 2284:. Marcel Dekker. 2265:. Marcel Dekker. 2187:978-1-42007-335-5 1934:978-0-87389-723-5 1529:978-0-88427-158-1 1329:978-0-88427-062-1 1278:978-0-9882146-1-3 1255:978-0-07-166554-4 1238:978-0-88427-178-9 931: 930: 913:Evaporating cloud 450:mentioned below. 352:achievement by a 229: 228: 4428: 4288: 4281: 4274: 4265: 4264: 4253: 4246: 4239: 4232: 4225: 4218: 3950: 3949: 3827:Geschmacksmuster 3801:Community design 3679: 3678: 3653: 3652: 3413:Process-centered 3209:Design–bid–build 3177:Cradle-to-cradle 3157:Concept-oriented 3098: 3097: 3075:Strategic design 3045:Processor design 3020:Mechanism design 2988:Geometric design 2948:Algorithm design 2888:Jewellery design 2819:Immersive design 2713:Furniture design 2658:Landscape design 2436: 2435: 2425: 2424: 2392: 2385: 2378: 2369: 2368: 2337: 2328: 2326: 2314: 2295: 2276: 2257: 2230: 2224: 2205: 2199: 2191: 2168: 2149: 2130: 2109: 2088: 2065: 2054:. 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4430: 4429: 4427: 4426: 4425: 4396: 4395: 4394: 4389: 4360:Overengineering 4341: 4307:Empathic design 4295: 4292: 4262: 4257: 4251: 4244: 4237: 4230: 4223: 4216: 4203: 4004:Futures studies 3955: 3936: 3885: 3844: 3793: 3787: 3673: 3672: 3643: 3549:Value sensitive 3539:User innovation 3418:Public interest 3383:Object-oriented 3103: 3084: 3065:Software design 3055:Research design 3008:Physical design 2963:Database design 2937: 2935: 2929: 2905:Property design 2900:Game art design 2854: 2848: 2771: 2764: 2679: 2672: 2629:Interior design 2580:Building design 2561: 2554: 2441: 2430: 2419: 2401: 2396: 2344: 2324: 2311: 2292: 2273: 2254: 2228: 2221: 2193: 2192: 2188: 2180:. p. 220. 2165: 2146: 2127: 2106: 2085: 2062: 2039: 2020: 1998: 1977: 1958: 1935: 1916: 1897: 1877: 1875:Further reading 1872: 1862: 1860: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1829: 1824: 1820: 1815: 1811: 1796:Wayback Machine 1789: 1785: 1756: 1752: 1741: 1737: 1714: 1710: 1701: 1697: 1673: 1667: 1663: 1640: 1636: 1627: 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3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3894: 3892: 3888: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3849:Organizations 3847: 3839: 3836: 3835: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3828: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3816:Design patent 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3806:Design around 3804: 3802: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3790: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3713: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3668: 3666:Organizations 3665: 3662: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3561: 3560: 3555: 3552: 3551: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3533: 3530: 3529: 3528: 3527:User-centered 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3511: 3508: 3507: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3475:Tableless web 3473: 3469: 3466: 3465: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3398:Participatory 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3288:For Six Sigma 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3252: 3249: 3248: 3247: 3244: 3242: 3239: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3231:Domain-driven 3229: 3227: 3224: 3220: 3219:architect-led 3217: 3216: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3198: 3195: 3194: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3163: 3162:Configuration 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3127:Brainstorming 3125: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3109: 3106: 3099: 3095: 3081: 3078: 3076: 3073: 3071: 3068: 3066: 3063: 3061: 3060:Social design 3058: 3056: 3053: 3051: 3048: 3046: 3043: 3041: 3038: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3018: 3014: 3011: 3009: 3006: 3004: 3001: 3000: 2999: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2983:Filter design 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2958:Boiler design 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2921: 2918: 2916: 2913: 2911: 2910:Scenic design 2908: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2896: 2895:Floral design 2893: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2803: 2800: 2798: 2795: 2794: 2793: 2790: 2786: 2783: 2782: 2781: 2778: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2767: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2751: 2748: 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1007: 997: 995: 991: 981: 973: 961: 958: 955: 952: 949: 946: 943: 940: 939: 938: 935: 926: 923: 921: 918: 917: 914: 911: 909: 908: 903: 901: 898: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 883: 880: 876: 874: 873:"If……. then" 870: 868: 867: 864: 861: 857: 853: 851: 847: 846: 840: 839:to a change. 838: 830: 827: 824: 821: 818: 817: 816: 814: 808: 798: 796: 792: 788: 778: 776: 767: 763: 761: 757: 747: 743: 739: 737: 728: 724: 720: 714: 713: 710: 707: 703: 702: 701: 698: 694: 692: 688: 687:supply chains 678: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 650: 647: 642: 638: 635: 630: 627: 621: 619: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 586:manufacturing 577: 575: 566: 562: 558: 554: 553: 552: 543: 539: 536: 532: 527: 523: 521: 510: 501: 499: 493: 491: 487: 479: 476: 475:Mental models 472: 468: 465: 464: 463: 460: 451: 449: 444: 442: 441: 435: 433: 429: 425: 417: 413: 409: 406: 403: 400: 397: 394: 391: 387: 384: 381: 380: 379: 376: 373: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 354:goal-oriented 351: 341: 339: 334: 332: 328: 324: 314: 312: 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383:Identify 271:The Goal 26:a series 24:Part of 4217:Commons 4189:studies 4134:history 4102:student 4087:classic 4075:Design 3989:.design 3917:Graphex 3619:science 3609:pattern 3604:methods 3579:culture 3562:Design 3373:Modular 3226:Diffuse 3147:Closure 2869:Ceramic 2527:Signage 2410:Outline 606:finance 513:Buffers 471:skilled 416:inertia 402:Elevate 390:exploit 256:History 239:) is a 4300:School 4194:studio 4179:review 4159:museum 4082:change 3890:Awards 3763:Sketch 3748:Mockup 3728:CAutoD 3669:Awards 3634:theory 3624:sprint 3599:marker 3564:choice 2938:& 2936:design 2772:design 2680:design 2562:design 2480:Motion 2442:design 2399:Design 2307: 2288: 2269: 2250: 2235: 2217: 2184: 2161: 2142: 2123: 2102: 2081: 2058: 2035: 2016: 1994: 1973: 1954: 1931: 1912: 1893: 1612: 1587: 1562: 1526: 1432: 1403: 1326: 1275: 1257:, p. 8 1253: 1236: 1216: 1160: 813:buy-in 634:buffer 604:, and 535:kanban 520:Murphy 430:, and 338:profit 329:, and 154:ISA-95 149:ISA-88 4077:brief 3964:Agile 3683:Tools 3660:Tools 3298:For X 2934:Other 2853:Other 2325:(PDF) 1706:2004. 1674:(PDF) 1397:77–97 1348:(PDF) 602:sales 560:time. 193:SCADA 168:B2MML 4154:load 4149:life 4129:firm 3716:CAID 3584:flow 3500:TRIZ 3388:Open 2305:ISBN 2286:ISBN 2267:ISBN 2248:ISBN 2233:ISBN 2215:ISBN 2202:link 2182:ISBN 2176:. : 2159:ISBN 2140:ISBN 2121:ISBN 2100:ISBN 2079:ISBN 2056:ISBN 2033:ISBN 2014:ISBN 1992:ISBN 1971:ISBN 1952:ISBN 1929:ISBN 1910:ISBN 1891:ISBN 1865:2018 1610:ISBN 1585:ISBN 1560:ISBN 1550:The 1524:ISBN 1430:ISBN 1401:ISBN 1376:help 1355:2007 1324:ISBN 1299:help 1273:ISBN 1251:ISBN 1234:ISBN 1214:ISBN 1189:2018 1158:ISBN 994:P=NP 789:and 646:rope 644:The 632:The 626:drum 600:and 350:goal 231:The 3711:CAD 3691:AAD 3468:SOD 3448:RWD 3318:HCD 2785:EED 2634:EID 1772:doi 1726:doi 1722:121 1686:doi 1652:doi 1320:179 1100:by 736:SKU 576:). 531:not 237:TOC 188:DCS 183:PLC 159:ERP 128:TQM 118:TOC 113:QRM 108:VDM 103:TPM 98:RCM 93:PLM 4402:: 2231:. 2198:}} 2194:{{ 1856:. 1798:: 1768:16 1766:. 1762:. 1720:. 1682:24 1680:. 1676:. 1648:81 1646:. 1538:^ 1399:. 1367:: 1365:}} 1361:{{ 1322:. 1291:: 1289:}} 1285:{{ 1197:^ 1180:. 1140:^ 1091:– 1087:– 996:. 762:. 693:. 592:, 588:, 434:. 364:. 325:, 133:ZD 4287:e 4280:t 4273:v 2391:e 2384:t 2377:v 2327:. 2313:. 2294:. 2275:. 2256:. 2223:. 2204:) 2190:. 2167:. 2148:. 2129:. 2108:. 2087:. 2064:. 2041:. 2022:. 2000:. 1979:. 1960:. 1937:. 1918:. 1899:. 1867:. 1806:. 1780:. 1774:: 1732:. 1728:: 1692:. 1688:: 1658:. 1654:: 1618:. 1593:. 1568:. 1532:. 1453:. 1438:. 1409:. 1378:) 1374:( 1357:. 1332:. 1301:) 1281:. 1240:. 1222:. 1191:. 1166:. 1021:/ 572:( 235:( 220:e 213:t 206:v

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