593:
grammaticalization has no independent status of its own, that all processes involved can be described separately from the theory of grammaticalization. Janda, for example, wrote that "given that even writers on grammaticalization themselves freely acknowledge the involvement of several distinct processes in the larger set of phenomena, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the notion of grammaticalization, too, tends to represent an epiphenomenal telescoping. That is, it may involve certain typical "path(way)s", but the latter seem to be built out of separate stepping-stones which can often be seen in isolation and whose individual outlines are always distinctly recognizable".
1253:...(compared to OE) the -s is much more independent: it can be separated from its main word by an adverb such as else (somebody else's hat ), by a prepositional clause such as of England (the queen of England's power ), or even by a relative clause such as I saw yesterday (the man I saw yesterday's car)...the English genitive is in fact no longer a flexional form...historically attested facts show us in the most unequivocal way a development - not, indeed, from an originally self-existent word to a mere flexional ending, but the exactly opposite development of what was an inseparable part of a complicated flexional system to greater and greater emancipation and independence.
1426:(1991): Hopper defined the five 'principles' by which you can detect grammaticalization while it is taking place: "layering", the development of additional expressions for a function; "divergence" (also called "split" by other theorists), in which a form develops a grammatical sense in addition to its lexical sense; "specialization", reducing the scope of lexical meaning until only grammatical function remains; "persistence", traces of lexical meaning in a grammaticalized form; and "de-categorialization", the loss of a form's
1161:, "grammaticalization is a unidirectional process, that is, it leads from less grammatical to more grammatical forms and constructions". That is one of the strongest claims about grammaticalization, and is often cited as one of its basic principles. In addition, unidirectionality refers to a general developmental orientation which all (or the large majority) of the cases of grammaticalization have in common, and which can be paraphrased in abstract, general terms, independent of any specific case.
196:(1912). Meillet's definition was "the attribution of grammatical character to an erstwhile autonomous word". Meillet showed that what was at issue was not the origins of grammatical forms but their transformations. He was thus able to present a notion of the creation of grammatical forms as a legitimate study for linguistics. Later studies in the field have further developed and altered Meillet's ideas and have introduced many other examples of grammaticalization.
171:(1891). Humboldt, for instance, came up with the idea of evolutionary language. He suggested that in all languages grammatical structures evolved out of a language stage in which there were only words for concrete objects and ideas. In order to successfully communicate these ideas, grammatical structures slowly came into existence. Grammar slowly developed through four different stages, each in which the grammatical structure would be more developed. Though
343:. There is no salient trace of that original meaning in the present suffixes for the native speaker, but speakers instead treat the more newly-formed suffixes as bits of grammar that help them form new words. One could make the connection between the body or shape of a physical being and the abstract property of likeness or similarity, but only through metonymic reasoning, after one is explicitly made aware of this connection.
1446:' to describe grammaticalization when he wrote: "Grammatization may also be viewed as a subtype of metaphor (etymologically "carrying beyond"), our most general term for a meaning shift. Grammaticalization is a metaphorical shift toward the abstract, "metaphor" being defined as an originally conscious or voluntary shift in a word's meaning because of some perceived similarity.
1122:
seen as an arrangement of forms along imaginary lines, with at one end a 'fuller' or lexical form and at the other a more 'reduced' or grammatical form. What Hopper and
Traugott mean is that from a diachronic or historical point of view, changes of word forms is seen as a natural process, whereas synchronically, this process can be seen as inevitable instead of historical.
1478:, a summary is given of recent approaches to grammaticalization. "The term 'grammaticalization' is today used in various ways. In a fairly loose sense, 'grammaticalized' often simply refers to the fact that a form or construction has become fixed and obligatory. (...) In a stricter sense, however, (...) the notion of 'grammaticalization' is first and foremost a
1380:(1965): His "classical" definition is probably the one most often referred to: "Grammaticalization consists in the increase of the range of a morpheme advancing from a lexical to a grammatical or from a less grammatical to a more grammatical status, e.g. from a derivative formant to an inflectional one".
303:
wrote that "semantic reduction, or bleaching, occurs as a morpheme loses its intention: From describing a narrow set of ideas, it comes to describe an ever broader range of them, and eventually may lose its meaning altogether". He saw this as one of the two kinds of change that are always associated
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Linguists have come up with different interpretation of the term 'grammaticalization', and there are many alternatives to the definition given in the introduction. The following will be a non-exhaustive list of authors who have written about the subject with their individual approaches to the nature
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state that the cline of grammaticalization has both diachronic and synchronic implications. Diachronically (i.e. looking at changes over time), clines represent a natural path along which forms or words change over time. However, synchronically (i.e. looking at a single point in time), clines can be
592:
et al. (1994) have acknowledged that independently, they are not essential to grammaticalization. In addition, most are not limited to grammaticalization but can be applied in the wider context of language change. Critics of the theory of grammaticalization have used these difficulties to claim that
1374:" ("While the analogy can renew the detail of the forms, but often leaves untouched the overall plan of the grammatical system, the 'grammaticalization' of certain words creates new forms, introduces categories for which there was no linguistical expression, and transforms the whole of the system.")
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notes that "unidirectionality in itself is a predictive assertion in that it selects the general type of possible development (it predicts the direction of any given incipient case)," and unidirectionality also rules out an entire range of development types that do not follow this principle, hereby
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Obligatorification occurs when the use of linguistic structures becomes increasingly more obligatory in the process of grammaticalization. Lehmann describes it as a reduction in transparadigmatic variability, by which he means that "the freedom of the language user with regard to the paradigm as a
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It is difficult to capture the term "grammaticalization" in one clear definition (see the 'various views on grammaticalization' section below). However, there are some processes that are often linked to grammaticalization. These are semantic bleaching, morphological reduction, phonetic erosion, and
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Tandis que l'analogie peut renouveler le détail des formes, mais laisse le plus souvent intact le plan d'ensemble du système grammatical, la 'grammaticalisation' de certains mots crée des formes neuves, introduit des catégories qui n'avaient pas d'expression linguistique, transforme l'ensemble du
294:
Semantic bleaching, or desemanticization, has been seen from early on as a characteristic of grammaticalization. It can be described as the loss of semantic content. More specifically, with reference to grammaticalization, bleaching refers to the loss of all (or most) lexical content of an entity
276:
studies trying to come up with umbrella definitions and exhaustive lists, while others tend to focus more on its nature and significance, questioning the opportunities and boundaries of grammaticalization. An important and popular topic which is still debated is the question of unidirectionality.
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enable linguists to form general laws of grammaticalization and language change in general. It plays an important role in the reconstruction of older states of a language. Moreover, the documenting of changes can help to reveal the lines along which a language is likely to develop in the future.
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or content words, which carry specific lexical meaning, and grammatical items or function words, which serve mainly to express grammatical relationships between the different words in an utterance. Grammaticalization has been defined as "the change whereby lexical items and constructions come in
613:. These shifts generally follow similar patterns in different languages. Linguists do not agree on the precise definition of a cline or on its exact characteristics in given instances. It is believed that the stages on the cline do not always have a fixed position, but vary. However, Hopper and
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The phonetic erosion may bring a brand-new look to the phonological system of a language, by changing the inventory of phones and phonemes, making new arrangements in the phonotactic patterns of a syllable, etc. Special treatise on the phonological consequences of grammaticalization and
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certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions". Where grammaticalization takes place, nouns and verbs which carry certain lexical meaning develop over time into grammatical items such as
1464:. The study of grammaticalization therefore highlights the tension between relatively unconstrained lexical expression and more constrained morphosyntactic coding, and points to relative indeterminacy in language and to the basic non-discreteness of categories".
1436:(1991): In his article on "The Gradualness of Grammaticalization", he defined grammaticalization as "a historical process, a kind of change that has certain consequences for the morphosyntactic categories of a language and thus for the grammar of the language.
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of some languages. Some linguists, like Heine and Kuteva, stress the fact that even though obligatorification can be seen as an important process, it is not necessary for grammaticalization to take place, and it also occurs in other types of language change.
1960:. Correlation between Syllable & Meaning and between Phonology & Lexicalization, Grammaticalization,Subjectification: Towards a Theory on Morpho-Phonology from Facts of Northern Yu Chinese Dialects. Beijing Language and Culture University Press,2011
2068:; p. 387: " la « grammaticalisation » de certains mots crée des formes neuves, introduit des catégories qui n'avaient pas d'expression linguistique, transforme l'ensemble du système." (The article was republished in: Meillet, Antoine. 1921.
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The great number of studies on grammaticalization in the last decade (up to 2018) show grammaticalization remains a popular item and is regarded as an important field within linguistic studies in general. Among recent publications there is a wide range of
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synchronically from the point of view of grammaticalization. They saw grammaticalization as an important tool for describing the workings of languages and their universal aspects and it provided an exhaustive list of the pathways of grammaticalization.
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Although unidirectionality is a key element of grammaticalization, exceptions exist. Indeed, the possibility of counterexamples, coupled with their rarity, is given as evidence for the general operating principle of unidirectionality. According to
523:(2011), which provides evidence that a morphophonological change can later change into a purely phonological change, and evidence that there is a typological difference in the phonetic and phonological consequences of grammaticalization between
1983:
Haiman, John "From V /2 to
Subject Clitics: Evidence from Northern Italian" pp 135–158 Approaches to grammaticalization: Focus on theoretical and methodological issues edited by Elizabeth Closs Traugott, Bernd Heine. John Benjamins Publishing
237:(1982). This was the first work to emphasize the continuity of research from the earliest period to the present, and it provided a survey of the major work in the field. Lehmann also invented a set of 'parameters', a method along which
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In comparison to various instances of grammaticalization, there are relatively few counterexamples to the unidirectionality hypothesis, and they often seem to require special circumstances to occur. One is found in the development of
463:
However, phonetic erosion, a common process of language change that can take place with no connection to grammaticalization, is not a necessary property of grammaticalization. For example, the Latin construction of the type
139:
as in "let's you and me fight". Here, the phrase has lost its lexical meaning of "allow us" and has become an auxiliary introducing a suggestion, the pronoun 'us' reduced first to a suffix and then to an unanalyzed phoneme.
872:(literally, 'I have got to sing') acquired the sense of futurity (cf. I have to sing). Finally it became the true future tense in almost all Romance languages and the auxiliary became a full-fledged inflection (cf.
722:
such as an inflected past tense, in Modern
English usage. The use of "would" as the past tense of "will", though more common in Middle English, has become archaic, demonstrating the ongoing loss of lexical content.
580:
whole" is reduced. Examples of obligatoriness can be found in the category of number, which can be obligatory in some languages or in specific contexts, in the development of articles, and in the development of
1190:(1993), who treat some putative counterexamples as cases of lexicalization in which a grammatical form is incorporated into a lexical item but does not itself become a lexical item. An example is the phrase
500:
of a form in its grammaticalized morphemic role does not necessarily imply bleaching of its lexical source, and that the two can separate neatly in spite of maintaining identical phonological form: the noun
2046:
Lichtenberk, F. "On the
Gradualness of Grammaticalization." In Elizabeth Closs Traugott and Bernd Heine, eds. Approaches to Grammaticalization, Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991. pp. 37–80.
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ones, or less grammatical into more grammatical, is the preferred direction of linguistic change and that a grammatical item is much less likely to move backwards rather than forwards on Hopper &
299:
described bleaching as "the partial effacement of a morpheme's semantic features, the stripping away of some of its precise content so it can be used in an abstracter, grammatical-hardware-like way".
456:'Going to' → 'gonna' (or even 'I am going to' → 'I'm gonna' → 'I'mma') and 'because' → 'coz' are examples of erosion in English. Some linguists trace erosion to the speaker's tendency to follow the
559:
without a 100% obligatory match between such a sound unit as syllable and such a meaning unit as morpheme or word, despite an assumed majority of monosyllabic reconstructed word stems/roots in the
409:
Phonetic erosion (also called phonological attrition or phonological reduction), is another process that is often linked to grammaticalization. It implies that a linguistic expression loses
2136:
Janda, Richard D. "Beyond 'pathways' and 'unidirectionality': on the discontinuity of language transmission and the counterability of grammaticalization". Language
Sciences 2001: 265-340.
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The idea of unidirectionality is an important one when trying to predict language change through grammaticalization (and for making the claim that grammaticalization can be predicted).
2020:"On some principles of grammaticalization". In Elizabeth Closs Traugott and Bernd Heine, eds. Approaches to Grammaticalization, Vol. I. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991. pp. 17–36.
642:
This particular cline is called "the cline of grammaticality" or the "cycle of categorial downgrading", and it is a common one. In this cline every item to the right represents a more
2108:. "Les réactions en chaîne en morphologie diachronique." Actes du Colloque de la Société internationale de linguistique fonctionnelle 10.285-92. Québec: Presses de l'Université Laval.
1057:). Compound verbs are thus generally written with a kanji for each constituent verb, but some suffixes have become grammaticalized, and are written in hiragana, such as 'try out, see'
2036:
Lehmann, Christian. Thoughts on
Grammaticalization. Vol. 2. (revised edition). (Arbeitspapiere des Seminars für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Erfurt, No. 9. Erfurt, 2002.
223:
1948:, Revere Perkins, & William Pagliuca. The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect and Modality in the Languages of the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
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and enters another is not sudden, but occurs by a gradual series of individual shifts. The overlapping stages of grammaticalization form a chain, generally called a
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in this usage is interpretable by today's native speakers only as a morpheme signaling 'adverb' and it has undergone no phonological erosion from the Latin source,
1304:'we are') because of a reanalysis based on the verb-pronoun order of the other persons of the verb. Another well-known example is the degrammaticalization of the
1416:
processes interact in the grammaticalization of morphemes and of whole constructions. A sign is grammaticalized to the extent that it is devoid of concrete
1471:
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which has partially undergone a similar path of grammaticalization, and note the simultaneous existence of the non-grammaticalized Modern
English verb
1182:, however, advocates often minimize the counterexamples or redefine them as not being part of the grammaticalization cline. He gives the example of
2085:
2033:
Lehmann, Christian. Thoughts on
Grammaticalization. A programmatic Sketch. Vol. I. Arbeiten des Kölner Universalien-Projekts, Nr. 48. Köln, 1982.
249:
507:
is alive and well today in both
Italian and Spanish with its meaning 'mind', yet native speakers do not recognize the noun 'mind' in the suffix
2113:"Degrammaticalization in North Saami: Development of adpositions, adverbs and a free lexical noun from inflectional and derivational suffixes"
1495:
Richard D. Janda cites over 70 works critical of the unidirectionality hypothesis in his article "Beyond 'pathways' and 'unidirectionality'".
1938:. 1998. "From modal auxiliary to lexical verb: The curious case of Pennsylvania German wotte". In Richard M. Hogg & Linda Bergen eds.,
17:
2030:
Kurylowicz, Jerzy. "The evolution of grammatical categories". Esquisses linguistiques. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1965. pp. 38–54.
1460:. They defined grammaticalization as "a linguistic process, both through time and synchronically, of organization of categories and of
686:(PDE), this form is even shortened to 'll and no longer necessarily implies intention, but often is simply a mark of future tense (see
2102:
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Legitimate counterexamples to unidirectionality". Paper presented at
Freiburg University, October 17, 2001
2049:
Matisoff, J., 1991. "Areal and universal dimensions of grammaticalization in Lahu". In: Traugott, E.C. and Heine, B., Editors, 1991.
947:, 'I will sing', 'you will sing', 's/he will sing'). In some verbs the process went further and produced irregular forms—cf. Spanish
2066:
1165:
222:, that the interest for grammaticalization in linguistic studies began to grow again. A greatly influential work in the domain was
1456:(1991): Together, they edited a two-volume collection of papers from a 1988 conference organized by Talmy Givón under the title
1321:'without' and further to a preposition and a free-standing adverb. Moreover, the morphologically analogous derivational suffix -
2073:
1384:
Since then, the study of grammaticalization has become broader, and linguists have extended the term into various directions.
207:
studies of language change, with less emphasis on historical approaches such as grammaticalization. It did however, mostly in
1749:
601:
In the process of grammaticalization, an uninflected lexical word (or content word) is transformed into a grammar word (or
1498:
The first monograph on degrammaticalization and its relation to grammaticalization was published in 2009 by Muriel Norde.
1954:, & Alice C. Harris. Historical syntax in cross-linguistic perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
1602:
Haiman, John (1991). "From V/2 to Subject Clitics: Evidence from Northern Italian". In Traugott, Elizabeth Closs (ed.).
2112:
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itself cannot be said to have degrammaticalized, a view that is challenged to some extent by parallel usages such as
761:
could become further grammaticalized to the point that it forms an inflexional affix indicating future tense, e.g. "
2149:
228:
2099:, eds. Approaches to grammaticalization. Typological studies in language, 19. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991.
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lists proposed counterexamples in his article "What's wrong with grammaticalization?". In the same issue of
1262:
1139:
560:
733:
see you later"; auxiliary expressing futurity but not necessarily intention (similar in meaning to "I am
2061:
750:
be there this evening." This clitic form phonologically adapts to its surroundings and cannot receive
1966:, & Anette Rosenbach. "Introduction". In Olga Fischer, Anette Rosenbach & Dieter Stein, eds.
457:
690:). The PDE verb 'will' can thus be said to have less lexical meaning than its preceding form in OE.
588:
Although these 'parameters of grammaticalization' are often linked to the theory, linguists such as
401:('that' singular vs. 'those' plural), as in "the book that I know" versus "the things that I know".
1461:
364:
2133:
Joseph, Brian D. "Is there such a thing as 'grammaticalization?'" Language Sciences 2001: 163-186.
617:'s famous pattern for the cline of grammaticalization illustrates the various stages of the form:
556:
470:, meaning 'with a clear mind' is the source of modern Romance productive adverb formation, as in
168:
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can be replaced by a possessive (my, your, her, Bill's, etc.), and by further extensions still:
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assumptions, they were positively inclined towards some of these earlier linguists' hypotheses.
1479:
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A well-known example of grammaticalization is that of the process in which the lexical cluster
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Examples that are not confined to a specific lexical item are less common. One is the English
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elements that were characteristic of its initial category, but which are not relevant to the
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substance is likely to be reduced in some way and to become more dependent on surrounding
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The final stage of grammaticalization has happened in many languages. For example, in
1745:
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1015:. Many Japanese words are formed by connecting two verbs, as in 'go and ask (listen)'
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The term "grammaticalization" in the modern sense was coined by the French linguist
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1932:. Language Change, Progress or Decay? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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has taken on a much broader meaning. These other senses of the term are discussed
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1976:. "Historical syntax and synchronic morphology: an archaeologist's field trip",
1245:, was a suffix but, in Modern English, is a clitic. As Jespersen (1894) put it,
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2017:
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860:) were dropped when they became phonetically too close to the imperfect forms (
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substance when it has undergone grammaticalization. Heine writes that "once a
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1935:
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543:, other morphological alternations) vs non-monosyllabic languages (including
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For an understanding of this process, a distinction needs to be made between
105:
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1726:
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becoming a verb outside of this lexical item. Since it is the entire phrase
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is especially common)—and even regular forms (in Italian, the change of the
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go to the market"; auxiliary expressing intention, lacking many features of
1963:
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Inflectional suffix: This has not occurred in English, but hypothetically,
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2130:. "What's wrong with grammaticalization?" Language Sciences 2001: 113-161.
1740:
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Traugott cites a counterexample from function to content word proposed by
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2072:. Paris: Champion, p. 130-148; last reprint: Geneva: Slatkine, 1982
2007:
1997:
1987:
1973:
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1242:
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797:"s/he wants to walk") to an auxiliary verb in phonetically reduced form (
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have described different kinds of phonetic erosion for applicable cases:
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245:
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83:
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An illustrative example of this cline is in the orthography of Japanese
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rejected the separation of language into distinct "stages" in favour of
1945:
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1031:, and in Japanese orthography lexical items are generally written with
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540:
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Loss of suprasegmental properties, such as stress, tone, or intonation.
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in a sharp contrast to the other languages in the world in typology.
460:, while others think that erosion is a sign of changes taking place.
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Loss of phonetic autonomy and adaptation to adjacent phonetic units.
1978:
Papers from the Regional Meetings of the Chicago Linguistic Societv
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hypothesis), a difference mostly initiated by the German linguist
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678:('to want/to wish') to an auxiliary verb signifying intention in
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An example of this phenomenon can be seen in the change from the
104:. Some concepts are often grammaticalized, while others, such as
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87:
1409:
1397:
1338:
1280:'would' (from 'wanted') into a full verb 'to wish, to desire'.
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with grammaticalization (the other being phonetic reduction).
199:
During the second half of the twentieth century, the field of
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while only its grammatical content is retained. For example,
59:
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Bisang W, Malchukov A (2017). Bisang W, Malchukov A (eds.).
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Loss of phonetic segments, including loss of full syllables.
1396:, wrote that "Grammaticalization is a process leading from
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has affected the whole class of conjugation type I verbs).
670:
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Clines of grammaticality – cycles of categorial downgrading
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It was not until the 1970s, with the growth of interest in
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that is the verb, Hopper and Traugott argue that the word
535:, with exceptions of either loanwords or derivations like
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could be measured both synchronically and diachronically.
1275:
1266:
1198:(a function word) in a verb (a content word) but without
1172:
331:) ultimately come from an earlier Proto-Germanic etymon,
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meaning and takes part in obligatory grammatical rules".
1394:
New Reflections on Grammaticalization and Lexicalization
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is the idea that grammaticalization, the development of
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Scientia: rivista internazionale di sintesi scientifica
211:, remain an instrument for explaining language change.
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limiting the amount of possible paths of development.
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Grammaticalization and Reanalysis in African Languages
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by which words representing objects and actions (i.e.
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Process of words becoming part of a language grammar
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Unity and diversity in grammaticalization scenarios
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1288:with the origin of the first-person-plural pronoun
2059:. 1912. "L'évolution des formes grammaticales."
1827:Norde 2009, p. 207–209; Ylikoski 2016, p. 119–129.
839:ed himself to continue along the steep path.") or
791:("to want/to wish") has gone from a content word (
2090:Cahiers de linguistique de l'Université du Québec
1968:Pathways of Change: Grammaticalization in English
1606:. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 154.
1345:– has degrammaticalized into an independent noun
2141:
2123:From Language Sciences Volume 23, March (2001):
2070:Linguistique historique et linguistique générale
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1724:
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1516:"WALS Online - Chapter Coding of Evidentiality"
1294:(a function word) from the inflectional suffix
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1098:
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854:In Latin the original future tense forms (e.g.
2088:. "Contraintes sur le changement syntaxique",
2027:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
2014:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
1354:
1092:
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393:'that' as in "that book" came to be used as a
135:, for example in "let us eat", is reduced to
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483:
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397:marker, and lost the grammatical category of
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1125:The studying and documentation of recurrent
1047:), while grammatical items are written with
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901:
605:). The process by which the word leaves its
421:, it tends to undergo erosion; that is, the
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658:It is very common for full verbs to become
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465:
1604:Approaches to Grammaticalization Volume II
1474:(2000): In the introduction of their book
1337:'stained with oil') – itself based on the
1006:
363:meaning (bleaching), it is likely to lose
346:
159:The concept was developed in the works of
74:, rather than deriving them from existing
2053:, Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 383–454.
1739:
1697:Givon 1971, Reighard 1978, Wittmann 1983.
1482:process with certain typical mechanisms."
1108:
519:in the Chinese languages can be found in
2082:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
2051:Approaches to Grammaticalization vol. II
2023:Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Traugott.
2004:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
1994:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
488:'clearly'. In both of those languages, -
143:In other areas of linguistics, the term
1992:Cognitive Forces and Grammaticalization
527:(featuring an obligatory match between
14:
2142:
1601:
1173:Counterexamples (degrammaticalization)
812:), and finally to a fused inflection (
547:or bisyllabic Austronesian languages,
100:, which expresses intention or simply
58:) become grammatical markers (such as
574:
496:. This example also illustrates that
289:
1388:Christian Lehmann (1982): Writer of
662:and eventually inflexional endings.
193:L'évolution des formes grammaticales
92:'to want', 'to wish' has become the
2012:World lexicon of grammaticalization
1908:Fischer & Rosenbach 2000, p. 8.
1194:which incorporates the preposition
404:
307:For example, both English suffixes
24:
2041:A Dictionary of Grammaticalization
1734:. Berlin: Language Science Press.
1547:Harris & Campbell 1995, p. 18.
1360:of the term 'grammaticalization'.
654:Examples developing a future tense
25:
2166:
1538:Hopper & Traugott 2003, p. 1.
1226:, by the fact that in all cases
1089:, as in 'try eating (it) and see'
1899:Traugott & Heine 1991, p. 1.
1574:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 31.
1565:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 19.
1442:(1991): Matisoff used the term '
1154:'s cline of grammaticalization.
82:constructions. For example, the
1911:
1902:
1893:
1884:
1875:
1866:
1857:
1848:
1839:
1830:
1821:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1785:
1776:
1767:
1758:
1715:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 6.
1709:
1700:
1691:
1688:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 7.
1682:
1679:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 6.
1673:
1664:
1661:Heine & Kuteva 2007, p. 34.
1655:
1646:
1643:Heine & Kuteva 2007, p. 34.
1637:
1628:
1619:
1616:Heine & Kuteva 2007, p. 40.
1610:
1458:Approaches to Grammaticaliztion
1234:'he improved his performance'.
806:"s/he will walk") to a clitic (
650:form than the one to its left.
2117:Finnisch-Ugrische Mitteilungen
2095:Traugott, Elizabeth Closs and
1800:qtd. in Campbell 2001, p. 127.
1764:Heine & Kuteva 2002, p. 4.
1595:
1586:
1577:
1568:
1559:
1550:
1541:
1532:
1508:
1390:Thoughts on Grammaticalization
355:expression has changed from a
263:(1984). This work focussed on
235:Thoughts on Grammaticalization
13:
1:
1502:
1271:of the preterite subjunctive
754:unlike the uncontracted form.
280:
2065:, vol. 12, p. 384-400.
1140:unidirectionality hypothesis
1134:Unidirectionality hypothesis
203:was strongly concerned with
18:Specialization (linguistics)
7:
2043:. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1994.
1942:1995. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
1355:Views on grammaticalization
1261:(1998): the development in
1099:
1083:
1067:
1025:
973:, 'I'll have'; the loss of
787:
773:" or "I'll need your help."
244:Another important work was
10:
2171:
1923:
977:followed by epenthesis of
866:). Instead, a phrase like
154:
1311:('without') case suffix -
1093:
1077:
1061:
1053:
1043:
1037:
1019:
458:principle of least effort
417:is conventionalized as a
163:(1816), Schlegel (1818),
1881:Lichtenberk 1991, p. 38.
1404:formatives. A number of
1890:Matifsoff 1991, p. 384.
1845:Kurylowicz 1975, p. 52.
1818:Norde 2009, p. 204–207.
1706:Aitchison 2001, p. 114.
1331:'stained with coffee',
1276:
1267:
1007:Japanese compound verbs
851:= I want that I walk).
699:
674:
557:Indo-European languages
452:Phonetic simplification
384:morphological reduction
347:Morphological reduction
88:
66:). Thus it creates new
2150:Historical linguistics
2002:The Genesis of Grammar
1940:Historical Linguistics
1791:Campbell 2000, p. 125.
1592:Matisoff 1991, p. 384.
1369:
1347:
1333:
1327:
1325:'stained with' (e.g.,
1317:
1300:
1290:
1255:
1109:Historical linguistics
1051:(as in the connecting
999:
987:
969:
956:
943:
935:
927:
918:
910:
902:
893:
885:
877:
868:
862:
856:
847:
841:
814:
808:
802:
793:
771:I will need your help.
746:'ll, e.g. "My friends'
569:Sino-Tibetan languages
549:Afro-Asiatic languages
525:monosyllabic languages
503:
484:
475:
466:
192:
32:historical linguistics
1809:Traugott 2001, p. 12.
1741:10.5281/zenodo.823224
1652:Lehmann 2002, p. 124.
1434:František Lichtenberk
1247:
220:linguistic universals
209:Indo-European studies
2080:Degrammaticalization
1854:Lehmann 1982, p. vi.
1782:Lessau 1994, p. 886.
1773:Lessau 1994, p. 885.
1634:Lessau 1994, p. 263.
1315:to the postposition
1224:to up the medication
1220:to up the deductions
373:grammatical function
286:obligatorification.
126:sentence connectives
1980:, 1971, 7, 394-415.
1556:Lehmann 1995, p. 3.
1263:Pennsylvania German
845:in Serbo-Croatian (
818:"s/he will walk").
783:Old Church Slavonic
769:" in the place of "
684:Present-Day English
561:Proto-Indo-European
378:decategorialization
124:, inflections, and
108:, are not so much.
2092:, 1978, 8, 407-36.
2039:Lessau, Donald A.
2025:Grammaticalization
2010:and Tania Kuteva.
2000:and Tania Kuteva.
1625:Heine 1993, p.106.
1583:Heine 1993, p. 89.
1476:Pathways of Change
1450:Elizabeth Traugott
1117:(2003) Hopper and
1115:Grammaticalization
706:Grammatical word:
575:Obligatorification
498:semantic bleaching
419:grammatical marker
375:. This is called
290:Semantic bleaching
216:discourse analysis
145:grammaticalization
46:) is a process of
36:grammaticalization
2111:Ylikoski, Jussi.
1751:978-3-946234-99-9
1491:Language Sciences
1440:James A. Matisoff
1265:of the auxiliary
1232:he upped his game
1216:to up the payment
960:, 'I'll do') and
703:(to want/to wish)
582:personal pronouns
389:For example, the
265:African languages
224:Christian Lehmann
16:(Redirected from
2162:
2057:Meillet, Antoine
1918:
1915:
1909:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1891:
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1882:
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1539:
1536:
1530:
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1527:
1526:
1512:
1472:Anette Rosenbach
1378:Jerzy Kurylowicz
1373:
1350:
1336:
1330:
1320:
1303:
1293:
1279:
1270:
1157:In the words of
1104:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1088:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1072:
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1056:
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1002:
972:
959:
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930:
921:
919:il/elle chantera
913:
905:
896:
888:
880:
871:
865:
859:
850:
844:
817:
811:
805:
796:
790:
702:
677:
626:grammatical word
506:
487:
478:
469:
405:Phonetic erosion
258:
232:
195:
91:
44:grammaticization
21:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2140:
2139:
2106:Wittmann, Henri
2078:Norde, Muriel.
2018:Hopper, Paul J.
1990:. Auxiliaries:
1930:Aitchison, Jean
1926:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1898:
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1889:
1885:
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1701:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:Janda , p. 270.
1669:
1665:
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1656:
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1546:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1524:
1522:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1428:morphosyntactic
1365:Antoine Meillet
1357:
1241:-'s, which, in
1192:to up the ante,
1175:
1136:
1111:
1090:
1074:
1058:
1016:
1009:
737:see you later")
656:
599:
577:
553:tri-consonantal
407:
395:relative clause
349:
292:
283:
252:
226:
188:Antoine Meillet
173:neo-grammarians
157:
96:auxiliary verb
48:language change
38:(also known as
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2168:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2138:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2128:Campbell, Lyle
2121:
2120:
2109:
2103:
2100:
2093:
2086:Reighard, John
2083:
2076:
2054:
2047:
2044:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2021:
2015:
2005:
1995:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1961:
1958:Chen, Wei-Heng
1955:
1952:Campbell, Lyle
1949:
1943:
1936:Burridge, Kate
1933:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1919:
1910:
1901:
1892:
1883:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1847:
1838:
1836:Ylikoski 2016.
1829:
1820:
1811:
1802:
1793:
1784:
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1708:
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1483:
1465:
1447:
1437:
1431:
1421:
1382:
1381:
1375:
1356:
1353:
1341:case marker *-
1251:Modern English
1204:to up the ante
1174:
1171:
1146:elements into
1135:
1132:
1110:
1107:
1013:compound verbs
1008:
1005:
779:Serbo-Croatian
775:
774:
755:
744:Modern English
740:
739:
738:
729:will, e.g. "I
727:Modern English
714:will, e.g. "I
712:Modern English
708:Middle English
704:
694:Content word:
688:shall and will
680:Middle English
655:
652:
640:
639:
598:
595:
576:
573:
537:reduplicatives
517:lexicalization
454:
453:
450:
447:
444:
406:
403:
348:
345:
335:, which meant
297:James Matisoff
291:
288:
282:
279:
239:grammaticality
181:uniformitarian
156:
153:
94:Modern English
68:function words
40:grammatization
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2167:
2156:
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2009:
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1982:
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1964:Fischer, Olga
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1486:Lyle Campbell
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1259:Kate Burridge
1254:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1212:to up the bid
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1180:Lyle Campbell
1170:
1167:
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895:
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870:
869:cantare habeo
864:
858:
852:
849:
848:Hoċu da hodim
843:
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834:
830:
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824:
819:
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766:
760:
756:
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749:
745:
741:
736:
732:
728:
725:
724:
721:
720:English verbs
717:
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603:function word
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521:Wei-Heng Chen
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113:lexical items
109:
107:
106:evidentiality
103:
99:
95:
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85:
81:
77:
73:
72:content words
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2122:
2119:40, 113–173.
2116:
2089:
2079:
2069:
2060:
2050:
2040:
2024:
2011:
2008:Heine, Bernd
2001:
1998:Heine, Bernd
1991:
1988:Heine, Bernd
1977:
1974:Givon, Talmy
1967:
1939:
1913:
1904:
1895:
1886:
1877:
1868:
1863:Hopper 1991.
1859:
1850:
1841:
1832:
1823:
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1805:
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1630:
1621:
1612:
1603:
1597:
1588:
1579:
1570:
1561:
1552:
1543:
1534:
1523:. Retrieved
1519:
1510:
1489:
1475:
1468:Olga Fischer
1457:
1414:phonological
1393:
1389:
1383:
1358:
1342:
1322:
1312:
1295:
1286:Irish Gaelic
1282:
1256:
1248:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1176:
1163:
1156:
1137:
1124:
1114:
1112:
1073:, from 'see'
1010:
994:
986:
985:in the stem
982:
978:
974:
961:
953:(instead of
948:
939:
931:
914:
911:tu chanteras
906:
903:je chanterai
889:
881:
853:
836:
832:
826:
821:Compare the
820:
798:
776:
770:
764:
762:
758:
747:
734:
730:
715:
664:
657:
641:
634:inflectional
622:content word
600:
587:
578:
551:featuring a
513:
508:
493:
489:
462:
455:
437:Tania Kuteva
431:
423:phonological
408:
388:
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376:
350:
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320:
316:
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293:
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270:
260:
243:
234:
213:
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185:
158:
144:
142:
136:
132:
130:
122:case markers
110:
97:
80:inflectional
64:prepositions
43:
39:
35:
29:
2097:Bernd Heine
1946:Bybee, Joan
1917:Norde 2009.
1872:Lessau 1994
1454:Bernd Heine
1430:properties.
1424:Paul Hopper
1402:grammatical
1306:North Saami
1243:Old English
1159:Bernd Heine
1148:grammatical
794:hoće hoditi
696:Old English
667:Old English
660:auxiliaries
644:grammatical
565:W. Humboldt
555:word root,
541:diminutives
476:chiaramente
467:clarā mente
433:Bernd Heine
429:material".
361:grammatical
329:yellow-like
301:John Haiman
274:descriptive
253: [
227: [
201:linguistics
167:(1825) and
118:auxiliaries
84:Old English
2144:Categories
1525:2018-06-15
1503:References
1480:diachronic
1100:tabetemiru
835:(e.g. "He
767:your help.
607:word class
567:, putting
545:disyllabic
485:claramente
353:linguistic
281:Mechanisms
205:synchronic
1520:wals.info
1410:syntactic
1367:(1912): "
1351:'stain'.
1328:gáffenaga
809:hoditi će
803:će hoditi
682:(ME). In
646:and less
369:syntactic
169:Gabelentz
1444:metaphor
1406:semantic
1371:système.
1334:oljonaga
1309:abessive
1239:genitive
1188:Traugott
1152:Traugott
1119:Traugott
1049:hiragana
1026:ittekiku
936:canterai
886:cantarás
863:cantabam
742:Clitic:
615:Traugott
533:morpheme
529:syllable
427:phonetic
411:phonetic
177:Brugmann
165:Humboldt
102:futurity
2155:Grammar
1970:, 2000.
1924:Sources
1418:lexical
1398:lexemes
1298:(as in
1144:lexical
1000:canterò
989:cantare
944:canterà
928:canterò
924:Italian
894:cantará
878:cantaré
874:Spanish
857:cantabo
833:to will
648:lexical
481:Spanish
472:Italian
357:lexical
351:Once a
325:catlike
323:(as in
319:), and
317:angrily
311:(as in
190:in his
155:History
60:affixes
1748:
1470:&
1462:coding
1452:&
1339:essive
1301:táimid
1184:Hopper
1166:Lessau
1127:clines
1035:(here
970:teneré
963:tendré
957:haceré
899:French
842:hoteti
828:wollen
823:German
815:hodiće
799:on/ona
788:xъtěti
781:, the
763:I need
752:stress
700:willan
675:willan
630:clitic
509:-mente
479:, and
415:lexeme
399:number
341:corpse
313:bodily
133:let us
89:willan
1984:1991.
1732:(pdf)
1277:welle
1273:modal
1268:wotte
1094:食べてみる
1068:-miru
1033:kanji
1020:行って聞く
968:*
966:(not
955:*
825:verb
785:verb
735:gonna
669:(OE)
637:affix
611:cline
590:Bybee
504:mente
494:mente
490:mente
359:to a
333:*līką
321:-like
257:]
246:Heine
231:]
175:like
149:below
137:let's
86:verb
76:bound
70:from
56:verbs
52:nouns
1746:ISBN
1412:and
1392:and
1348:naga
1323:naga
1318:haga
1313:haga
1296:-mid
1291:muid
1186:and
1138:The
1084:miru
1041:and
950:haré
837:will
759:will
731:will
716:will
710:and
671:verb
531:and
435:and
367:and
337:body
315:and
248:and
218:and
161:Bopp
98:will
54:and
1736:doi
1400:to
1249:In
1228:the
1113:In
1062:〜みる
997:in
993:to
765:ill
539:or
382:or
339:or
327:or
309:-ly
259:'s
250:Reh
233:'s
62:or
42:or
30:In
2146::
2115:.
2075:.]
1744:.
1518:.
1408:,
1343:na
1222:,
1218:,
1214:,
1208:up
1200:up
1196:up
1105:.
1097:,
1081:,
1078:見る
1065:,
1044:聞く
1038:行く
1023:,
922:,
897:,
748:ll
632:→
628:→
624:→
511:.
386:.
255:de
229:de
151:.
128:.
120:,
78:,
34:,
1754:.
1738::
1528:.
1493:,
1103:)
1091:(
1087:)
1075:(
1071:)
1059:(
1054:て
1029:)
1017:(
995:e
983:a
979:d
975:e
940:,
932:,
915:,
907:,
890:,
882:,
380:,
20:)
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