806:). The Soviet economy was under pressure because of several factors, including a critically undersupplied consumers' market, a growing economy of natural exchange, inflationary pressures and the devaluation of the ruble, and decreases in government revenue after the abolition of the emergency wartime tax and the voluntary Red Army fund. A major example of such policies was the state reconstruction and development bond. Issued in May 1946, this bond was issued in a size of 20 billion rubles. The bond, which came along with pressure on employees by employers and party cadres, proved to be deeply unpopular. With the state reconstruction and development bond underway after May 1946, the Soviet government additionally pushed for serious monetary reform to restore the value of the ruble. A critical step towards this objective was the abolition of the wartime ration system, which had with its fixed prices and hidden inflation (the reduction of quality of a product rather than the increase of its price) seriously undermined the health of the Soviet economy. The abolition of the ration system was hoped by Soviet leaders to represent an economically powerful and diplomatically sovereign Soviet Union, and was pushed at a time when several countries, including the United Kingdom and France, much richer and much less devastated by the war, still were relying on ration cards as well.
840:
1449:(MTSs), and local industrial enterprises were largely kicked out of the ration system. A total of 23 million rural Soviet citizens lost their ration cards, along with another 3.5 million urban citizens (the latter category mainly consisting of adult unemployed dependants). The objective was to reduce the consumption of grain by 520,000 tons over the course of eight months, thus theoretically putting more food at the government's disposal for emergency distribution. The way this was brought was primarily by reducing the number of people eligible to receive food, and by reducing the amount of food allotted to those who were still eligible. The cutbacks on the ration system happened at a time when many of the ration recipients desperately depended on the ration cards for their survival, and when rationing was still in usage even in several countries much richer and less devastated by war than the Soviet Union.
1304:
deeply unpopular. With the state reconstruction and development bond underway after May 1946, the Soviet government additionally pushed for serious monetary reform to restore the value of the ruble. A critical step towards this objective was the preparation for the abolition of the wartime ration system, which had with its fixed prices and hidden inflation (the reduction of quality of a product rather than the increase of its price) seriously undermined the health of the Soviet economy. The abolition of the ration system was hoped by Soviet leaders to represent an economically powerful and diplomatically sovereign Soviet Union, and was pushed at a time when several countries, including the United
Kingdom and France, much richer and much less devastated by the war, still were relying on ration cards as well.
749:
mowers to 61%, threshing machines to 64%, and combines to 81%. The number of available work animals also plummeted. Compared to prewar levels, collective farms in
Ukraine went to 69% of their large horned cattle (cows: 30%), 27% of pigs, and 35% of sheep and goats. To make up for the severe shortage of work animals, the Soviet government deployed political prisoners. The hardships of war had also left their impact on the diversity (or lack thereof) in nutrition, and most Soviet families survived on diets that almost entirely consisted of bread and potatoes, with only little fruit, vegetables, or proteins. The lack of mechanization in Soviet agriculture, ever a pressing issue under both the governments of Lenin and Stalin, was now especially painful to the government. The number of tractors at
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gold, real estate or other valuables before the currency reform, furthering resentment by the general public after the reveal of the reforms. Nonetheless, the currency reform brought a significant increase in the quality and quantity of consumer goods in stores in the larger cities, and many businesses' inventories began to approach the (comparative) abundance of the prewar era. The newly arrived goods came with some hefty price tags, especially on clothes, shoes, and knitwear, but also on food products. Exotic foods, even if they were available in a store, were usually prohibitively expensive even after the currency reform. The implementation of the currency reform, which was focussed on savings accounts, also caused significant issues for those citizens who had stored their cash at home.
1453:
and some businesses had to turn away applicants because no additional ration cards could be handed out. Many rural workers who lost their rations abandoned their state farm jobs (further hurting agricultural output) and migrated to the cities, looking for employment opportunities that promised access to ration cards. On 30 October 1946, the state planning agency
Gosplan was ordered to prepare for another wave of ration card eligibility reductions. The unexpected cutbacks in rationing over the course of October devastated the livelihoods of millions of citizens, especially those in the countryside who were not manual laborers, such as foresters, teachers and medical workers, along with unemployed dependants, such as the elderly or the disabled.
1628:
1511:
raised a total of 32 million rubles for the public, most of which went toward medical treatment, food, and clothing for orphans and invalids. The SRCRC regularly organized charity events to raise public funds for its projects wherever it met funding impasses. The SRCRC at times faced red tape and obstruction from the government, particularly when they attempted to cooperate on the local or regional levels with clergy and religious groups. Nicholas Ganson concludes: "The central government’s half-hearted support of the relief campaign clearly served as a major impediment to stemming the tide of the famine, and the bread conservation campaign was, in the immediate sense, the main precipitant of hunger."
836:
cards. The cutbacks on the ration system happened at a time when many of the ration recipients desperately depended on the ration cards for their survival, and when rationing was still in usage even in several countries much richer and less devastated by war than the Soviet Union. The government's decision in late
September to intensify grain requisitioning was another crushing blow to the conditions in the countryside and the villages, and the policy of grain confiscation at any price to human life was the primary and dominant factor that preceded the explosive growth of famine deaths after December 1946.
241:
1204:), was drastically worsened during the famine years. The number of homeless children, which had declined from 341,134 in 1944 to 296,432 in 1945, once again grew, to 323,422 in 1946 and to 360,000 (very likely an estimate rather than a headcount) in 1947. The immense scale of the crisis for young children (including those who were orphaned and those whose parents were themselves starving and turned to the childcare system for assistance) forced the childcare facilities to at times decide which children would live and which ones would have to be turned away.
832:
government controversially continued to export food to foreign countries even in the face of famine. Over the course of the year 1946, domestic food shortage had forced several closures among even state enterprises. The public response to the new measures was overwhelmingly negative. Some citizens accepted the reforms as a necessary evil to counteract a threat of war against the UK or the US, while others blamed vindictive forces inside the CPSU (although not usually Stalin). Discontent with the government began to unload itself in occasional local strikes.
1855:
agricultural troubles (the U.S. Joint
Intelligence Staff concluded in November 1945 that the Soviet Union was so weakened by war that the USSR would not be ready for another major war for at least 15 years), nonetheless allowed the Soviet Union to maintain the farce of outward-facing strength to facilitate the Americans' own agenda domestically and internationally. The Truman administration found the spectre of a growing Soviet military threat desirable, as it allowed the American government to ramp up domestic and international support for the
1220:
sheer scale of the crisis of children, both those who were orphaned vagabonds and those whose parents were so poor that they turned to the children's hospitals and childcare facilities for emergency assistance, forced the children's homes and hospitals to at times turn away children in need of assistance. This was not helped by governmental austerity policies: In the third quarter 1947, Gosplan lowered the number of meals to be provided to nurseries in
Ukraine from 72,000 to 61,200, at a time when these meals were desperately needed.
2232:
putting too little weight on the historical context of World War II. Stephen G. Wheatcroft agrees with Zima's outline of the three principal factors from which famine resulted (post-war difficulties, the drought of 1946, food requisitioning), but criticizes Zima's simplification of those factors, as well as Zima's uncritical usage of official Soviet government statistics. Wheatcroft especially takes issue with Zima's claim that the government had large grain reserves that the Stalin administration maliciously chose to withhold.
1770:
1157:
820:
several tons short of the daily production goals over weeklong periods. Fuel shortages additionally slowed deliveries. In early
December 1945, the food distributions at time stayed at under 50% of the planned levels. Over the course of early 1946, the grain stocks and food reserves of the local and regional institutions dwindled. Beginning in January 1946, several raions replaced flour distribution with grain distribution, and redirected low-quality food intended for farm animals towards human consumption.
263:(TsSU) registered 4.1 million births in 1946 and another 4.5 million in 1947. Additionally, there were constant bureaucratic conflicts between members of the military and the civilian world, notably doctors and nurses, as the Red Army was slow to vacate buildings it had occupied (notably hospitals) during the war. In the Ukrainian SSR alone, 129 buildings that officially belonged to the Ministry of Health were still occupied by other institutions on 1 January 1946, most usually the military.
1784:
824:
as well as partially into May and June. In May 1946, the Soviet government further advanced towards the abolition of the ration system by issuing the state reconstruction and development bond. This reform proved deeply unpopular, and the accelerated pace at which the Soviet Union was rushing towards the abolition of ration cards (still in use in France and
Britain, among other countries), left many civilians that were desperately dependent on rations at the threat of starvation.
1829:, former U.S. president and former head of the ARA, at the helm. Hoover later remarked that the FEC, did not provide assistance to the USSR as it had been assumed that not only would the Soviet Union have enough food for its own population, but that it would also assist in the food relief for other regions. The Americans had been interested in providing assistance to other countries for American diplomatic gain, but unlike in 1921–1922, the USSR remained outside that scope.
285:), and many tens of thousands were threatened by starvation even in August 1945, as the war was concluding. Even industrial workers, who were ideologically the favored class in Soviet society, complained that their nutrition was not improving even as the war was ending. Bread shortages persisted throughout 1945 and into 1946, and difficulties in the food supply were not isolated local incidents, but a large-scale systemic problem to feed the population.
1416:
quickly solve our agricultural problems, recover to prewar gross yields of both grain and technical crops in two to three years, bringing an end to shortages of produce and agricultural raw materials in the country, as well as insufficient compensation for workdays earned in collective farms, and seed shortages, and will open the path to progress in animal breeding. Otherwise, bread and produce shortages will severely limit our entire economy.
1833:
years 1945 and 1946, without clarifying to the
Soviets how keenly aware he and the U.S. administration were in regards to the agricultural shortages in the Soviet Union that had persisted since World War II. The Americans wanted to use the growing Cold War rivalry and Moscow's self-consciousness about Soviet global prestige to lessen the strain placed on the United States by UNRRA contributions, to which the U.S. was the main contributor.
131:
766:
1383:, and others. The continuation of the grain export policy was specifically criticized by local party officials, who feared growing consumer outrage in the face of the growing contradiction of domestic food shortages with international grain exports to foreign countries. Nonetheless, it must be pointed out that grain exports were at least partially reduced in the face of the growing famine, and dropped significantly from 1946 to 1947.
753:(MTSs) declined by a quarter, from 435,000 to 327,000, between 1941 and 1946. The amount of horsepower provided by the tractors declined to 71% of the 1941 level, from 8,359,000 to 5,917,000. The number of horses collapsed to 46% of the 1941 value in 1946, the number of draught cattle at collective farms to 95%, the number of automobiles at MTS and collective farms to 16% (at collective farms only: 4.7% (107,000 to 5,000)).
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those sentenced for various categories of crime in 1946/1947, about 50% were women with young children ("women's crime"). If the mothers in question were sentenced to prison sentences in
Siberia, the young children would accompany them. Crime committed by children and youths also rose sharply. The growing desperation and frustration of the public unloaded itself in a rise in crime, especially by women and children.
2308:
undesirable: they made people lose faith in communism, hindered labor output, and undermined the Soviet leadership in the eyes of the people. With the help of society, members of the Soviet Red Cross and Ministry of Health made efforts to provide relief to the needy. But for those in the upper echelons of Soviet power, the goals of preserving and later building up grain stocks dwarfed the value of human life.
1847:, were active proponents of U.S. assistance to the Soviet Union, but the Soviets failed to follow such an avenue of foreign aid. When La Guardia met with Stalin on 29 August 1946 to discuss the situation in the USSR, Stalin went against the expectation that he might overexaggerate the scale of crisis, and instead strongly underplayed the severity of hunger and famine in the Soviet Union.
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indeed not bringing about a famine by choice, and strikes a more balanced explanation than that of Zima, pointing to a mixture of weather effects, war damages and Soviet government incompetence and ideological intransigence (especially in favoring industry over agriculture and in refusing to request foreign aid). Ganson also lays significant criticism at the feet of
788:. Between 1946 and 1948, a total of 5.7 million tons of grain (excluding cereals), were exported from the USSR. The Soviet Union saw itself in an ideological and geostrategic competition with the U.S. in regards to food relief, and did not want to look outdone. While most countries that received American and Soviet assistance avoided famine, the USSR itself did not.
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by more than 50%, and several food products became more attainable for citizens. The government opened 600 stores in 250 cities on the first day of the reform, hoping to stem the predicted tide of new consumers, but failed to cope with the large demand. Bread lines as long as 500 to 600 people outside of some of the new stores were recorded in cities such as Gorky (
2122:, the 1946–1947 famine belongs into a bigger picture of a "long genocide" against the Ukrainian people that lasted from 1920 to 1947. Ukraine suffered perhaps as many as 15 million excess deaths between 1914 and 1948, and especially the 1930s and the 1940s were a traumatic time, when the hunger and starvation of the Holodomor was followed by the
1457:
famine deaths after December 1946. Access to food in the state farm system was often made dependent on the ability to fulfill grain quotas. If the adult laborers failed to fulfill the expected delivery loads on time, they were under threat of losing their access to payments in the form of food, as were their children and unemployed relatives.
1236:). The Soviet economy was under pressure because of several factors, including a critically undersupplied consumers' market, a growing economy of natural exchange, inflationary pressures and the devaluation of the ruble, and decreases in government revenue after the abolition of the emergency wartime tax and the voluntary Red Army fund.
710:. The Soviet government called the 1946 drought the worst drought in Russia since 1891, although such claims have proven difficult to unambiguously prove or dismiss. Regardless of the comparative severity of the drought of 1946, it is beyond dispute that the summer of 1946 was extremely dry, and international observers such as
1461:
1946, the combined proportion of oats, barley, and corn in bread was raised to 40% (for Moscow and Leningrad: 25%), and popular discontent grew further. Still, public statements of criticism, where they happened, usually avoided criticism of Stalin, and instead blamed a corrupt political class that was using Stalin's stay in
1494:
localities, especially Soviet villages, well into the 1950s. By contrast, urban heavy industry recovered quicker than the countryside, reaching 1940 production levels by 1948, whereas urban light industry and agriculture took until 1949 or 1950. 1940 levels were themselves lowered by the tough times of the Great Famine and
902:
villages, rationing was sometimes locally reintroduced, either directly in the form of ration cards, or more covertly in the shape of booklets or other documents handling access to the market. Many civilians in the countryside or medium-size towns complained bitterly to local officials or in letters to newspapers like
1510:
but effectively controlled by the Soviet government, went to work in a large-scale relief campaign starting in August and September 1946. The SRCRC organized public assistance of hospitals, nursing homes, and orphans, and collected money for those purposes. Between August 1945 and mid-1947, the SRCRC
1460:
The government came to the decision in October 1946 to reduce retail trade in bread by 70,000 tons. The amount of bread traded was subsequently reduced by 35,000 tons in October 1946 and by another 25,000 tons in November 1946. At the same time, the quality of the bread was scaled back: on 1 November
1386:
While grain procurements were reduced in the year-by-year comparison between 1945 and 1946 (from 20.0 million tons in 1945 to 17.5 million tons in 1946 (−12.5%)), the even greater loss of total harvest yield (47.3 million tons in 1945 to 39.6 million tons in 1946 (−16.3%)) meant that even
1219:
The infrastructure for children's medical care improved over the course of the year 1947, adding 2,103 infants' home beds in the RSFSR, and 5,901 infants' home beds in Ukraine in the first four months of 1947 alone, along with 4,639 children's hospital beds over the course of the entire year, but the
1211:
accepted at government checkpoints increased by more than 25%, to 103,923. Additionally, the number of vagabond children picked up at railroad stations or along railway lines (coming from different backgrounds, including unhoused orphans, children who had fled children's homes, child laborers who had
886:
The population groups that continued to be most affected by the famine were children, the elderly, the unemployed, the disabled (including war invalids), and those who were employed in non-manual jobs (such as teachers and clerks). The famine drastically affected the homeless and orphaned children in
756:
With private agricultural production growing in importance during the war, some peasants had grown small private fortunes feeding the cities. Economic analysis of the situation (of both urban and rural populations), as well as of purchasing power held by the civilian population, is made harder by the
228:
While the three major Soviet famines (1921–1922, 1930–1933, 1946–1947) are often seen as parts of a greater whole ("triune famine"), there is a major difference between the 1930–1933 famine and the other two. Both the 1921–1922 and the 1946–1947 famines were immediately preceded by massively damaging
2245:
During the famine, surplus stocks in the hands of the state seem to have been sufficient to have fed all those who died of starvation. The famine was a FAD₂ (preventable food availability decline) famine, which occurred because a drought caused a bad harvest and hence reduced food availability, but,
2178:
he Soviet government cited drought, the dangers of aggression from former allies to carry out a famine with the aim of preserving grain reserves and selling grain abroad. Apart from this the famine was used to teach and urge on the labour active on the collective and state farms forcing them to work
1481:
In summer 1947, rumors spread that ration prices would once again rise on 15 July, leading to yet another run on the stores and the banks, with civilians attempting to empty their savings accounts and to buy all available food to prepare for the possibilities of a yet harsher time of food shortages.
878:
In early 1947, the UNRRA was forced to cease operations on American pressure. The U.S. government was aware of the scale of desperation in the Soviet Union, but used the fact that the Soviet government failed to publicly appeal for aid to instead reroute American relief and aid towards projects such
823:
A second series of severe interruptions in the food supply occurred in March to April 1946, partially caused by a government reduction in commercial prices of various food staples that was issued on 26 February 1946. This second wave of shortages, which had begun in March, continued into April 1946,
731:
that was a regional part of it, massively affected the peasantry, the smaller towns and villages of the Soviet Union also remained in significant economic poverty, as Soviet economic growth and investments were greatly disproportionately favorable towards heavy industry. The war took manpower out of
71:
resulted in massive infrastructural damage, especially in the agriculture in the west of the country, as well as over 25 million deaths among the Soviet citizenry. The return of demobilized troops from the war resulted in a concurrent spike in births that the system was unprepared for. The hardships
2297:
Using a comparative focus in the context of global history and ideology, Ganson evaluates the findings of previous historians, and finds disagreements especially with Zima's conclusion regarding a premeditated famine. He points to Soviet relief efforts as an indicator that the Soviet government was
2275:
Ellman's work has been criticized by Stephen G. Wheatcroft for its uncritical acceptance of the grain stock numbers laid out by Zima in 1996. Wheatcroft argues that Ellman is broadly including food in state possession that was already marked up for other purposes in the assessment, and that this is
1850:
The Truman administration worked towards its own economic interest to shut down UNRRA, in spite of the fact that American leadership was aware how desperately needed UNRRA relief work was in the Soviet Union. The Americans succeeded in this objective by early 1947, when UNRRA was largely shut down.
1524:
and USA forced the Soviet government to raise grain prices. When on 16 September 1946, the price hike was officially announced, it was publicly explained to be a preparation for the abolition of the ration system. The public explanation made no reference to the ongoing agricultural drought, and the
1489:
in the country. A currency reform, designed to curb the inflation of the ruble, was secretly planned (only to be announced on the day of the reform), but the information leaked when local officials opened the orders ahead of time. Some party cadres used the information to spend all of their cash on
1468:
In December 1946, famine began to appear on a large scale in the state farm apparatus (where the peasant workers lacked access to both the food they themselves produced and the ration cards they would have needed to buy food), although the term "famine" was avoided in official documents in favor of
1390:
In September 1946, the Council of Ministers and the Central Committee began the "campaign to economize on bread", raising ration prices for bread, meaning that the citizens could buy less bread for the same amount of money. While compensation was attempted by lowering the price of commercially sold
1239:
On 26 February 1946, the Soviet government issued a reduction in commercial prices of various food staples. It was hoped that a reduction in prices on official sources of food would curb black market activity and disperse speculation. The objective was achieved, and bread costs in some oblasts fell
893:
The famine lessened in severity after the summer of 1947, and conditions improved after the 1947 harvest, as well as the cancellation of rationing in December 1947. The end of rationing had long been expected by the civilian population, with divided opinions on whether the outcome would be positive
870:
In December 1946, famine began to appear on a large scale in the state farm apparatus. The government failed to react in a way that quickly distributed grain reserves among the population. By 1 January 1947, state agencies possessed 11.8 million tons of grain (a reduction by 3.6 million tons from 1
748:
Soviet agriculture suffered as a result of the material damages and the manpower losses incurred by the war. Comparing the number of available agricultural implements in 1946 to the amount of 1941, plows had gone to 62%, cultivators to 61%, sowing machines to 62%, harvesters and sheaf tiers to 55%,
2554:
One famine cost 100,000 lives in Tokyo in the second half of 1945; another was the Soviet famine of 1946–1947. The latter was proportionately most severe in Moldova, where 100,000 or 5% of the population perished, but most costly in numbers of lives in Ukraine (300,000) and elsewhere in the Soviet
1545:
The population groups that continued to be most affected by the famine were children, the elderly, the unemployed, the disabled (including war invalids), and those who were employed in non-manual jobs (such as teachers and clerks). Families with only one breadwinner (usually widowed single mothers
1473:
provincial office sent specific stories to the Central Committee, describing employees of state farms, including widowed mothers and veteran tractor operators, receiving far less than the food they earned by work, and contracting malnutrition-related illnesses as a result. While villages were most
1452:
In response to the ejection from the ration system under certain employers, some urban workers attempted to switch profession to find another employer that still used ration cards, and industrial enterprises in Leningrad hired twice as many new employees in October than they had done in September,
1223:
The infrastructure of children's nursing homes and hospitals was negatively affected by the "bread-conversation" campaign that the government started in October 1946, as the reduction of food and staff in the state-provided health service threatened the childcare system, which had been ambitiously
1164:
The total amount of grain harvested in the Soviet countryside (39.6 million tons) was the second lowest amount in Soviet history, only ahead of the 1921 harvest (36.2 million tons). However, the 1946 harvest was farmed on a bigger area than the 1921 harvest, as the Soviet Union had in the meantime
1026:
Demographic work, especially when comparing the 1946–1947 famine to the other Soviet famines, is made very difficult due to the damages done by World War II, including in direct human casualties or in indirect damage done to the efficiency administrative bureaucracy and their data. It thus becomes
831:
In September 1946, the Council of Ministers and the Central Committee began the "campaign to economize on bread", raising ration prices for bread. While some wage increases were passed alongside the ration prices, these did not nearly make up the difference in the increased food prices. The Soviet
2307:
From the perspective of the Soviet state, the mass mortality precipitated by its policies in 1946–1947 was in a very direct sense collateral damage. The extreme measures taken in September 1946 resulted from Stalin's late recognition of the developing grain crisis. Widespread death and want were
1557:
that were complaining about hunger and malnutrition. With popular frustration about the inability to purchase food came a spike in theft. In fall of 1946, 53,369 people were prosecuted in the USSR for stealing bread, and 36,670 (74.3%) were convicted to prison sentences. Among the total number of
1303:
A major example of Soviet economic policies in the immediate postwar period was the state reconstruction and development bond. Issued in May 1946, this bond was issued in a size of 20 billion rubles. The bond, which came along with pressure on employees by employers and party cadres, proved to be
2217:
The available data on grain production, collection and stocks do not support Zima’s contention that huge amounts of grain were available, which could easily have been used by Stalin to avoid the strain on the peasantry. No such stocks existed, and in the circumstances of the World Food Crisis of
1832:
Truman had been briefed on the disastrous situation in Russia at the latest on 16 December 1946, and assumed that Soviet requests for American assistance were imminent. Furthermore, Truman actively encouraged the Soviet Union to continue and even increase its grain exports over the course of the
1807:
While we could classify the Soviet satellite states, we could not classify Russia proper, for that country gave out no information. However, we knew what the Russian ration was in most cities and that the Russians had seized huge amounts of food in their invasion of Eastern Europe, Mongolia, and
1534:
I have four children as dependents. Three of them are in school. My husband died at the front. In October I didn’t receive bread cards for the children. What do I do? We have enough vegetables to last us a month. Commercial bread and produce are impossible to get. What do I do? Quit my job as a
1456:
The government's decision in late September to intensify grain requisitioning was another crushing blow to the conditions in the countryside and the villages, and the policy of grain confiscation at any price to human life was the primary and dominant factor that preceded the explosive growth of
1415:
It seems to me, Comrade Stalin, though perhaps I am mistaken, that our resources allow us to take on the expenses ... to give agriculture a large amount of tractors and agricultural machinery without sacrificing the interests of railway transport, metallurgy, and fuel. This will allow us to very
1405:
On 27 September 1946, the government and the Central Committee issued another joint decree, titled "On Economizing in the Consumption of Grain", which furthered public dissatisfaction. This "bread-conservation campaign" (Decree No. 380, 27 September 1946) had been initiated by Stalin in response
835:
On 27 September 1946, the government and the Central Committee issued another joint decree, titled "On Economizing in the Consumption of Grain", beginning the "bread-conservation campaign". The decree went into force on 1 October 1946 and reduced the number of people that were entitled to ration
258:
Mobilization during World War II had taken large amounts of manpower out of civilian employment, including agricultural labor, and even after demobilization, many soldiers struggled to find employment. Military demobilization also resulted in a birth spike as the young men returned home, and the
254:
Additionally, the war had left the children in the USSR particularly vulnerable. Many had lost both parents, and many more had lost their fathers. Hundreds of thousands were homeless, and hundreds of thousands more were dependent on single mothers for survival. The crisis of young parents led to
2322:
The book was acknowledged by Stephen G. Wheatcroft as an important work, and has been positively reviewed by J. Eric Duskin, who called the work "important and provocative", and Alexis Peri, who called it "lucidly written" and who elevated as main strengths of the books its intricately detailed
1854:
The fact that the Soviet Union publicly obscured its domestic famine, and thus its comparative international weakness, allowed the Truman administration to point to the USSR as an imminent and serious military threat. The Americans, well aware of how paralyzed the Soviets were by their domestic
866:
The government came to the decision in October 1946 to reduce retail trade in bread, and the amount of available bread was reduced by tens of thousands of tons. At the same time, the quality of the bread was scaled back. The growing discontent among the civilian population was registered by the
819:
Early breakdowns in the food distribution system were already visible by December 1945 and January 1946, where bread quality was decreasing and waiting times in front of stores and bakeries grew. Economic goals for food production were unrealistically high, and the bread factories at times fell
198:
Several main reasons for the famine of 1946–1947 have been identified by historians: The devastation caused by World War II, the 1946 drought, the lack of autonomy of the Soviet peasantry, and the Soviet government's inability to implement effective policies to counteract the starvation and the
2231:
The viewpoint of the premeditated famine has been criticized by subsequent historians, but Zima's importance to the historiography of the famine is acknowledged by the critics. Zima's approach was criticized by Nicholas Ganson for being overly focussed on Soviet domestic political history, and
1698:
The Soviet government's policy of international secrecy regarding domestic politics meant that the outside world was, especially initially, left in the dark about the exact scale of food shortage in the Soviet Union. The Soviet government actively tried to obscure the scale and severity of the
1596:
in Moldavia invested considerable efforts in feeding hungry civilians, with a particular focus on orphan children. The Moldavian Red Cross established 550 feeding points (питатель’ные пункты), and an additional 222 barracks for people with dystrophy. Furthermore, there were another 200 feeding
1493:
The famine further derailed the post-war economic recovery of the Soviet Union. Civilian living standards remained below prewar levels for a protracted period of time, and only returned to the 1940 levels in 1953, and even after the end of rationing in 1947, sporadic hunger emerged in isolated
1394:
Wage increases (between +60 rubles and +110 rubles a month, with the highest raises given to those who earn 300 rubles a month or less) were insufficient to enable the consumers to keep up with the price hikes. Workers' wages, in both grain and money, had barely increased (and often decreased,
1184:
The famine's effects declined over the course of mid-to-late 1947, and conditions were improved after a reasonably successful harvest in fall of 1947, as well as the cancellation of rationing in December 1947. The end of rationing had long been expected by the civilian population, with divided
909:
While the provisions crisis would continue into 1948, the main phase of famine had concluded. The end of rationing in late 1947, although it had been eagerly anticipated by many Soviet civilians, did not bring about the drastic positive change that many had hoped for. Instead, the economic and
2318:
Ganson ultimately concludes that the victims of the 1946–1947 famine were not victims of a premeditated famine as posited by Zima, but that were nonetheless the "collateral damage" that resulted from Soviet government policy and ideological dogmatism. Ganson puts particular focus on the power
2271:
and in subsequent works. Using Sen's model, Ellman reaches the conclusion that the 1946–1947 qualifies as a FAD₂ (preventable food availability decline) famine, in which a great of deaths could have been prevented if government-controlled food supplies had been more accessible to the civilian
901:
The economic recovery after the monetary reforms was unequal across the country. Whereas the major cities rapidly progressed towards subsistence and eventually surplus levels of consumer goods availability, the consumers' market remained in a critical states in non-urban environments. In some
858:
The Soviet Red Cross and Red Crescent was active throughout the entire famine (as well as during the months preceding it), providing medical treatments, distributing food and clothing, and constructing local infrastructure. While the effort by SRCRC aid workers on the ground were genuine and
1591:
suffered 100,000–115,000 recorded deaths linked to starvation, which translates to approximately 5% of the population. Incidents of cannibalism were recorded. Moldavia was one of the areas most affected by the famine, especially in the harvest-failure regions. The local organizations of the
1432:, then Soviet Minister of Agriculture, pleaded with Stalin in October 1946 to reroute the distribution heavy machinery towards the agricultural sector to assist in the recovery of harvest yields to prewar levels. Stalin, partially receptive to Andreyev's suggestions, called a plenum of the
2212:), in which the Stalin government attempted to reassert sociopolitical control over Soviet society after the loss of political control during the chaotic war years, Zima posits that the 1946–1947 famine was an intentional punitive, a premeditated famine, aimed at the Soviet peasantry.
1519:
As news of the imminent price hikes for food spread among the general population in September 1946, some were in disbelief at a policy so apparently in opposition to communist ideology. Others found the scapegoat in the Western powers, believing that a growing threat of war with the
1215:
A significant number of child deaths were foundlings abandoned by their parents. Most child fatalities happened within a month of admission to the childcare system, as many children entered the hospitals or nursing homes at states of hunger and dystrophy that were already desperate.
1027:
difficult to differentiate between people who died in or as a result of World War II or those who died in the famine. Mortality peaked in early 1947. Of particular note among the victims of the famine were the elderly, as well as young children. There was also a spike in suicides.
1402:. Some workers also attempted to negotiate with factory leaderships to increase factory outputs and workhours to attain more payment that way, but the Council of Ministers and the Central Committee had preemptively specifically forbidden raises to salary scales or rates of pay.
1307:
Over the course of summer, the advancing drought and the further agricultural impasses that resulted from it turned the economic situation in the Soviet Union to one of outright desperation, especially in the villages and the countryside, as well as small to middle-sized towns.
1444:
The new decree of the "bread-conservation campaign", which went into force on 1 October 1946, reduced the number of people that were entitled to ration cards. This policy particularly affected the rural population, where the workers and administrators of the state farms, the
827:
The food shortages, which had plagued Soviet cities since the war, were exacerbated by the lack of rainfall in early-to-mid 1946, leading to the drought of 1946. The drought negatively affected all harvest yields, and reduced grain and potato yields by more than 60% each.
910:
nutritional improvements were gradual, especially outside of the major cities. Demographic data indicates that famine as a mass phenomenon had ended by the beginning of 1948. Bread shortages lasted into 1948 (and in fact into 1949 and 1950 as well), and some cities like
2319:
struggle between the Soviet Union and the United States in the emerging Cold War, and points to the Soviet government's unwillingness to appear weak compared to the United States as one of the main reasons for the Soviet government's ineffective response to the famine.
1710:, and took over the role of international food relief. The Soviet Union declined participation in this organization, as it would have required disclosure of several critical economic statistics, and as a result lost access to a valuable possible avenue of foreign aid.
714:
and the British Foreign Office noted the difficulties inflicted by the harsh weather on the peasantry. The weather was a stark contrast from the war years, during which, with perhaps 1943 the only exception, weather conditions had been favorable to crop production.
1362:
In spite of the scepticism from local party officials, who were concerned that these reforms would prove unpopular in the face of growing food shortages, the Soviet government controversially continued to export grain to other countries, including
1957:
February 1946: The Soviet government drastically lowers food prices in an effort to make food more accessible and to discourage black market activity. The lowered prices result in a drastic reduction of quality of the available bread ("hidden
259:
number of births per 1,000 people increased from 15.9 in 1945 to 24.9 in 1946, thus greatly increasing the number of children under the age of twelve months (who would be among the main groups of starvation deaths in the famine). The
2001:
September 1946: Launch of the "Campaign to Economize on Bread", making bread significantly more expensive. While some wage increases are passed to go along with this price hike, wages are not raised by the same levels that prices
859:
well-intentioned, the organization often ran into bureaucratic and financial impasses, and at times even faced obstruction from the Soviet government. Another organization that was of great importance to the relief effort was the
237:) and World War II, respectively. Military demobilization concurrently resulted in a large number of unemployed soldiers, disabled veterans in need of government support, and a birth spike as the soldiers returned to their wives.
737:
A Frenchman who was sent in error to a camp for political prisoners in Siberia said that political prisoners were used to compensate the extreme shortage of draught animals. He himself had been made to drag ploughs and cars.
175:
and other organizations. While the Soviet Union had accepted this help in July 1921, it had not requested or accepted any large scale assistance in 1932–1933, and would again fail to request foreign assistance in 1946–1947.
2368:
wrote an article, partially in response to the premeditated famine thesis by Zima (as well as the works by Ellman, Filtzer, and Zubkova that are based on Zima's numbers), about the 1946–1947 famine. Published in 2012.
1410:, Minister of Grain Products, on 7 September and 23 September. Dvinski warned Stalin of the catastrophic failure of the harvest of 1946 and warned to maximize the amount and minimize the consumption of available bread.
2085:
as recently as 1940. The 1946–1947 famine has thus spawned a considerable amount of academic work done specifically on the Moldavian SSR during the time. Among the most notable scholars of the Moldavian famine is
1436:
for February 1947 to address agricultural problems in the postwar period. At this plenum, it revealed itself that the Soviet government lacked the personnel with the necessary expertise on agricultural issues, as
166:
by the government of Ukraine in 2006, and since then, they have been recognized as a genocide by the governments of several other countries. The Soviet state had received considerable international aid during the
875:(for the case of another war). Early-to-mid 1947 was the high point of casualties during the famine. Deaths reached a first peak in March 1947, then a second peak in May and June 1947, and declined afterwards.
75:
The drought of 1946 stifled the desperately needed recovery of Soviet agriculture, and resulted in a harvest significantly lower than the harvest of 1945. The drought was described as the most severe since
1181:, exact statements about Soviet grain yields at the time are made more difficult by the thorough falsification of Soviet government statistics, some of which were taken as authentic by other historians.
887:
the Soviet Union, and forced many parents to abandon their infants. Children were one of the most affected demographics, and toddlers and infants especially feature prominently among famine fatalities.
1597:
stations and 180 barracks administered by organizations other than the Red Cross. While some of these institutions were of considerable effectiveness, some emergency responses, like those organized by
1185:
opinions on whether the outcome would be positive or negative. Much more surprising to the general public than the abolition of rationing was the fact that December 1947 also saw the finalization of
2149:) the Ukrainian government's willingness to aggressively pursue a specific role of tragedy and suffering for the Ukrainian people during the Soviet famines had varied with changing governments in
1808:
Manchuria. We believed that Russia proper was in no critical need, and even hoped that, in view of the gigantic amounts they had plundered, they might help out with some supplies for the hungry.
948:, a publication that has been heavily criticized for its otherwise very uncharitable depiction of Soviet history, but ends up being of the lower mainstream estimations of the famine's death toll.
1535:
pedagogue having eleven years of experience? It would be sad. It's a pity. I worked in the Urals for six years without a rest forging victory and now I have to die of hunger in my home village.
86:
The famine peaked in early 1947 and declined in severity over the course of the year. After the reasonably successful harvest of 1947, mass starvation disappeared by the beginning of 1948. The
4177:
Filtzer, Donald (2008). "The 1947 Food Crisis and its Aftermath: Worker and Peasant Consumption in Non-Famine Regions of the RSFSR". In Filtzer, Donald; Goldman, Wendy Z.; et al. (eds.).
2133:
While the 1946–1947 famine is often overshadowed in Ukrainian conversations by its deadlier 1932–1933 counterpart, it remains part of the conversation about the Soviet legacy in Ukraine. The
1980:
1703:
1395:
depending on region) since 1940. Introduction of these economic reforms was scheduled for 16 September 1946, and the changes caused significant confusion and concern even among party cadres.
1973:, resulting in coordinated famine relief efforts for several European countries, but not the Soviet Union, partially due to Soviet government secrecy about the food shortages in the USSR.
2029:
16 December 1946: Harry S. Truman is clearly informed about the ongoing famine in the Soviet Union, but decides to not take a proactive stance in offering assistance to the Soviet Union.
1690:
be sent to Ukraine to "help" Khrushchev. The following month, the Ukrainian Central Committee removed Khrushchev as party leader in favor of Kaganovich, while retaining him as premier.
79:
The Soviet government was overzealous in its determination to advance economic reform, and reduced eligibility to ration cards in late 1946, while at the same time raising food prices.
2204:). Zima had previously published articles about the famine in the early 1990s. Drawing parallels between the famine and other political proceedings of the late Stalin era (like the
4275:
2809:
2005:
1 October 1946: The government decree "On Economizing in the Consumption of Grain" comes into force, drastically reducing the number of citizens eligible to receive ration cards.
281:
The war had disrupted regular access to a secure food supply for many Soviet citizens, especially those under German occupation or caught in protracted sieges (most famously the
4729:"The Soviet Famine of 1946–47 in Global and Historical Perspective by Nicholas Ganson, and: The Patriotism of Despair: Nation, War, and Loss in Russia by Serguei Alex (review)"
1666:
in 1939, whose less collectivized agriculture provided relief to the rest of Soviet Ukraine. In a few days in October 1947 alone, some 76,192 Ukrainians were deported into the
4849:
871:
January 1946), but this was not all available to meet the needs of the population, as parts of the grain load were marked up for export, as transitional grain stocks, or as
1387:
with the reduced grain procurements, individual peasants were left with less food, and procurements went from accounting for 42.3% of the harvest in 1945 to 44.2% in 1946.
1966:
1822:
1474:
affected, urban industrial enterprises in various cities also suffered. By 1 March 1947, 3,789 cases of dystrophy were recorded in the five major factories of the city of
1433:
1742:
volunteered to work for the organization to raise funds for the Soviet war effort. The U.S. government also channeled civilian relief assistance to the USSR through the
3912:
Suny, Ronald Grigor (2006). "Reading Russia and the Soviet Union in the twentieth century: how the 'West' wrote its history of the USSR". In Suny, Ronald Grigor (ed.).
1200:
was massive during the famine, with hundreds of thousands of children dying before their first birthday. The situation of children, especially of the homeless youths (
1391:
bread (a substantially more expensive category), the prices of ration bread doubled or even tripled, whereas commercial prices decreased by only between 10% and 20%.
2359:
776:
As had already happened in the 1930s, the Soviet government in the 1940s once again undertook large-scale grain exports in spite of the growing food shortages. The
278:(патронат, "protectorship") program to house orphaned children, housing some 600,000 during the war years, but the number of hungry children was still increasing.
1931:
1743:
1671:
1576:
860:
847:
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analysis of domestic and global political contexts as well as larger Russian history, but who also noted Ganson's overreliance on sources affiliated with the
2082:
1987:(FAO). The Soviet Union, fearing loss of national sovereignty due to the statistical data required by the FAO to be provided by members, declines membership.
1170:
1469:
the phrase "provisioning problems". Likewise, the phrasing "starvation" was usually avoided as a cause of death, in favor of terms such as "dystrophy". The
1288:). Cities around the entire union were affected by bread distribution breakdowns, but tight clusters of such incidents were especially notable in southern
839:
2408:
791:
Apart from the continued export of food, the Soviet government also failed to make use of all available methods of food import. Food requisitions in the
701:
1802:, who likely chose passivity over assertive offers of famine relief to allow the Soviet Union to damage itself on the backdrop of the upcoming Cold War.
2189:
179:
While each famine had elements which made it unique, all three of them were partially aggravated by the ideologically driven government policy of the
4096:
2287:
1683:
1593:
1507:
142:
This "triune famine" resulted in millions of casualties by starvation, and it also left lasting cultural and economic scars on the affected regions.
52:
were also affected with 500,000 deaths. Elsewhere, malnutrition was widespread but famine was averted. The famine is notable for very high levels of
732:
the countryside, and resulted in massive material damages. The number of agricultural implements and tractors was greatly reduced from 1940 in 1946.
2345:
288:
Payment and wages, which were partially given in grain and partially in money, had also stagnated or declined. In various areas, particularly the
2372:
1407:
4152:
1951:
1945 to 1946: Food shortages in the Soviet Union persist. Government efforts to increase the accessibility of food are only partially effective.
3048:
2146:
1998:
fails to disclose the level of severity of the food shortages in the USSR, and again misses an opportunity to request international assistance.
1153:
The 1946 harvest of all major food crops collapsed. Grains were 64%, sunflowers 56%, sugar beets 42%, and potatoes 69% of the harvest of 1940.
1020:
1166:
1015:
Assuming a number of just over 1 million victims, this makes the 1946–1947 somewhat equivalent in absolute numbers to the more conservative
2061:
Within the context of Soviet famines, the 1946–1947 famine is often overshadowed by the amount of attention given to the 1932–1933 famine.
1610:
1398:
Beginning on 16 September 1946, the frustration over increase of prices began to unload itself in occasional local strikes, for example in
1297:
1160:
Soviet expansion after World War II expanded the harvest areas, but the 1946 harvest was still the second-lowest harvest in Soviet history.
959:
890:
In summer 1947, rumors spread that ration prices would once again rise on 15 July, leading to yet another run on the stores and the banks.
345:
297:
45:
266:
Many children in the Soviet Union were left orphaned by the war, with many other losing one of their parents (usually the fathers). These
4844:
4839:
2049:
1207:
The number of hungry children increased drastically during the last four months of 1946, when food shortages worsened, and the amount of
924:
122:
87:
4284:
2818:
1525:
implicit support for the policy by Stalin somewhat appeased those parts of the civilian population that were influenced by the leader's
1485:
Much more surprising to the general public than the abolition of rationing was the fact that December 1947 also saw the finalization of
1840:, sent a letter to Stalin on 6 May 1946 to request Soviet contributions to UNRRA to be increased. Stalin rejected this on 16 May 1946.
1686:
between 1938 and 1947. However, Khrushchev's political standing was damaged by the famine, and in February 1947, Stalin suggested that
82:
To avoid the appearance of global weakness, the Soviet government continued food exports and declined to seek international assistance.
2042:
1622:
1486:
1233:
1186:
895:
803:
2073:
at the time) was perhaps the only part of the Soviet Union that was more affected by the 1946–1947 famine than it was by either the
1954:
1946: The drought of 1946 ravages the year's harvest. Harvests decline by 20% from 1945, putting them around 60% the levels of 1940.
1718:
The famine came at a time when the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union was rapidly deteriorating after the
2246:
had the priorities of the government been different, there might have been no famine (or a much smaller one) despite the drought.
2026:
December 1946: Famine begins to appear on a massive scale in the state farm sector. Rapid growth of starvation deaths in the USSR.
270:(беспризорные, "homeless") became a massive societal and economic problem, with 36,000 homeless children wandering the streets of
1976:
May 1946: The Soviet government issues the state reconstruction and development bond, at an initial value of 20 billion rubles.
1572:
1526:
1293:
963:
780:
demanded grain exports, and the Soviet Union was at times supported by the Western powers in this endeavor. In March 1946, the
49:
255:
large numbers of parents abandoning their children, and children became one of the primary victim demographics of the famine.
4070:
4007:
3737:
1650:
was one of the areas most affected by the famine, especially in the harvest-failure regions. Harshly treated by the previous
1252:) was sold out in two hours. In March 1946, Soviet cities that were affected by significant food shortages included Molotov,
4124:
2196:) what is, according to Elena Zubkova and Nicholas Ganson, the first full-length monograph about the famine in 1996, titled
1016:
4809:
4031:
Gatrell, Peter (2006). "Economic and demographic change: Russia's age of economic extremes". In Suny, Ronald Grigor (ed.).
1655:
777:
581:
192:
158:
or the "terror famine," the proceedings of this famine which occurred across most of the Soviet Union, most notably in the
32:
The estimates of victim numbers vary, ranging from several hundred thousand to 2 million. Recent estimates from historian
2542:
2339:
2324:
2070:
1675:
1647:
1635:
1588:
1289:
971:
967:
914:
had serious problems properly restoring their bread supply, leading to public violence and riots. Several cities saw the
489:
289:
159:
41:
37:
2362:
wrote a Russian-language article about the 1946–1947 drought and famine in 1992. It was republished in English in 2014.
2141:, to resolve the popular resentment at the Soviet famines, including the 1946–1947 famine. Before 2014 (the year of the
1546:
whose husbands died in World War II) were particularly affected, as were orphaned children who lost both their parents.
4829:
4605:
3888:
3853:
650:
558:
301:
94:
2356:, titled "The 1947 Food Crisis and Its Aftermath: Worker and Peasant Consumption in Non-Famine Regions of the RSFSR".
1670:
on the backdrop of growing dissent regarding the famine. Along with Belarus, Ukraine was one of the regions where the
127:
The Soviet famine was the third and final of the major Soviet famines which occurred between the 1920s and the 1940s.
4819:
4814:
4783:
4640:
4338:
4223:
4188:
4108:
4040:
3953:
3921:
3678:
3650:
3625:
3481:
3364:
3336:
3308:
3146:
3024:
2789:
2725:
2505:
2393:
1984:
1707:
894:
or negative. Much more surprising to the general public was the fact that December 1947 also saw the finalization of
673:
604:
3472:
Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Chapter 3: Food Shortages and Ration Reforms in the Towns and Cities: Moscow and Beyond".
1441:, himself largely ignorant of agriculture, was put in charge of the Agricultural Section of the Central Committee.
867:
Soviet secret services, who intercepted a growing number of civilians' letters voicing discontent and desperation.
535:
2327:
and his failure to portray the suffering of Soviet peasants as vividly as the conflict between Truman and Stalin.
1232:
After 1945, the Soviet government attempted sweeping monetary and economic reforms (which eventually led into the
802:
After 1945, the Soviet government attempted sweeping monetary and economic reforms (which eventually led into the
72:
of the war, especially food shortages, lasted beyond August 1945 and were still pressing issues in summer of 1946.
2388:
2138:
2134:
2074:
1898:
1877:
1754:
627:
512:
260:
168:
150:, as its own famine, which would make the famine of 1946–1947 the fourth rather than the third major famine. The
114:
110:
1798:
In regards to American action during the Soviet famine of 1946–1947, a peculiar role is taken by U.S. President
1627:
154:, which mainly lasted from 1930 to 1933, has attracted considerable attention. Sometimes incorrectly called the
3797:
3573:
3111:
3076:
2641:
2398:
2263:
in 2000. In it, Ellman uses the "entitlement approach" in explaining the economics of famines, as developed by
2260:
2162:
2107:
2078:
2008:
October 1946: The planned amount of bread is scaled back by the Soviet government by tens of thousands of tons.
1938:
1905:
1758:
724:
172:
151:
118:
2279:
1540:
Letter to the RSFSR Education Committee by the female principal of Shemen elementary school (early 1947),
935:
The exact number of victims is hard to determine, and victim numbers have been estimated at different levels.
29:
that lasted from mid-1946 to the winter of 1947 to 1948. It was also the last major famine in Soviet history.
4834:
1719:
863:, which was especially active in Ukraine and Belarus before it was forced to cease operations in early 1947.
2302:, whose American administration Ganson interprets as having deliberately abstained from offering assistance.
2848:
1674:
was the most active between 1945 and 1947 to combat malnourishment and famine. The 1946–1947 famine in the
1549:
Between November and December 1946, the Ministry of State Security intercepted and copied 4,616 letters in
218:
212:
208:
163:
3702:
723:
Agriculture and the role of the peasantry were decisively changed during the Stalin era. Not only had the
4035:. The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 383–410.
3673:. The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–216.
3645:. The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 168–191.
3359:. The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 222–228.
3331:. The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 155–157.
2235:
2115:
1429:
1421:
943:
4824:
2918:"Which Genocide Matters the Most? An Intersectionality Analysis of the Canadian Museum of Human Rights"
1639:
1598:
101:, and it took until the 1990s for the 1946–1947 famine to receive notable historiographical attention.
98:
3916:. The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5–54.
3299:
Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Chapter 5: The Famine, the Dawn of the Cold War, and the Politics of Food".
3641:
Ball, Alan (2006). "Building a new state and society: NEP, 1921–1928". In Suny, Ronald Grigor (ed.).
2555:
Union (500,000) (Ellman 2000: 611–617, Vallin et al. 2012: 70). Elsewhere, despite Truman's warning,
1174:
2218:
1946–1947 there would have been great difficulties in importing any amount of grain in these years.
2350:
Soviet Workers and Late Stalinism: Labour and Restoration of the Stalinist System After World War 2
2091:
1498:, but recovery to these prewar levels was an important prestige project for the Soviet government.
36:, show that 900,000 perished during the famine. Regions that were especially affected included the
2259:
wrote an article, titled "The 1947 Soviet Famine and the Entitlement Approach to Famines", in the
2168:
2038:
July 1947: Rumors of a renewed price hike cause a run on the banks and stores in the Soviet Union.
313:
Average amount of grain and money distributed to collective farmers per earned workday per region
4326:
Dușmanul de clasă: represiuni politice, violență și rezistență în R(A)SS Moldovenească, 1924-1956
2127:
1446:
750:
2856:
2165:, it took until the 1990s for the 1946–1947 famine to become a field of study in its own right.
2023:
in bread raised to 40% (25% in Moscow and Leningrad), further reducing the quality of the bread.
1750:
deliveries. American assistance added 5% to Soviet resources in 1942, and 10% in 1943 and 1944.
4804:
3355:
Barber, John; Harrison, Mark (2006). "Patriotic War, 1941–1945". In Suny, Ronald Grigor (ed.).
3068:
The Big Show in Bololand: the American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921
1663:
792:
240:
4333:] (in Romanian). Vladimir Tismaneanu (1st ed.). Chișinău: Cartier. pp. 289–333.
2879:"Zwischen Politisierung und Historisierung: Der Holodomor in der ukrainischen Historiographie"
3877:
Werth, Nicolas (2015). "Apogee and Crisis in the Gulag System". In Courtois, Stephane (ed.).
3403:
2365:
2268:
2223:
1178:
1023:, where even the lowest estimates generally stay over a number of at least 5 million deaths.
4155:[70 years since the famine in Bessarabia: Cannibalism caused by the Soviet regime].
2418:
1916:
1312:
4331:
Class Enemy. Political Repressions, Violence and Resistance in Moldavian (A)SSR, 1924‒1956
3219:"Towards Explaining Soviet Famine of 1931–3: Political and Natural Factors in Perspective"
8:
2423:
1991:
1844:
1837:
1731:
33:
3408:"The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947, the Weather and Human Agency in Historical Perspective"
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4706:
4698:
4576:
4518:
4479:
4437:
4388:
4250:
4125:"A Moldavian Holodomor? The Great Famine in Soviet Moldova, 1946-1947 | Global Studies"
3435:
3246:
3199:
3042:
2992:
2953:
2945:
2898:
2636:] (in Russian). Moscow: Institute of Russian History, Russian Academy of Sciences.
2413:
1945:
1884:
1727:
1212:
deserted their workplace, etc.) increased from 57,260 (Q2, 1946) to 77,291 (Q3, 1946).
843:
282:
3786:
Zubkova, Elena (1998). "The Currency Reform of 1947: The Views from Above and Below".
1734:), organized in 1941, in its war efforts against Germany. Prominent Americans such as
4779:
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4710:
4690:
4646:
4636:
4611:
4601:
4568:
4526:
4510:
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4429:
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4219:
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4104:
4076:
4066:
4036:
4013:
4003:
3999:
Stalin's Last Generation: Soviet Post-War Youth and the Emergence of Mature Socialism
3959:
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3859:
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3793:
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3666:
3646:
3621:
3579:
3569:
3477:
3439:
3427:
3360:
3332:
3324:
3304:
3250:
3238:
3191:
3152:
3142:
3117:
3107:
3082:
3072:
3030:
3020:
2984:
2957:
2937:
2890:
2785:
2721:
2647:
2637:
2599:
2501:
1891:
1739:
1679:
1631:
981:
230:
3016:
The Russian Job: the Forgotten Story of how America saved the Soviet Union from Ruin
2780:
Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Chapter 1: Tracing the Roots of the Failed 1946 Harvest".
2114:") resulted in lasting and severe cultural and demographic damages in Ukraine, with
4740:
4682:
4560:
4419:
4302:
3613:
3419:
3230:
3183:
2929:
2591:
2209:
2205:
2193:
1687:
1554:
3407:
3423:
2428:
2299:
1962:
1856:
1799:
1775:
1659:
1550:
1438:
1241:
1197:
711:
468:
53:
3983:
Demographic disasters and crises in Russia in the first half of the 20th century
1156:
757:
extreme shortage of goods reducing the overall accessibility of consumer goods.
4153:"70 de ani de la foamea din Basarabia: Canibalism provocat de regimul sovietic"
2716:
Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Chapter 2: Exploring the Causes of Child Mortality".
2595:
2256:
2119:
1970:
1826:
1813:
1789:
1579:
was the most active between 1945 and 1947 to combat malnourishment and famine.
1521:
1376:
955:
449:
411:
373:
293:
180:
143:
4686:
4424:
4407:
4305:[A secret and hidden history: the famine of 1946-1947 in Bessarabia].
4251:"Register of the United States President's Famine Emergency Committee records"
4198:
3607:
3234:
3187:
3034:
2933:
2559:
was widespread but famine was averted (Aldous 2010, Collingham 2011: 467–474).
1601:
M. Sukharev in April 1947, when the famine deaths were already in full swing.
4798:
4752:
4694:
4671:"Review of The Soviet Famine of 1946–47 in Global and Historical Perspective"
4650:
4615:
4572:
4514:
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3617:
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3156:
3086:
2988:
2941:
2894:
2852:
2603:
2579:
2095:
1995:
1860:
1769:
1177:, thus increasing the amount of land to harvest. As pointed out by historian
1011:, (Zima, 1996) with at least 500,000 deaths by starvation in the RSFSR alone.
880:
781:
769:
430:
184:
90:
was adopted by the Soviet government in late 1948 in response to the famine.
4564:
4233:
3842:
Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Placing the Famine of 1946–47 in Global Context".
3807:
3583:
3218:
3121:
2651:
1783:
4530:
3014:
2556:
1924:
1920:
1281:
1245:
796:
222:
147:
68:
26:
4744:
4630:
4595:
4324:
4060:
3997:
3943:
3843:
3729:
A Failed Empire: the Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev
3727:
3669:(2006). "The Russian civil war, 1917–1922". In Suny, Ronald Grigor (ed.).
3327:(2006). "The Russian civil war, 1917–1922". In Suny, Ronald Grigor (ed.).
2335:
2087:
4218:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 184–213.
4213:
3787:
3563:
3101:
2627:
2537:
2264:
2130:, which then in turn led back to hunger in form of the 1946–1947 famine.
2123:
1735:
1726:. The U.S. has assisted the Soviet Union using organizations such as the
1613:
was affected by the famine in several regions, especially the southwest.
1495:
1253:
911:
851:
234:
64:
Several leading causes of the famine have been identified by historians.
4702:
4670:
4580:
4548:
4522:
4498:
4483:
4459:
4392:
4368:
4303:"O istorie secretizată și ocultată: foametea din 1946-1947 în Basarabia"
4283:(in Russian). Yekaterinburg: Russian Academy of Sciences. Archived from
2996:
2973:"Sources and Resources on the Famine in Ukraine's State Archival System"
2972:
2949:
2917:
2902:
2878:
2817:(in Russian). Yekaterinburg: Russian Academy of Sciences. Archived from
2342:
in a 2014 publication about Soviet governmental repression in the area.
3979:Демографические катастрофы и кризисы в России в первой половине XX века
2142:
1747:
1380:
986:
392:
4728:
4178:
3789:
Russia after the War: Hopes, Illusions, and Disappointments, 1945-1957
3565:
Russia after the War: Hopes, Illusions, and Disappointments, 1945-1957
3203:
3171:
3138:
Heroes and Villains: Creating National History in Contemporary Ukraine
2845:
2377:
Russia after the War: Hopes, Illusions, and Disappointments, 1945–1957
274:
alone at the beginning of 1945. The Soviet government worked with the
3878:
3136:
3066:
2403:
2111:
1909:
1753:
Previously, the United States had also sent aid to Russia during the
1651:
1273:
1261:
1249:
916:
728:
246:
225:
between 1941 and 1945, and suffered more than 25 million casualties.
155:
135:
97:, the 1946–1947 famine has been largely overshadowed by the previous
3562:
Zubkova, Elena (1998). "The Hungry Years: The Famine of 1946–1947".
3103:
The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine
2294:. Ganson's book has become a standard work on the 1946–1947 famine.
765:
130:
4776:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
4597:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
3845:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
3732:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 63–69.
3474:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
3301:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
2782:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
2718:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
2498:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
2292:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
2282:
The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective
1746:, established in 1943, and shipped military support in form of the
1723:
1475:
1368:
1224:
planned to expand considerably in 1947, with severe understaffing.
920:
deployed to break up fights and unrest in the lines before stores.
4180:
A Dream Deferred: New Studies in Russian and Soviet Labour History
3726:
Zubok, Vladislav M. (2007). "Establishing the Occupation Regime".
2354:
A Dream Deferred: New Studies in Russian and Soviet Labour History
2352:, as well as a chapter he contributed to the 2008 collective work
1658:
had caused crushing agricultural shortages and starvation, it was
718:
146:
counts the time which spanned the years from 1941 to 1945, during
4369:"Holodomor und Nation: Der Hunger im ukrainischen Geschichtsbild"
1372:
1285:
1277:
707:
300:, these declines were massive. Only a handful of areas, like the
3848:(1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 137–147.
2016:
1744:
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA)
1470:
1364:
1269:
1265:
1257:
1189:
in the country, including a currency reform to curb inflation.
898:
in the country, including a currency reform to curb inflation.
861:
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA)
785:
271:
44:
with 100,000 dead. Other parts of the Soviet Union such as the
4499:"The Great Famine of 1932–1933: Consequences and Implications"
2857:
The 1947 Soviet Famine and the Entitlement Approach to Famines
2238:
The 1947 Soviet Famine and the Entitlement Approach to Famines
1506:
The Soviet Red Cross and Red Crescent, officially part of the
2629:
Golod v SSSR 1946-1947 godov: proiskhozhdeniie i posledstviia
2198:
Golod v SSSR 1946–1947 godov: proiskhozhdeniie i posledstviia
2020:
1667:
1462:
3701:"Зерно (кроме крупяного)" [Grain (except cereals)].
3135:
Marples., David R. (2007). "Soviet Revisionism, 1988-1991".
2496:
Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Introduction: Famine of Victors".
4215:
A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End
4101:
The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the politics of culture
2150:
2118:
gaining traction after national independence. According to
1864:
1821:
On 1 March 1946, the Truman Administration established the
1399:
3826:
What Do We Know About the Holodomor: New Research Results
2290:
published a 218-page study of the famine in 2009, titled
2012:
3606:
Filtzer, Donald (2002). "The food crisis of 1946–1947".
4103:, Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 2000.
2156:
1932:
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
4065:. Harlow, England: Pearson/Longman. pp. 277–295.
2634:
Famine in the USSR 1946-1947: Origins and Consequences
2202:
Famine in the USSR 1946–1947: Origins and Consequences
2171:
Famine in the USSR 1946–1947: Origins and Consequences
927:
in response to the damages of the drought and famine.
923:
On 20 October 1948, the Soviet government adopted the
4733:
Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History
3141:. Central European University Press. pp. 36–42.
3106:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 43–57.
4850:
Humanitarian crises in the aftermath of World War II
4632:
Famine Politics in Maoist China and the Soviet Union
1424:, Soviet Minister of Agriculture, October 1946,
799:) were cut back at the height of the Soviet famine.
4002:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 34–41.
3880:
Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression
2409:
Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union
1870:
942:. This estimation is notable, as it is made in the
702:
Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union
4551:[Hunger and Crime in the USSR 1946–1947].
2338:wrote a chapter about the famine's effects in the
1036:Yields of various food crops, 100 kg/hectare
809:
1684:First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine
1508:International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
784:provided ships to carry 600,000 tons of grain to
695:
16:Lack of food distribution in the Eurasian country
4796:
4460:"Deleting the Holodomor: Ukraine Unmakes Itself"
2915:
2876:
2137:("Rukh") was formed in 1990, shortly before the
2116:accusations of genocide by the Soviet government
1248:). All the newly available bread in Stalingrad (
4635:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
2035:May to June 1947: Second peak of famine deaths.
1030:
719:Transformation of agriculture and the peasantry
304:, saw workers' pay increase from 1940 to 1945.
4600:(1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
4212:Kenez, Peter (2006). "The Age of Khrushchev".
3612:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–76.
3354:
2110:, the local Ukrainian variant being known as "
1019:, but both famines remain overshadowed by the
4294:
4092:
4090:
3942:Snyder, Timothy (2010). "Ethnic Cleansings".
2916:Hankivsky, Olena; Dhamoon, Rita Kaur (2013).
1990:29 August 1946: In a meeting with UNRRA head
1192:
930:
743:British Embassy in Moscow (8 July 1946),
202:
3945:Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin
706:In 1946, the Soviet Union was affected by a
4059:McCauley, Martin (2008). "High Stalinism".
3948:. New York: Basic Books. pp. 313–338.
3704:ВНЕШНЯЯ ТОРГОВЛЯ СССР В ПОСЛЕВОЕННЫЙ ПЕРИОД
2877:Vasil'ev, Valerij; Mark, Rudolf A. (2004).
2050:Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature
1981:International Emergency Food Council (IEFC)
1704:International Emergency Food Council (IEFC)
1017:mortality estimates of the 1921–1922 famine
925:Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature
187:governments, such as grain requisitioning,
88:Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature
4549:"ГОЛОД И ПРЕСТУПНОСТЬ В СССР 1946–1947 гг"
4087:
3996:Furst, Juliane (2010). "Children of War".
3402:
3216:
3047:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1708:UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
1693:
1638:during the famine of 1946–1947. He became
4423:
4408:"Stalin's Intention and Lemkin's Silence"
4273:
3709:Foreign Trade of the USSR in the Post-War
3169:
3064:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2807:
2043:Monetary reform in the Soviet Union, 1947
4778:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 149–151.
4628:
4496:
4150:
4058:
3985:] (in Russian). Сибирский хронограф.
3823:
3781:
3779:
3777:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3134:
3099:
2500:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. xii–xix.
2375:wrote about the 1946–1947 famine in her
2348:wrote about the famine in his 2002 book
2032:March 1947: First peak of famine deaths.
2011:1 November 1946: Combined proportion of
1626:
1155:
838:
764:
239:
129:
4774:Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Conclusion".
4176:
4030:
3792:. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 51–56.
3785:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3665:
3605:
3568:. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 40–50.
3561:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3519:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3323:
3303:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 95–115.
3294:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3280:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2578:Volkov, Ivan Mefodievich (1992-10-01).
2535:
1678:was a staging ground for the career of
123:History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)
4797:
4773:
4722:
4720:
4668:
4664:
4662:
4660:
4593:
4542:
4540:
4405:
4318:
4316:
4245:
4243:
4172:
4170:
4168:
4166:
4146:
4144:
4119:
4117:
3976:
3941:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3841:
3837:
3835:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3511:
3509:
3507:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3499:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3476:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 47–67.
3471:
3398:
3396:
3350:
3348:
3298:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3060:
3058:
3008:
3006:
2970:
2828:
2779:
2720:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 27–46.
2715:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2577:
2495:
1561:
760:
4457:
4453:
4451:
4366:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4211:
4062:The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union
4054:
4052:
3995:
3876:
3819:
3817:
3725:
3696:
3694:
3692:
3690:
3446:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3384:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3012:
2922:Canadian Journal of Political Science
2872:
2870:
2868:
2784:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 3–26.
2775:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2106:The Soviet famines (particularly the
1961:1 March 1946: The U.S. government of
1623:Soviet famine of 1946–1947 in Ukraine
1514:
317:
4767:
4726:
4546:
4322:
4300:
3911:
3754:
3640:
2803:
2801:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2625:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2517:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2157:Bibliography of the 1946–1947 famine
217:The Soviet Union was engaged on the
173:American Relief Administration (ARA)
4717:
4657:
4537:
4313:
4267:
4240:
4163:
4141:
4114:
3930:
3832:
3590:
3490:
3345:
3257:
3055:
3003:
2658:
2580:"The Drought and Famine of 1946-47"
2543:Centre for Economic Policy Research
1730:(RWR ("Russian Relief"), headed by
1706:was founded under the aegis of the
1465:to take power in the major cities.
1227:
1021:death toll of the 1932–1933 famines
958:, 2019) with 500,000 deaths in the
13:
4845:1947 disasters in the Soviet Union
4840:1946 disasters in the Soviet Union
4448:
4355:
4049:
3814:
3687:
3373:
2865:
2610:
2179:for a bowl of soup on the fields.
2056:
814:
772:, Soviet leader from 1924 to 1953.
14:
4861:
4406:Etkind, Alexander (August 2018).
3609:Soviet Workers and Late Stalinism
2798:
2734:
2564:
2514:
2440:
2048:20 October 1948: Adoption of the
1985:Food and Agriculture Organization
1575:was one of the regions where the
1501:
4183:. Peter Lang. pp. 343–384.
3217:Wheatcroft, S. G. (2004-04-01).
3172:"The Soviet Famine of 1932-1934"
2147:Crimea by the Russian Federation
1983:is formed by the United Nations
1941:, ending World War II in Europe.
1871:Timeline of the 1946–1947 famine
1823:Famine Emergency Committee (FEC)
1782:
1768:
1713:
1599:Moldavian SSR Minister of Health
193:forced economic collectivization
4622:
4587:
4490:
4399:
4205:
4151:Ciochină, Simion (2016-07-29).
4024:
3989:
3970:
3905:
3870:
3719:
3659:
3634:
3317:
3210:
3163:
3128:
3093:
3065:Patenaude, Bertrand M. (2002).
2964:
2909:
2139:dissolution of the Soviet Union
810:History of the 1946–1947 famine
261:Central Statistical Directorate
4301:Ursu, Valentina (2017-01-07).
2860:Cambridge Journal of Economics
2330:
2261:Cambridge Journal of Economics
1969:(FEC) under the leadership of
1843:Individual Americans, such as
696:Weather conditions and drought
229:major military conflicts, the
1:
4412:Contemporary European History
3071:. Stanford University Press.
2434:
2394:1921–1922 famine in Tatarstan
2184:Venjamin F. Zima (1996),
1863:(1948), and the formation of
1434:Central Committee of the CPSU
1406:letters he had received from
104:
4458:Motyl, Alexander J. (2010).
3883:. Harvard University Press.
3424:10.1080/09668136.2012.691725
2313:Nicholas Ganson (2009),
2135:People's Movement of Ukraine
2101:
1031:Drought and harvest failures
213:Eastern Front (World War II)
209:Soviet Union in World War II
7:
4810:Famines in the Soviet Union
3170:Dalrymple, Dana G. (1964).
2389:Russian famine of 1921–1922
2382:
2251:Michael Ellman (2000),
2081:famines, as modern Moldova
1930:1943: Establishment of the
1899:Russian famine of 1921–1922
1878:Russian famine of 1891–1892
1587:Between 1946 and 1947, the
1582:
1430:Andrey Andreyevich Andreyev
1422:Andrey Andreyevich Andreyev
169:Russian famine of 1921–1922
115:1921–1923 famine in Ukraine
111:Russian famine of 1921–1922
40:with 300,000 dead, and the
10:
4866:
4277:Introduction in Geoecology
3019:(1st ed.). New York.
2811:Introduction in Geoecology
2596:10.2753/RSH1061-1983310231
2584:Russian Studies in History
2399:Soviet famine of 1932–1933
2267:in 1977 case study of the
2108:Soviet famine of 1932–1933
2064:
1967:Famine Emergency Committee
1906:Soviet famine of 1932–1933
1836:Truman, on request of the
1640:Leader of the Soviet Union
1620:
1616:
1566:
1193:Children during the famine
931:Victimology and death toll
725:Soviet famine of 1930–1933
699:
206:
203:The impact of World War II
119:Soviet famine of 1930–1933
108:
25:was a major famine in the
23:Soviet famine of 1946–1947
4830:Economic crises in Europe
4687:10.1017/S0037677900010251
4594:Ganson, Nicholas (2009).
4503:Harvard Ukrainian Studies
4497:Graziosi, Andrea (2001).
4425:10.1017/S0960777318000334
4274:Chibilyov, A. A. (1988).
3235:10.1080/07409710490491447
3188:10.1080/09668136408410364
3100:Conquest, Robert (1986).
2977:Harvard Ukrainian Studies
2934:10.1017/S000842391300111X
2808:Chibilyov, A. A. (1988).
2169:Venjamin F. Zima (1996):
2163:its 1932–1933 counterpart
2052:by the Soviet government.
1656:economic collectivization
1604:
1487:the 1947 monetary reforms
1187:the 1947 monetary reforms
1167:annexed the Baltic States
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1040:
896:the 1947 monetary reforms
846:soldier serving with the
670:
647:
624:
601:
578:
555:
532:
509:
486:
342:
323:
320:
312:
244:Soviet children during a
134:Famine victim during the
59:
4820:1947 in the Soviet Union
4815:1946 in the Soviet Union
4669:Duskin, J. Eric (2010).
4629:Wemheuer, Felix (2014).
4367:Jilge, Wilfried (2004).
3618:10.1017/cbo9780511497162
2971:Boriak, Hennady (2004).
2536:Ó Gráda, Cormac (2019).
2280:Nicholas Ganson (2009):
2236:Michael Ellmann (2000):
2092:Moldova State University
1662:, only annexed from the
1571:Along with Ukraine, the
1447:Machine tractor stations
906:about their conditions.
751:machine tractor stations
164:recognized as a genocide
4565:10.3406/slave.1994.6217
4553:Revue des études slaves
3824:Wolowyna, Oleh (2016).
3013:Smith, Douglas (2019).
2360:Ivan Mefodievich Volkov
2083:was annexed by the USSR
1694:International reactions
1654:of 1932–1933, in which
1284:, and Ust-Kamenogorsk (
1234:monetary reform of 1947
1171:Bessarabia and Bucovina
945:Black Book of Communism
804:monetary reform of 1947
3977:Isupov, V. A. (2000).
3404:Wheatcroft, Stephen G.
2310:
2248:
2220:
2181:
2161:Often overshadowed by
2145:and the annexation of
2069:Moldova (known as the
1948:, ending World War II.
1810:
1664:Second Polish Republic
1643:
1537:
1418:
1339:Soviet grain exports.
1161:
855:
793:Soviet occupation zone
773:
740:
251:
139:
4745:10.1353/kri.2013.0005
4727:Peri, Alexis (2013).
4033:The Twentieth Century
3914:The Twentieth Century
3671:The Twentieth Century
3643:The Twentieth Century
3357:The Twentieth Century
3329:The Twentieth Century
2538:"The famines of WWII"
2379:, published in 1998.
2366:Stephen G. Wheatcroft
2305:
2243:
2224:Stephen G. Wheatcroft
2215:
2176:
1805:
1722:and leading into the
1702:On 20 July 1946, the
1630:
1553:and 3,275 letters in
1532:
1413:
1179:Stephen G. Wheatcroft
1159:
842:
778:Fourth five-year plan
768:
735:
308:Worker pay by region
243:
133:
95:Soviet historiography
4835:20th-century famines
4547:Zima, V. F. (1994).
2626:Zima, V. F. (1996).
2419:Great Chinese Famine
1917:Operation Barbarossa
1313:Soviet grain exports
4323:Cașu, Igor (2014).
4307:Radio Europa Liberă
3412:Europe-Asia Studies
2862:24 (2000): 603–630.
2424:North Korean famine
1992:Fiorello La Guardia
1845:Fiorello La Guardia
1838:Combined Food Board
1755:famine of 1921–1922
1732:Edward Clark Carter
1562:History by republic
1527:cult of personality
1316:
1296:, and southwestern
1037:
970:and 100,000 in the
873:inviolable reserves
761:Government policies
309:
152:second major famine
4713:– via JSTOR.
4533:– via JSTOR.
4395:– via JSTOR.
3325:Raleigh, Donald J.
2905:– via JSTOR.
2414:Great Leap Forward
2269:1943 Bengal Famine
1979:20 July 1946: The
1944:2 September 1945:
1939:Germany surrenders
1885:Russian Revolution
1728:Russian War Relief
1644:
1634:was active in the
1515:Domestic reactions
1311:
1162:
1035:
856:
774:
307:
283:Siege of Leningrad
252:
140:
4825:Famines in Russia
4072:978-0-582-78465-9
4009:978-0-19-957506-0
3739:978-0-8078-8759-2
3667:Shearer, David R.
3223:Food and Foodways
1892:Russian Civil War
1740:Katharine Hepburn
1680:Nikita Khrushchev
1632:Nikita Khrushchev
1555:Stalingrad Oblast
1360:
1359:
1345:Excludes cereals.
1342:Millions of tons.
1151:
1150:
1059:1946 compared to
982:Timothy D. Snyder
966:, 200,000 in the
693:
692:
231:Russian Civil War
4857:
4790:
4789:
4771:
4765:
4764:
4724:
4715:
4714:
4681:(4): 1015–1016.
4666:
4655:
4654:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4591:
4585:
4584:
4544:
4535:
4534:
4509:(3/4): 157–165.
4494:
4488:
4487:
4455:
4446:
4445:
4427:
4403:
4397:
4396:
4364:
4353:
4352:
4320:
4311:
4310:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4282:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4262:
4261:
4247:
4238:
4237:
4209:
4203:
4202:
4174:
4161:
4160:
4148:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4135:
4129:sgs.stanford.edu
4121:
4112:
4094:
4085:
4084:
4056:
4047:
4046:
4028:
4022:
4021:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3974:
3968:
3967:
3939:
3928:
3927:
3909:
3903:
3902:
3874:
3868:
3867:
3839:
3830:
3829:
3821:
3812:
3811:
3783:
3752:
3751:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3698:
3685:
3684:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3603:
3588:
3587:
3559:
3488:
3487:
3469:
3444:
3443:
3400:
3371:
3370:
3352:
3343:
3342:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3296:
3255:
3254:
3229:(2–3): 107–136.
3214:
3208:
3207:
3167:
3161:
3160:
3132:
3126:
3125:
3097:
3091:
3090:
3062:
3053:
3052:
3046:
3038:
3010:
3001:
3000:
2983:(1/4): 117–147.
2968:
2962:
2961:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2874:
2863:
2843:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2816:
2805:
2796:
2795:
2777:
2732:
2731:
2713:
2656:
2655:
2623:
2608:
2607:
2575:
2562:
2561:
2551:
2550:
2533:
2512:
2511:
2493:
2314:
2252:
2227:
2210:Leningrad affair
2190:Venjamin F. Zima
2185:
1965:establishes the
1946:Japan surrenders
1817:
1786:
1772:
1688:Lazar Kaganovich
1573:Byelorussian SSR
1541:
1425:
1317:
1310:
1228:Economic history
1038:
1034:
1005:. (Ganson, 2009)
999:. (Isupov, 2000)
997:Around 1 million
978:Around 1 million
940:At least 500,000
744:
310:
306:
99:1930–1933 famine
50:Byelorussian SSR
4865:
4864:
4860:
4859:
4858:
4856:
4855:
4854:
4795:
4794:
4793:
4786:
4772:
4768:
4725:
4718:
4667:
4658:
4643:
4627:
4623:
4608:
4592:
4588:
4545:
4538:
4495:
4491:
4456:
4449:
4404:
4400:
4379:(12): 146–163.
4365:
4356:
4341:
4321:
4314:
4299:
4295:
4287:
4280:
4272:
4268:
4259:
4257:
4249:
4248:
4241:
4226:
4210:
4206:
4191:
4175:
4164:
4149:
4142:
4133:
4131:
4123:
4122:
4115:
4095:
4088:
4073:
4057:
4050:
4043:
4029:
4025:
4010:
3994:
3990:
3975:
3971:
3956:
3940:
3931:
3924:
3910:
3906:
3891:
3875:
3871:
3856:
3840:
3833:
3822:
3815:
3800:
3784:
3755:
3740:
3724:
3720:
3712:
3700:
3699:
3688:
3681:
3664:
3660:
3653:
3639:
3635:
3628:
3604:
3591:
3576:
3560:
3491:
3484:
3470:
3447:
3418:(6): 987–1005.
3401:
3374:
3367:
3353:
3346:
3339:
3322:
3318:
3311:
3297:
3258:
3215:
3211:
3168:
3164:
3149:
3133:
3129:
3114:
3098:
3094:
3079:
3063:
3056:
3040:
3039:
3027:
3011:
3004:
2969:
2965:
2914:
2910:
2889:(12): 164–182.
2875:
2866:
2844:
2829:
2821:
2814:
2806:
2799:
2792:
2778:
2735:
2728:
2714:
2659:
2644:
2624:
2611:
2576:
2565:
2548:
2546:
2534:
2515:
2508:
2494:
2441:
2437:
2429:List of famines
2385:
2333:
2316:
2312:
2300:Harry S. Truman
2288:Nicholas Ganson
2285:
2254:
2250:
2241:
2229:
2222:
2187:
2183:
2174:
2159:
2104:
2067:
2059:
2057:Cultural legacy
2041:December 1947:
1963:Harry S. Truman
1919:, entry of the
1873:
1857:Truman Doctrine
1819:
1812:
1800:Harry S. Truman
1796:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1779:
1778:
1776:Harry S. Truman
1773:
1757:in form of the
1716:
1696:
1660:Western Ukraine
1625:
1619:
1607:
1585:
1569:
1564:
1551:Voronezh Oblast
1543:
1539:
1517:
1504:
1439:Georgy Malenkov
1427:
1420:
1315:, 1946 to 1948
1292:, northwestern
1244:) and Molotov (
1242:Nizhny Novgorod
1230:
1198:Child mortality
1195:
1033:
933:
817:
815:General history
812:
763:
746:
742:
721:
712:Alexander Werth
704:
698:
469:Voronezh Oblast
324:Money (rubles)
250:air raid, 1941.
215:
205:
171:in form of the
125:
107:
62:
54:child mortality
17:
12:
11:
5:
4863:
4853:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4792:
4791:
4784:
4766:
4739:(1): 207–212.
4716:
4656:
4641:
4621:
4607:978-0230613331
4606:
4586:
4559:(4): 757–776.
4555:(in Russian).
4536:
4489:
4447:
4418:(3): 456–459.
4398:
4354:
4339:
4312:
4293:
4290:on 2009-03-27.
4266:
4239:
4224:
4204:
4189:
4162:
4140:
4113:
4086:
4071:
4048:
4041:
4023:
4008:
3988:
3969:
3954:
3929:
3922:
3904:
3890:978-5882380556
3889:
3869:
3855:978-0230613331
3854:
3831:
3813:
3798:
3753:
3738:
3718:
3686:
3679:
3658:
3651:
3633:
3626:
3589:
3574:
3489:
3482:
3445:
3406:(2012-07-03).
3372:
3365:
3344:
3337:
3316:
3309:
3256:
3209:
3182:(3): 250–284.
3176:Soviet Studies
3162:
3147:
3127:
3112:
3092:
3077:
3054:
3025:
3002:
2963:
2928:(4): 899–920.
2908:
2864:
2851:2012-12-05 at
2846:Michael Ellman
2827:
2824:on 2009-03-27.
2797:
2790:
2733:
2726:
2657:
2642:
2609:
2563:
2513:
2506:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2384:
2381:
2346:Donald Filtzer
2332:
2329:
2304:
2284:
2278:
2265:Amartya K. Sen
2257:Michael Ellman
2242:
2240:
2234:
2214:
2192:published (in
2175:
2173:
2167:
2158:
2155:
2120:Raphael Lemkin
2103:
2100:
2066:
2063:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2046:
2039:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2009:
2006:
2003:
1999:
1988:
1977:
1974:
1971:Herbert Hoover
1959:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1942:
1935:
1928:
1915:22 June 1941:
1913:
1908:(in Ukraine: "
1904:1932 to 1933:
1902:
1897:1921 to 1922:
1895:
1890:1917 to 1922:
1888:
1881:
1876:1891 to 1892:
1872:
1869:
1827:Herbert Hoover
1814:Herbert Hoover
1804:
1790:Herbert Hoover
1788:
1781:
1780:
1774:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1764:
1763:
1720:Grand Alliance
1715:
1712:
1695:
1692:
1621:Main article:
1618:
1615:
1606:
1603:
1584:
1581:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1531:
1516:
1513:
1503:
1502:Relief efforts
1500:
1412:
1377:Czechoslovakia
1358:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1336:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1229:
1226:
1194:
1191:
1175:eastern Poland
1149:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1032:
1029:
1013:
1012:
1006:
1003:1 to 2 million
1000:
994:
992:
975:
949:
932:
929:
816:
813:
811:
808:
762:
759:
734:
720:
717:
697:
694:
691:
690:
687:
684:
681:
678:
668:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
645:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
622:
621:
618:
615:
612:
609:
599:
598:
595:
592:
589:
586:
576:
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
553:
552:
549:
546:
543:
540:
530:
529:
526:
523:
520:
517:
507:
506:
503:
500:
497:
494:
484:
483:
480:
477:
474:
471:
465:
464:
461:
458:
455:
452:
450:Kalinin Oblast
446:
445:
442:
439:
436:
433:
427:
426:
423:
420:
417:
414:
412:Krasnodar Krai
408:
407:
404:
401:
398:
395:
389:
388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
374:Saratov Oblast
370:
369:
366:
363:
360:
357:
350:
340:
339:
336:
333:
330:
326:
325:
322:
319:
315:
314:
294:Saratov Oblast
204:
201:
144:Michael Ellman
106:
103:
84:
83:
80:
77:
73:
61:
58:
34:Cormac Ó Gráda
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4862:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4805:Joseph Stalin
4803:
4802:
4800:
4787:
4785:9780230613331
4781:
4777:
4770:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4723:
4721:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4675:Slavic Review
4672:
4665:
4663:
4661:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4642:9780300206784
4638:
4634:
4633:
4625:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4603:
4599:
4598:
4590:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4541:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4493:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4464:World Affairs
4461:
4454:
4452:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4402:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4375:(in German).
4374:
4370:
4363:
4361:
4359:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4340:9789975798280
4336:
4332:
4328:
4327:
4319:
4317:
4308:
4304:
4297:
4286:
4279:
4278:
4270:
4256:
4255:oac.cdlib.org
4252:
4246:
4244:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4225:0-511-16930-2
4221:
4217:
4216:
4208:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4190:9783035101737
4186:
4182:
4181:
4173:
4171:
4169:
4167:
4158:
4154:
4147:
4145:
4130:
4126:
4120:
4118:
4110:
4109:0-8179-9792-X
4106:
4102:
4098:
4093:
4091:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4068:
4064:
4063:
4055:
4053:
4044:
4042:9780521811446
4038:
4034:
4027:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4005:
4001:
4000:
3992:
3984:
3980:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3955:9780465002399
3951:
3947:
3946:
3938:
3936:
3934:
3925:
3923:9780521811446
3919:
3915:
3908:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3886:
3882:
3881:
3873:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3851:
3847:
3846:
3838:
3836:
3827:
3820:
3818:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3795:
3791:
3790:
3782:
3780:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3735:
3731:
3730:
3722:
3710:
3706:
3705:
3697:
3695:
3693:
3691:
3682:
3680:9780521811446
3676:
3672:
3668:
3662:
3654:
3652:9780521811446
3648:
3644:
3637:
3629:
3627:9780521815031
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3610:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3594:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3571:
3567:
3566:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3520:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3504:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3485:
3483:9780230613331
3479:
3475:
3468:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3391:
3389:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3377:
3368:
3366:9780521811446
3362:
3358:
3351:
3349:
3340:
3338:9780521811446
3334:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3312:
3310:9780230613331
3306:
3302:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3213:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3148:9789637326981
3144:
3140:
3139:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3109:
3105:
3104:
3096:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3061:
3059:
3050:
3044:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3026:9780374718381
3022:
3018:
3017:
3009:
3007:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2885:(in German).
2884:
2880:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2853:archive.today
2850:
2847:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2820:
2813:
2812:
2804:
2802:
2793:
2791:9780230613331
2787:
2783:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2729:
2727:9780230613331
2723:
2719:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2560:
2558:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2509:
2507:9780230613331
2503:
2499:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2439:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2374:
2373:Elena Zubkova
2370:
2367:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2341:
2340:Moldavian SSR
2337:
2328:
2326:
2320:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2301:
2295:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2239:
2233:
2228:
2225:
2219:
2213:
2211:
2207:
2206:Doctors' plot
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2180:
2172:
2166:
2164:
2154:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2071:Moldavian SSR
2062:
2051:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1996:Joseph Stalin
1993:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1886:
1882:
1879:
1875:
1874:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1861:Marshall Plan
1858:
1852:
1848:
1846:
1841:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1801:
1791:
1785:
1777:
1771:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1714:United States
1711:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1676:Ukrainian SSR
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1648:Ukrainian SSR
1641:
1637:
1636:Ukrainian SSR
1633:
1629:
1624:
1614:
1612:
1602:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1589:Moldavian SSR
1580:
1578:
1574:
1559:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1536:
1530:
1528:
1523:
1512:
1509:
1499:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1477:
1472:
1466:
1464:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1448:
1442:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1409:
1408:Boris Dvinski
1403:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1344:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1237:
1235:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1210:
1209:besprizornyye
1205:
1203:
1202:besprizornyye
1199:
1190:
1188:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1173:, as well as
1172:
1168:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1039:
1028:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
983:
979:
976:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
950:
947:
946:
941:
938:
937:
936:
928:
926:
921:
919:
918:
913:
907:
905:
899:
897:
891:
888:
884:
882:
881:Marshall Plan
876:
874:
868:
864:
862:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
807:
805:
800:
798:
794:
789:
787:
783:
782:United States
779:
771:
770:Joseph Stalin
767:
758:
754:
752:
745:
739:
733:
730:
726:
716:
713:
709:
703:
688:
685:
682:
679:
677:
676:
675:
669:
665:
662:
659:
656:
654:
653:
652:
646:
642:
639:
636:
633:
631:
630:
629:
623:
619:
616:
613:
610:
608:
607:
606:
600:
596:
593:
590:
587:
585:
584:
583:
577:
573:
570:
567:
564:
562:
561:
560:
554:
550:
547:
544:
541:
539:
538:
537:
531:
527:
524:
521:
518:
516:
515:
514:
508:
504:
501:
498:
495:
493:
492:
491:
490:Ukrainian SSR
485:
481:
478:
475:
472:
470:
467:
466:
462:
459:
456:
453:
451:
448:
447:
443:
440:
437:
434:
432:
431:Ryazan Oblast
429:
428:
424:
421:
418:
415:
413:
410:
409:
405:
402:
399:
396:
394:
391:
390:
386:
383:
380:
377:
375:
372:
371:
367:
364:
361:
358:
356:
355:
351:
349:
348:
347:
341:
337:
334:
331:
328:
327:
316:
311:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
290:Ukrainian SSR
286:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
268:besprizornyye
264:
262:
256:
249:
248:
242:
238:
236:
232:
226:
224:
220:
219:Eastern Front
214:
210:
200:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
177:
174:
170:
165:
161:
160:Ukrainian SSR
157:
153:
149:
145:
137:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
102:
100:
96:
91:
89:
81:
78:
74:
70:
67:
66:
65:
57:
55:
51:
47:
43:
42:Moldavian SSR
39:
38:Ukrainian SSR
35:
30:
28:
24:
19:
4775:
4769:
4736:
4732:
4678:
4674:
4631:
4624:
4596:
4589:
4556:
4552:
4506:
4502:
4492:
4470:(3): 25–33.
4467:
4463:
4415:
4411:
4401:
4376:
4372:
4330:
4325:
4306:
4296:
4285:the original
4276:
4269:
4258:. Retrieved
4254:
4214:
4207:
4179:
4156:
4132:. Retrieved
4128:
4100:
4097:Charles King
4061:
4032:
4026:
3998:
3991:
3982:
3978:
3972:
3944:
3913:
3907:
3879:
3872:
3844:
3825:
3788:
3728:
3721:
3708:
3703:
3670:
3661:
3642:
3636:
3608:
3564:
3473:
3415:
3411:
3356:
3328:
3319:
3300:
3226:
3222:
3212:
3179:
3175:
3165:
3137:
3130:
3102:
3095:
3067:
3015:
2980:
2976:
2966:
2925:
2921:
2911:
2886:
2882:
2859:
2819:the original
2810:
2781:
2717:
2633:
2628:
2590:(2): 31–60.
2587:
2583:
2557:malnutrition
2553:
2547:. Retrieved
2541:
2497:
2376:
2371:
2364:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2334:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2306:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:inaccurate.
2274:
2272:population.
2255:
2249:
2244:
2237:
2230:
2221:
2216:
2201:
2197:
2188:
2182:
2177:
2170:
2160:
2132:
2128:World War II
2105:
2068:
2060:
1958:inflation").
1937:8 May 1945:
1925:World War II
1921:Soviet Union
1859:(1947), the
1853:
1849:
1842:
1835:
1831:
1820:
1811:
1806:
1797:
1752:
1717:
1701:
1697:
1668:Gulag system
1645:
1611:Russian SFSR
1608:
1586:
1570:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1533:
1518:
1505:
1492:
1484:
1480:
1467:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1443:
1428:
1419:
1414:
1404:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1361:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1306:
1302:
1282:Borisoglebsk
1238:
1231:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1183:
1163:
1152:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1025:
1014:
1008:
1002:
996:
985:
977:
951:
944:
939:
934:
922:
915:
908:
903:
900:
892:
889:
885:
877:
872:
869:
865:
857:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
801:
797:East Germany
790:
775:
755:
747:
741:
736:
722:
705:
672:
671:
651:Armenian SSR
649:
648:
626:
625:
603:
602:
580:
579:
559:Georgian SSR
557:
556:
534:
533:
511:
510:
488:
487:
353:
352:
346:Russian SFSR
344:
343:
302:Armenian SSR
298:Russian SFSR
287:
280:
275:
267:
265:
257:
253:
245:
227:
223:World War II
216:
197:
188:
178:
148:World War II
141:
126:
92:
85:
69:World War II
63:
46:Russian SFSR
31:
27:Soviet Union
22:
20:
18:
2331:Other works
2124:Great Purge
1736:Helen Hayes
1496:Great Purge
1254:Arkhangelsk
1112:Sugar beet
912:Novosibirsk
852:Netherlands
795:(the later
674:Turkmen SSR
321:Grain (kg)
296:within the
235:World War I
4799:Categories
4260:2021-03-24
4199:1136488158
4134:2021-03-22
3799:0585001715
3575:0585001715
3113:0195040546
3078:080474467X
3035:1127566378
2643:5201005950
2549:2022-01-03
2435:References
2143:Euromaidan
1748:Lend-Lease
1682:, who was
1381:Yugoslavia
1274:Drogobychi
1092:Sunflower
987:Bloodlands
854:, in 1946.
727:, and the
700:See also:
605:Kyrgyz SSR
536:Kazakh SSR
393:Altai Krai
207:See also:
189:red trains
109:See also:
105:Background
4761:153724790
4753:1538-5000
4711:164961479
4695:0037-6779
4651:882915133
4616:259265675
4573:0080-2557
4515:0363-5570
4476:0043-8200
4442:150112278
4434:0960-7773
4385:0030-6428
4373:Osteuropa
4349:873557357
4081:155682487
4018:503074125
3964:449858698
3899:929124088
3864:259265675
3748:500634229
3440:153358693
3432:0966-8136
3251:155003439
3243:0740-9710
3196:0038-5859
3157:945782874
3087:902122888
3043:cite book
2989:0363-5570
2958:155709668
2942:0008-4239
2895:0030-6428
2883:Osteuropa
2604:1061-1983
2404:Holodomor
2336:Igor Cașu
2112:Holodomor
2088:Igor Cașu
2079:1932–1933
2075:1921–1922
1910:Holodomor
1652:Holodomor
1594:Red Cross
1262:Kirovgrad
1250:Volgograd
1009:2 million
917:militsiya
844:U.S. Army
729:Holodomor
628:Tajik SSR
582:Azeri SSR
513:Uzbek SSR
247:Luftwaffe
156:Holodomor
136:Holodomor
4703:27896177
4581:43270216
4531:20034147
4523:41036831
4484:27870299
4393:44932109
4234:69661604
3808:42854081
3584:42854081
3122:13270411
2997:41036864
2950:43298395
2903:44932110
2849:Archived
2652:35760048
2383:See also
2096:Chișinău
1934:(UNRRA).
1867:(1949).
1724:Cold War
1699:famine.
1642:in 1956.
1583:Moldavia
1476:Mariupol
1369:Bulgaria
962:and the
354:At-large
292:and the
276:patronat
199:famine.
48:and the
4111:. p. 96
2208:or the
2194:Russian
2126:and by
2102:Ukraine
2077:or the
2065:Moldova
1825:, with
1617:Ukraine
1567:Belarus
1478:alone.
1373:Romania
1294:Belarus
1290:Ukraine
1286:Oskemen
1278:Lipetsk
1132:Potato
1072:Grains
956:Ó Gráda
952:900,000
879:as the
850:in the
708:drought
318:Region
138:, 1933.
4782:
4759:
4751:
4709:
4701:
4693:
4649:
4639:
4614:
4604:
4579:
4571:
4529:
4521:
4513:
4482:
4474:
4440:
4432:
4391:
4383:
4347:
4337:
4232:
4222:
4197:
4187:
4157:dw.com
4107:
4079:
4069:
4039:
4016:
4006:
3962:
3952:
3920:
3897:
3887:
3862:
3852:
3806:
3796:
3746:
3736:
3711:]
3677:
3649:
3624:
3582:
3572:
3480:
3438:
3430:
3363:
3335:
3307:
3249:
3241:
3204:149372
3202:
3194:
3155:
3145:
3120:
3110:
3085:
3075:
3033:
3023:
2995:
2987:
2956:
2948:
2940:
2901:
2893:
2788:
2724:
2650:
2640:
2602:
2504:
2226:,
2019:, and
2017:barley
1883:1917:
1816:,
1605:Russia
1471:Kaluga
1365:France
1298:Russia
1270:Sambir
1266:Izmail
1258:Kotlas
991:2010).
904:Pravda
786:France
272:Moscow
185:Stalin
121:, and
60:Causes
4757:S2CID
4707:S2CID
4699:JSTOR
4577:JSTOR
4519:JSTOR
4480:JSTOR
4438:S2CID
4389:JSTOR
4329:[
4288:(PDF)
4281:(PDF)
3981:[
3713:(PDF)
3707:[
3436:S2CID
3247:S2CID
3200:JSTOR
2993:JSTOR
2954:S2CID
2946:JSTOR
2899:JSTOR
2822:(PDF)
2815:(PDF)
2632:[
2021:maize
1923:into
1672:UNRRA
1577:UNRRA
1463:Sochi
1075:10.7
1067:1945
1064:1940
1041:Crop
968:UkSSR
960:RSFSR
848:UNRRA
689:2.79
686:3.39
666:2.75
663:1.88
643:2.31
640:3.16
620:1.03
617:1.59
597:1.95
594:2.14
574:4.08
571:1.98
551:1.12
548:0.97
528:2.55
525:2.57
505:0.61
502:1.16
482:0.29
479:0.47
463:0.97
460:0.41
444:0.29
441:0.28
425:1.61
422:1.35
406:0.88
403:0.86
387:0.42
368:0.61
365:0.64
338:1945
335:1940
332:1945
329:1940
233:(and
191:, or
181:Lenin
162:were
76:1891.
4780:ISBN
4749:ISSN
4691:ISSN
4647:OCLC
4637:ISBN
4612:OCLC
4602:ISBN
4569:ISSN
4527:PMID
4511:ISSN
4472:ISSN
4430:ISSN
4381:ISSN
4345:OCLC
4335:ISBN
4230:OCLC
4220:ISBN
4195:OCLC
4185:ISBN
4105:ISBN
4077:OCLC
4067:ISBN
4037:ISBN
4014:OCLC
4004:ISBN
3960:OCLC
3950:ISBN
3918:ISBN
3895:OCLC
3885:ISBN
3860:OCLC
3850:ISBN
3804:OCLC
3794:ISBN
3744:OCLC
3734:ISBN
3675:ISBN
3647:ISBN
3622:ISBN
3580:OCLC
3570:ISBN
3478:ISBN
3428:ISSN
3361:ISBN
3333:ISBN
3305:ISBN
3239:ISSN
3192:ISSN
3153:OCLC
3143:ISBN
3118:OCLC
3108:ISBN
3083:OCLC
3073:ISBN
3049:link
3031:OCLC
3021:ISBN
2985:ISSN
2938:ISSN
2891:ISSN
2786:ISBN
2722:ISBN
2648:OCLC
2638:ISBN
2600:ISSN
2502:ISBN
2325:CPSU
2151:Kyiv
2013:oats
2002:are.
1865:NATO
1738:and
1646:The
1609:The
1400:Omsk
1356:3.2
1353:0.8
1350:1.7
1333:1948
1328:1947
1323:1946
1246:Perm
1147:94%
1144:69%
1135:118
1127:68%
1124:42%
1118:106
1115:170
1107:83%
1104:56%
1101:5.2
1098:6.2
1095:9.4
1087:88%
1084:64%
1081:6.9
1078:7.8
1055:1946
1050:1945
1045:1940
972:MSSR
964:BSSR
683:0.9
680:0.4
660:2.2
657:1.8
637:1.2
634:1.8
614:0.8
611:1.6
591:2.3
588:2.0
568:2.5
565:1.9
545:0.8
542:1.3
522:0.5
519:0.3
499:0.5
496:2.2
476:0.4
473:1.5
457:1.1
454:1.6
438:0.6
435:1.1
419:0.8
416:1.4
400:0.4
397:0.8
384:0.6
381:0.7
378:2.9
362:0.6
359:1.6
211:and
183:and
21:The
4741:doi
4683:doi
4561:doi
4468:173
4420:doi
3614:doi
3420:doi
3231:doi
3184:doi
2930:doi
2592:doi
2094:in
2090:of
1912:").
1759:ARA
1141:81
1138:86
1121:73
221:of
93:In
4801::
4755:.
4747:.
4737:14
4735:.
4731:.
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