446:, gathering the rich harvest for themselves, before moving onto Zerboule. Once there, they found Iaudas gone, having fled to the remote fortress of Toumar. The Byzantines moved up to besiege Toumar, but the siege proved problematic because of the barren terrain, and in particular the lack of water. While Solomon was considering how best to attack the inaccessible fortress, a minor skirmish between the two forces gradually escalated into a full-scale and confused battle, as more and more soldiers from both sides joined in. The Byzantines emerged victorious, while the Berbers fled from the field. Shortly after, the Byzantines also captured the fort at the so-called "Rock of Geminianus", where Iaudas had sent his wives and treasure. This victory left Solomon in control of Aurasium, where he built a number of fortresses. With Aurasium secured, effective Byzantine control was established in the provinces of Numidia and
346:
Easter failed and the conspirators fled into the countryside, but soon open rebellion broke out among the army in
Carthage as well. The soldiers acclaimed one of Solomon's subalterns, Theodore, as its leader, and began looting the city. Solomon managed to find refuge in a church, and under the cover of night, with the aid of Theodore, he departed the city by boat for Missua, accompanied among others by the historian Procopius. From there, Solomon and Procopius sailed to
338:, Solomon now turned to Numidia. He cautiously advanced to Aurasium and challenged Iaudas to battle, but after three days, distrusting the loyalty of his allies, Solomon returned his army to the plains. He left part of the army to keep watch on the Berbers and established a series of fortified posts along the roads linking Byzacena with Numidia. Solomon then spent the winter preparing a new expedition against Aurasium and also against the Berbers of
492:
383:
290:
165:), but was forced to flee following an army mutiny in spring of 536. His second tenure in Africa began in 539 and it was marked by victories over the Berbers, which led to the consolidation of the Byzantine position. A few years of prosperity followed, but were cut short by the rekindled Berber revolt and Solomon's defeat and death at the Battle of Cillium in 544.
450:. Aided by the captured treasure of Iaudas, Solomon extended his fortification programme in these two provinces: some two-dozen inscriptions testifying to his building activity survive from the area. The Berber rebellion seemed beaten for good, and contemporary chroniclers are unanimous in declaring the next few years as a golden era of peace and prosperity.
417:
In 539 AD Solomon devoted the energies of the state to an enormous building programme that fortified the
Byzantine province of Africa. The open cities and villa-dotted countryside of the past was transformed into a medieval landscape of small walled towns surrounded by fortified manor houses at the
453:
In the words of
Procopius, "all the Libyans who were subjects of the Romans, coming to enjoy secure peace and finding the rule of Solomon wise and very moderate, and having no longer any thought of hostility in their minds, seemed the most fortunate of all men". His restoration programme reached at
438:, at their camp in Bagai, but Solomon with the main army came to the rescue. The Berbers had to abandon the attack and retreated to Babosis on the foothills of Aurasium, where they pitched camp. Solomon attacked them there and defeated them. The surviving Berbers fled south to Aurasium or west into
345:
The revolt was caused by dissatisfaction of some of the soldiers, who had taken Vandal wives, with
Solomon: the soldiers demanded the property once owned by their wives as their own, but Solomon refused, since this land had been confiscated by imperial decree. A first plot to assassinate Solomon in
317:
them. The
Byzantine army returned to Carthage, but there news came that the Berbers, reinforced, had again attacked and overrun Byzacena. Solomon immediately marched out and met them at Mount Bourgaon, where the Berbers had erected a fortified camp and awaited his attack. Solomon divided his forces
536:
even accused
Guntharis of treason, alleging that he withdrew from the line with his troops, causing a general and disorderly Byzantine retreat. Solomon and his bodyguard stood their ground and resisted but at last they were forced to retreat. Solomon's horse stumbled and fell in a ravine, wounding
394:
Germanus was successful in winning the confidence of many soldiers, re-establishing discipline and defeating the mutineers at the Battle of Scalas
Veteres in 537. With imperial control over the army restored, Solomon was sent back to Africa to replace Germanus in 539, again combining in his person
354:
by
Belisarius, while Solomon's lieutenant Martin was dispatched to try and reach the troops at Numidia, and Theodore instructed to hold Carthage. Upon hearing about the mutiny, Belisarius, with Solomon and 100 picked men, set sail for Africa. Carthage was being besieged by 9,000 rebels, including
523:
he was victorious, in early 544 Sergius was forced to travel to
Carthage and seek his uncle's aid. The rebellion spread quickly from Tripolitania to Byzacena, where Antalas joined it. Joined by his three nephews, Solomon marched against the Berbers as they assembled, meeting them near
363:
the rebel forces at
Membresa. The bulk of the rebels, however, was able to flee, and continued to march towards Numidia, where the local troops decided to join them. Belisarius himself was forced to return to Italy due to trouble there, and Emperor Justinian appointed his cousin
413:). Solomon further reinforced his control of the army by weeding out unreliable soldiers, sending them to Belisarius in Italy and to the East; by expelling all remaining Vandals from the province; and by initiating a massive programme of fortification across the region.
418:
same time sewer systems were overhauled, aqueducts reconnected, harbours cleared and grandiose churches erected to dominate the new urban centres The three great rectangular military fortresses, which were constructed on the south-western frontier zone of
359:. Theodore was contemplating capitulation when Belisarius appeared. The news of the famous general's arrival were sufficient for the rebels to abandon the siege and withdraw westwards. Belisarius immediately gave pursuit and caught up and
277:). Belisarius's departure coincided with a general uprising of the Berber tribes of the interior, before the Byzantines had time to strengthen their hold on the province. As a result, Belisarius left most of his privately raised
544:
in 545. Sergius was recalled, while the army mutinied again, this time under Guntharis, who captured Carthage and installed himself there as an independent ruler. His usurpation did not last long as he was assassinated by
193:, who later became military officers in Africa under their uncle; Sergius also succeeded Solomon as governor of Africa after the latter's death. Little is known of Solomon's early career, except that he served under the
285:
behind, and Emperor Justinian sent additional reinforcements. Soon (sometime in autumn of 534) Emperor Justinian also invested Solomon with the civil office of praetorian prefect as well, replacing the aged Archelaus.
507:, whom he held responsible for the disturbances, and ceased the subsidies granted to Antalas, alienating the powerful and hitherto loyal chieftain. At the same time, Solomon's nephew Sergius, newly named governor of
264:) of the campaign's progress. Solomon remained in the capital until the spring of 534, when Justinian sent him back to Africa to recall Belisarius and replace him as supreme military commander of the new
540:
Solomon was succeeded by his nephew Sergius, who proved completely inadequate in dealing with the situation. The Berbers launched a general revolt and inflicted a severe defeat on the Byzantines in
503:
arrived in Africa and caused many casualties, especially among members of the army. In addition, in early 543 the Berbers in Byzacena became restive. Solomon executed the brother of the chieftain
190:
532:, on the border of Numidia and Byzacena. The Byzantine army was riven by disunity, with many soldiers refusing to fight or doing so only reluctantly. The contemporary poet
318:
and sent 1,000 men to attack the Berbers from behind, scoring a decisive victory: the Berbers broke and scattered, suffering great casualties. Those who survived fled to
185:
as a result of an accident during his infancy, not from deliberate castration. Solomon had a brother, Bacchus, who became a priest. Bacchus fathered three sons, Cyrus,
434:
In 540, Solomon led his army again against the Berbers of Mount Aurasium. Initially, the Berbers attacked and besieged the Byzantine advance guard, under
1111:
994:(1987). "Eine Inschrift des "Magister Militum" Solomon in arabischer Überlieferung: Zur Restitution der "Mauretania Caesariensis" unter Justinian".
488:, but this was evidently short-lived: within a few years after Solomon's death, Roman rule in the central Maghreb was reduced to the coasts.
351:
553:
in late 546 and his subsequent campaigns that the province was to be pacified and brought again securely under Byzantine imperial control.
335:
245:
regiments. He is not mentioned in Procopius's narrative during the subsequent campaign, but he probably participated in the decisive
305:
and Rufinus. After diplomatic entreaties over the winter failed, and with his forces bolstered to some 18,000 men (as estimated by
201:
Felicissimus, perhaps as early as the latter's installment to the post in 505/6. Certainly by 527, when he came to the service of
102:
476:) encountered there an inscription commemorating Solomon's putting down a revolt of the local Berbers, possibly referring to the
442:, but their leader Iaudas sought refuge in the fortress of Zerboule. Solomon and his troops plundered the fertile plains around
1151:
309:) following the arrival of reinforcements, in spring 535 Solomon led his troops into Byzacena. The Berbers, under their chiefs
1131:
360:
1079:
1053:
1029:
981:
960:
1136:
365:
870:
1126:
265:
1020:
141:
in 533–534. He spent most of the next decade in Africa as its governor general, combining the military post of
1043:
205:, Solomon was considered an experienced officer. It is perhaps at this time that he was named Belisarius's
178:
173:
Solomon was born, probably circa 480/490, in the fortress of Idriphthon in the district of Solachon, near
1121:
1101:
533:
186:
1116:
253:. Following the capture of Carthage, Belisarius sent Solomon back to Constantinople to inform Emperor
1141:
952:
History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian, Volume 2
512:
208:
537:
its rider. With the aid of his guards, Solomon remounted, but they were quickly overcome and slain.
302:
485:
484:. This expedition once more extended Roman rule to the interior of what once was the province of
466:
1156:
447:
313:, Esdilasas, Iourphouthes and Mesidinissas had encamped at a location called Mammes. Solomon
519:
when his men killed 80 of their leaders at a banquet. Although in a subsequent battle near
246:
8:
1106:
546:
528:. Last-minute diplomatic overtures to the Leuathae failed, and the two armies clashed at
500:
477:
1068:
1039:
1003:
174:
150:
34:
327:
1146:
1075:
1049:
1025:
1015:
977:
956:
106:
1063:
314:
271:
196:
144:
126:
87:
76:
971:
950:
511:
as a token of Emperor Justinian's gratitude (along with his brother Cyrus in the
39:
401:
and praetorian prefect (in the meantime, he had also been raised to the rank of
463:
234:
218:
118:
600:
1095:
550:
306:
520:
515:), caused the outbreak of hostilities with the tribal confederation of the
508:
410:
222:
138:
134:
98:
213:, or chief-of-staff, the post with which he is mentioned by the historian
153:. Solomon successfully confronted the large-scale rebellion of the native
430:, would have required over a million laboring days in their construction.
342:, but his designs were interrupted by a major army mutiny in spring 536.
254:
130:
1007:
991:
946:
439:
280:
202:
419:
529:
435:
427:
404:
249:
on 13 September 533, which opened the road for the Vandal capital of
240:
214:
61:
56:
491:
293:
Roman Africa, with the provinces of Byzacena, Zeugitana and Numidia.
1045:
The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume III, AD 527–641
525:
516:
481:
443:
423:
387:
339:
331:
310:
301:
and defeated the local Byzantine garrison, killing its commanders,
298:
250:
495:
Map of the partial Byzantine restoration in North Africa until 541
976:. North Stratford, New Hampshire: Ayer Publishing, Incorporated.
504:
382:
356:
319:
154:
65:
900:
912:
835:
790:
730:
541:
459:
455:
347:
323:
289:
182:
43:
672:
636:
612:
720:
718:
390:, one of the many sites restored and fortified under Solomon.
374:
to deal with the crisis. Solomon returned to Constantinople.
160:
567:
565:
330:. With Byzacena secured, and urged by his own Berber allies
847:
778:
715:
703:
648:
562:
237:, Solomon was named as one of the nine commanders of the
924:
876:
823:
766:
754:
742:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
693:
691:
689:
687:
660:
217:
in 533, before the onset of the campaign against the
888:
802:
684:
1067:
624:
133:, who distinguished himself as a commander in the
1093:
1024:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
499:This tranquility lasted until 542/3, when the
402:
396:
369:
278:
269:
238:
206:
194:
158:
142:
1038:
918:
906:
853:
841:
796:
784:
736:
724:
709:
678:
654:
642:
618:
606:
571:
462:; medieval Arabic sources record that the
377:
1048:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
996:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte
955:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications.
297:In the meantime, the Berbers had invaded
228:
1112:6th-century Byzantine military personnel
1062:
829:
490:
381:
288:
1094:
969:
760:
549:, but it was not until the arrival of
609:, pp. 162, 374, 1124–1128, 1177.
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
990:
945:
930:
894:
882:
817:
772:
748:
697:
666:
630:
13:
1021:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
577:
322:, where they joined the forces of
233:Before the expedition sailed from
14:
1168:
386:Ruins of the Byzantine walls of
315:attacked them there and defeated
1014:
859:
594:
471:
266:praetorian prefecture of Africa
259:
355:many Vandals, under a certain
326:, the leader of the tribes of
1:
1152:Praetorian prefects of Africa
1074:. New York: Interlink Books.
556:
168:
7:
1132:Byzantines killed in battle
970:Graham, Alexander (2002) .
597:, "Solomon", pp. 1925–1926.
534:Flavius Cresconius Corippus
149:with the civil position of
10:
1173:
1089:Byzantine military officer
939:
122:
94:
82:
72:
50:
27:
20:
1137:Generals of Justinian I
1070:History of North Africa
486:Mauretania Caesariensis
467:al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah
378:Second tenure in Africa
1127:Byzantine North Africa
909:, pp. 1125, 1175.
496:
432:
409:and named an honorary
403:
397:
391:
370:
294:
279:
270:
239:
229:First tenure in Africa
207:
195:
159:
143:
137:and the reconquest of
129:general from northern
127:East Roman (Byzantine)
921:, pp. 1175–1176.
844:, pp. 1174–1175.
799:, pp. 1173–1174.
739:, pp. 1172–1173.
725:& Martindale 1992
710:& Martindale 1992
681:, pp. 1170–1171.
679:& Martindale 1992
655:& Martindale 1992
645:, pp. 1169–1170.
621:, pp. 1168–1169.
619:& Martindale 1992
494:
448:Mauretania Sitifensis
415:
385:
292:
454:least as far as the
247:Battle of Ad Decimum
1040:Martindale, John R.
933:, pp. 146–147.
885:, pp. 251–255.
867:On the Vandalic War
775:, pp. 144–145.
751:, pp. 143–144.
669:, pp. 140–141.
478:Mauro-Roman Kingdom
352:just been conquered
177:in the province of
1122:Byzantine generals
1102:5th-century births
1016:Kazhdan, Alexander
947:Bury, John Bagnell
497:
392:
295:
151:praetorian prefect
38:(modern-day Oğuz,
1117:Byzantine eunuchs
1064:Rogerson, Barnaby
763:, pp. 44ff..
112:
111:
107:Battle of Cillium
33:Idriphthon, near
1164:
1142:Magistri militum
1085:
1073:
1059:
1035:
1011:
987:
966:
934:
928:
922:
916:
910:
904:
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851:
845:
839:
833:
827:
821:
815:
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764:
758:
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746:
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734:
728:
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707:
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682:
676:
670:
664:
658:
652:
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640:
634:
628:
622:
616:
610:
604:
598:
592:
575:
569:
475:
473:
408:
400:
398:magister militum
373:
371:magister militum
284:
276:
272:magister militum
263:
261:
244:
212:
200:
197:dux Mesopotamiae
164:
148:
145:magister militum
124:
88:magister militum
77:Byzantine Empire
18:
17:
1172:
1171:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1161:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1082:
1056:
1032:
984:
963:
942:
937:
929:
925:
919:Martindale 1992
917:
913:
907:Martindale 1992
905:
901:
893:
889:
881:
877:
864:
860:
856:, p. 1175.
854:Martindale 1992
852:
848:
842:Martindale 1992
840:
836:
828:
824:
816:
803:
797:Martindale 1992
795:
791:
787:, p. 1173.
785:Martindale 1992
783:
779:
771:
767:
759:
755:
749:& Bury 1958
747:
743:
737:Martindale 1992
735:
731:
727:, p. 1172.
723:
716:
712:, p. 1171.
708:
704:
698:& Bury 1958
696:
685:
677:
673:
667:& Bury 1958
665:
661:
657:, p. 1170.
653:
649:
643:Martindale 1992
641:
637:
629:
625:
617:
613:
607:Martindale 1992
605:
601:
593:
578:
574:, p. 1168.
572:Martindale 1992
570:
563:
559:
470:
380:
258:
231:
171:
59:
55:
37:
32:
23:
12:
11:
5:
1170:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1080:
1060:
1054:
1042:, ed. (1992).
1036:
1030:
1018:, ed. (1991).
1012:
1002:(2): 250–256.
988:
982:
967:
961:
941:
938:
936:
935:
923:
911:
899:
897:, p. 255.
887:
875:
858:
846:
834:
832:, p. 111.
822:
820:, p. 145.
801:
789:
777:
765:
753:
741:
729:
714:
702:
700:, p. 143.
683:
671:
659:
647:
635:
633:, p. 129.
623:
611:
599:
576:
560:
558:
555:
474: 946–953
464:Fatimid caliph
379:
376:
328:Mount Aurasium
262: 527–565
235:Constantinople
230:
227:
219:Vandal Kingdom
170:
167:
110:
109:
96:
92:
91:
84:
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52:
48:
47:
29:
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1081:1-56656-351-8
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1057:
1055:0-521-20160-8
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1033:
1031:0-19-504652-8
1027:
1023:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1009:
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1001:
998:(in German).
997:
993:
989:
985:
983:0-8369-8807-8
979:
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964:
962:0-486-20399-9
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831:
830:Rogerson 2001
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551:John Troglita
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395:the posts of
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36:
30:
26:
19:
16:
1157:Vandalic War
1069:
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973:Roman Africa
972:
951:
926:
914:
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539:
521:Leptis Magna
509:Tripolitania
501:great plague
498:
452:
433:
416:
393:
350:, which had
344:
296:
232:
223:North Africa
172:
139:North Africa
135:Vandalic War
114:
113:
103:Moorish Wars
99:Vandalic War
95:Battles/wars
86:
60:(modern-day
15:
992:Halm, Heinz
865:Procopius,
761:Graham 2002
255:Justinian I
181:. He was a
179:Mesopotamia
131:Mesopotamia
1107:544 deaths
1096:Categories
557:References
513:Pentapolis
440:Mauretania
281:bucellarii
209:domesticus
203:Belisarius
73:Allegiance
931:Bury 1958
895:Halm 1987
883:Halm 1987
818:Bury 1958
773:Bury 1958
631:Bury 1958
547:Artabanes
458:south of
436:Guntharis
428:Ammaedara
405:patricius
241:foederati
215:Procopius
169:Biography
125:) was an
62:Kasserine
31:480s/490s
1147:Patricii
1066:(2001).
949:(1958).
526:Theveste
517:Leuathae
482:Mastigas
444:Thamugad
424:Thelepte
388:Theveste
366:Germanus
361:defeated
340:Sardinia
332:Massonas
311:Cutzinas
299:Byzacena
251:Carthage
1008:4436011
940:Sources
530:Cillium
505:Antalas
420:Tebessa
357:Stotzas
336:Ortaias
320:Numidia
274:Africae
191:Solomon
187:Sergius
155:Berbers
123:Σολομών
115:Solomon
66:Tunisia
57:Cillium
22:Solomon
1078:
1052:
1028:
1006:
980:
959:
542:Thacia
460:Tiaret
456:Jedars
411:consul
348:Sicily
324:Iaudas
183:eunuch
44:Turkey
40:Mardin
1004:JSTOR
871:II.40
303:Aigan
161:Mauri
119:Greek
1076:ISBN
1050:ISBN
1026:ISBN
978:ISBN
957:ISBN
426:and
334:and
189:and
175:Dara
83:Rank
51:Died
35:Dara
28:Born
595:ODB
480:of
368:as
221:of
54:544
1098::
1000:36
869:,
804:^
717:^
686:^
579:^
564:^
472:r.
422:,
260:r.
225:.
121::
101:,
64:,
42:,
1084:.
1058:.
1034:.
1010:.
986:.
965:.
873:.
469:(
268:(
257:(
157:(
117:(
105:,
68:)
46:)
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