Soil compaction (agriculture)

394:

farmers, the risk of surface runoff close to wheel tracks affects the off-farm environment indirectly, as it for example redistributes "sediment, nutrients and pesticides within the field and beyond". Especially when the risk of surface soil erosion is heightened, eutrophication of surface waters becomes a big problem due to an increased amount of nutrients. On high risk areas, such as wet soils on slopes, applied slurry can runoff easily. This results in a loss of ammonia, which is polluting surface waters, as it creates a lack of oxygen. Leading so to the death of many species, soil erosion caused by compaction is responsible for a decline in habitat quality and therefore species loss.

539:. The zaï technique describes a system planting pits that are being dug into poor soil. These pits, with an average diameter of 20–40 cm and a depth of 10–20 cm, are filled with organic matter then seeded after the first rain of the season. This technique conserves soil, captures water, and gradually rehabilitates the structure and health of the underlying soil. A systematic way to regenerate degraded soil (e.g. compacted soil) in the long run is the transformation of conventional farming to 2637: 2272: 2626: 459:

a soil. Another important indicator of soil compaction is the vegetation itself. By means of patterns of crop growth, pale leaf colours and root growth, it is possible to draw conclusions to the extent of compaction. Especially when trying to identify soil compaction in the field with the measurements mentioned above it has been considered particularly important to make a comparison between potentially compacted soil and uncompacted soil nearby.

20: 2653: 1448: 458:

and soil colour are indicators of soil compaction in the field. A blue-grey soil colour and a smell of hydrogen sulphide can occur in the top soil due to extenuated aeration . An increase in soil strength can be measured with a penetrometer, which is basically a device for measuring the resistance of

199:

Whether heavy machinery is in use or not, tillage practice itself can cause soil compaction. While the major cause of soil compaction in a tillage activity nowadays is due to machineries, the influence of compaction resulting from lighter equipments and animals to the topsoil should not be neglected.

563:

besides from using mineral fertilizer is liming. Through liming the pH level and base saturation should be raised to a level more suitable for microorganisms and especially earth worms in the topsoil. Through an increased activity of soil fauna a loosening of the soil and following a higher porosity

483:

helps to recognize alterations of soil structure, root growth, water storage capacities and biological activity. "Detection of these features directly on the surface of bare soil or indirectly by the vegetation lead to identification of this type of degradation." This is especially helpful for large

572:

Technical methods mainly aim to reduce and control the pressure applied on soil by heavy machinery. First, the idea of controlled wheel traffic is to separate the wheeled tracks and area for plant rooting. Expected is a reduction of area compacted by tyres, reducing negative effects on crop growth.

492:

Soil compaction is often local and depends on many factors that may vary within a few square meters. This makes it very hard to estimate susceptibility of soils to compaction at a large scale. Since methods of remote sensing are not able to identify soil compaction directly there are limitations to

471:

give a good overview of the permeability of soils to air and water and therefore on the degree of compaction. Since the coarse pores are most important for water infiltration, gas exchange and transport, focusing on them when measuring the porosity and the diffusion coefficient is recommended. Data

1004:

Pandey, Bipin K.; Huang, Guoqiang; Bhosale, Rahul; Hartman, Sjon; Sturrock, Craig J.; Jose, Lottie; Martin, Olivier C.; Karady, Michal; Voesenek, Laurentius A. C. J.; Ljung, Karin; Lynch, Jonathan P.; Brown, Kathleen M.; Whalley, William R.; Mooney, Sacha J.; Zhang, Dabing; Bennett, Malcolm J. (15

129:

In healthy, well-structured soils, particles interact with each other forming soil aggregates. The resulting soil structure increases in stability with the number of interactions between soil particles. Water and air fills the voids between soil particles, where water interacts with soil particles

580:

No tillage may contribute to better soil condition as it conserves more water than traditional tillage, however as tillage is a preparation of crop yard for coming seeding or planting process, no tillage does not necessary give a positive result in all cases. Loosening of already compacted soil

501:

It takes several decades for a partial restoration of compacted soil and therefore it is extremely important to take active measures in order to regenerate soil functions. Since soil compaction is very hard to identify and reverse, special attention has to be paid on avoidance and alleviation.

393:

pose a general risk for soil erosion by water. On compacted soils, wheel tracks are often the starting point for runoff and erosion. Soil erosion is likely to appear on sloping fields or especially hilly land. This might lead to a transfer of sediments . Except for direct negative effects for

380:

Furthermore, compacted soil requires an extra energy input. More fuel and fertilizer are used for cultivation compared to uncompacted soil due to restrictions in crop growth resulting from a decreased efficiency in nitrogen use. The production of nitrogen fertilizer is highly energy demanding.

195:

but subsoil compaction. Subsoil compaction is more difficult to be regenerated than topsoil compaction. Not only may the weight of machineries i.e. axle load, but also velocity and number of passages affect the intensity of soil compaction. Inflation pressure of wheels and tyres also plays an

521:

National governments have regulated agriculture practices in order to mitigate the effect of soil compaction. For instance, in Germany farmers operate under the Federal Soil Conservation Law. The law states that farmers have the obligation of precaution towards soil compaction according to

847:

Saffih-Hdadi, Kim and Défossez, Pauline and Richard, Guy and Cui, Y-J and Tang, A-M and Chaplain, Véronique (2009). A method for predicting soil susceptibility to the compaction of surface layers as a function of water content and bulk density, Soil and Tillage Research. Vol. 105, 1,

576:

Low tyre pressure is another way to distribute the pressure applied on a greater surface and soften the overall pressure. For an integrated management, computer-based modelling of crop yard for vulnerability to compaction is recommended in order to avoid driving over vulnerable soil.

857:

Saffih-Hdadi, K and Défossez, Pauline and Richard, Guy and Cui, Y-J and Tang, A-M and Chaplain, Véronique (2009). A method for predicting soil susceptibility to the compaction of surface layers as a function of water content and bulk density, Soil and Tillage Research. Vol. 105, 1,

609:

Alakukku, Laura (2012). Soil Compaction. In: Jakobsson, Christine: Ecosystem Health and Sustainable Agriculture 1: Sustainable Agriculture. Uppsala University. URL: www.balticuniv.uu.se/index.php/component/docman/doc_download/1256-chapter-28-soil-compaction- (accessed November 14th

517:

The European Union addresses soil compaction by means of the Seventh EU Environment Action Programme, which entered into force in 2014. It recognises that soil degradation is a serious challenge and states that by 2020 land is supposed to be managed sustainably in the entire Union.

493:

identification, monitoring and quantifying, especially on a global scale. Identification methods mentioned above are insufficient for large areas since it is not possible to get a large enough sample size without harming the soil and keeping financial afford to a reasonable level.

112:

The historic data basis for global soil compaction is generally very weak as there are only measurements or estimates for certain regions/countries at certain points in time. In 1991, it was estimated that soil compaction accounted for 4% (68.3 million hectares) of anthropogenic

551:

Since soil compaction can lead to a reduced crop growth and therefore to a reduced economic yield the use of fertilizer, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, is increasing. This growing demand causes several problems. Phosphor occurs in marine deposits, magmatic deposits or in

203:

Significant livestock trampling resulting from livestock farming on meadows and agricultural land is also viewed major cause of soil compaction. This is not affected whether the grazing is continuous or short term, however it is affected by the intensity of grazing.

1317:

Saffih-Hdadi, K., Défossez, P., Richard, G., Cui, Y.-J., Tang, A.-M. and Chaplain, V. (2009). A method for predicting soil susceptibility to the compaction of surface layers as a function of water content and bulk density , Soil and Tillage Research 105 : 96 -

1093:

Frey, Beat and Kremer, Johann and Rüdt, Andreas and Sciacca, Stephane and Matthies, Dietmar and Lüscher, Peter (2009). Compaction of forest soils with heavy logging machinery affects soil bacterial community structure, European journal of soil biology. Vol. 45, 4,

108:

Soil compaction is not a recent issue. Before the beginning of mechanized agriculture, the usage of plough-pans was associated with soil compaction. However, multiple studies have shown that modern farming techniques increase the risk of harmful soil compaction.

437:

Soil compaction can be identified either in the field, the laboratory or via remote sensing. In order to get reliable data and results a combination of different methods is necessary as "there is no single universal method available to identify compact soils".

287:

All these factors affect plant growth negatively, and thus lead to reduced crop yields in most cases. As soil compaction is persistent, loss of crop yield as one of the "soil compaction costs" may lead to a concern of long term economic loss.

1166:

Vitousek, M. P.; Aber, J. D.; Howarth, R. W.; Likens, G. E.; Matson, P. A.; Schindler, D. W.; Schlesinger, W. H.; Tilman, D. G. (1997). Human Alteration Of The Global Nitrogen Cycle: Sources and Consequences. Ecological Applications, 7,

956:

Alvarez, R. and Steinbach, H. (2009). A review of the effects of tillage systems on some soil physical properties, water content, nitrate availability and crops yield in the Argentine Pampas , Soil and Tillage Research 104 : 1 -

241:. This may lead to an extremely dry topsoil and eventually causes soil to crack because the roots absorb water requiring for transpiration from the upper part of the soil where plants can penetrate with their restricted root depth. 117:

worldwide. In 2013, soil compaction was regarded a major reason for soil degradation in Europe (appr. 33 million ha affected), Africa (18 million ha), Asia (10 million ha), Australia (4 million ha), and some areas of North America.

1206:

Frey, B.; Kremer, J.; Rüdt, A.; Sciacca, S.; Matthies, D. and Lüscher, P. (2009). Compaction of forest soils with heavy logging machinery affects soil bacterial community structure, European Journal of Soil Biology 45: 312 -

484:

areas. As a prevention of soil compaction remote sensing can model the susceptibility of soils by considering soil texture, slope value, water regime and economic factors like the type of farming or the machinery being used.

975:

Donkor, N. T., Gedir, J. V., Hudson, R. J., Bork, E. W., Chanasyk, D. S. and Naeth, M. A. (2002). Impacts of grazing systems on soil compaction and pasture production in Alberta, Canadian Journal of Soil Science 82 :

337:. In addition, climate change can worsen adverse of soil compaction. This is because climate change features events such as heat waves and storms that can increase the risk of droughts and floodings and drainage systems. 200:

Moreover, inappropriate choices of tillage systems may cause unnecessary soil compaction. It should however be noted that tillage activity could reduce topsoil compaction compared to no tillage activity in the long term.

472:

gained at a laboratory are reliable as long as a certain amount of samples has been analyzed. That is why it is necessary to gather a large number of soil samples throughout the entire sample plot that is of interest.

530:

The introduction of deep rooting plants is a natural way to regenerate compacted soils. Deep rooting crops provide crop induced wetting and drying cycles that crack the soil, break up impermeable layers of soil by

296:

Soil compaction and its direct effects are closely interrelated with indirect off-site effects that have a global impact, visible only in the long-term perspective. Accumulating effects may result in complex

99:

or erosion, soil compaction is principally a sub-surface problem and therefore an invisible phenomenon. Special identification methods are necessary to locate, monitor and manage the problem appropriately.

1234:

United Nations General Assembly (1994). ELABORATION OF AN INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION IN COUNTRIES EXPERIENCING SERIOUS DROUGHT AND/OR DESERTIFICATION, PARTICULARLY IN AFRICA. URL:

1157:

Soane, B.D., van Ouwerkerk, C., (1995). Implications of soil compaction in crop production for the quality of the environment. Soil & Tillage Research, 35, 5-22. doi:10.1016/0167-1987(95)00475-8

1176:

Soane, B.D., van Ouwerkerk, C., (1995). Implications of soil compaction in crop production for the quality of the environment. Soil & Tillage Research,35, 5-22. doi:10.1016/0167-1987(95)00475-8

1249:

Decision No 1386/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 2013 on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020 ‘Living well, within the limits of our planet’

543:. Agroforestry systems aim at the stabilization of the annual yield as well as the healthy maintenance of the ecosystem by combining the cultivation of crop plants and trees on the same site. 133:

Mechanic pressure applied to the soil is counterbalanced by an increase of soil particle interactions. This implies a reduction in soil volume by reducing the voids in between soil particles.

985:

Mapfumo, E., Chanasyk, D. S., Naeth, M. A. and Baron, V. S. (1999). Soil compaction under grazing of annual and perennial forages, Canadian Journal of Soil Science 79 : 191-199.

417:

Moreover, the amount of fertilizer that is used on compacted soils is more than plants can take up. Thus, the surplus of nitrate in soil tends to leach into groundwater resulting in

706:

Stalham, M.A., Allen, E.J. & Herry, F.X. (2005). Effects of soil compaction on potato growth and its removal by cultivation. Research review R261 British Potato Council, Oxford.

1197:

Batey, T.; McKenzie, D. C. (2006). Soil compaction: identification directly in the field. In: Soil Use and Management, June 2006, 22, 123-131. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2006.00017.x

1139:

Watson, R.T., Noble, I. R., Bolin, B., Ravindranath, N. H., Verardo D.J., Dokken, D.J. (2000). Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry - IPCC Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

838:

Jones, Robert JA and Spoor, G and Thomasson, AJ (2003). Vulnerability of subsoils in Europe to compaction: a preliminary analysis, Soil and Tillage Research. Vol. 73, 1, 131–143.

414:

provides a significant proportion of the water required by crops to meet transpiration demands", often being dependent on agriculture, this danger of compaction is most present.

894:

Taghavifar, H. and Mardani, A. (2014). Effect of velocity, wheel load and multipass on soil compaction, Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 13 : 57 - 66.

329:. If one aggregates the losses in food supply due to soil compaction, however, compaction may threaten food security. This is especially relevant for regions that are prone to 1225:

Schäffer, J. (2012). Bodenstruktur, Belüftung und Durchwurzelung befahrener Waldböden – Prozessstudien und Monitoring. Schriftenreihe Freiburger Forstliche Forschung, Band 53.

885:

Fabiola, N., Giarola, B., da Silva, A. P., Imhoff, S. and Dexter, A. R. (2003). Contribution of natural soil compaction on hardsetting behavior , Geoderma 113 : 95 - 108.

1308:

Hamza, M. and Anderson, W. (2005). Soil compaction in cropping systems: A review of the nature, causes and possible solutions , Soil and Tillage Research 82 : 121 - 145.

903:

Hamza, M. and Anderson, W. (2005). Soil compaction in cropping systems: A review of the nature, causes and possible solutions , Soil and Tillage Research 82 : 121 – 145.

867:

Hamza, MA and Anderson, WK (2005). Soil compaction in cropping systems: a review of the nature, causes and possible solutions, Soil and tillage research. Vol. 82, 2, 121–145.

1121:

O’Sullivan, M.F., Simota C. (1995). Modelling the environmental impacts of soil compaction: a review. Soil& Tillage Research, 35, 69–84. doi:10.1016/0167-1987(95)00478-B

715:

Oldeman, L.R., Hakkeling, R.T.A. and Sombroek, W.G. (1991). World map of the status of human-induced soil degradation. An explanatory note. ISRIC, Wageningen, UNEP, Nairobi.

468: 155:

content, a high water content increases susceptibility to compaction as the layer of water on the surface of soil particles shields interactions between soil particles

556:. Phosphor extracted from marine deposits contains cadmium and uran. Both elements can have toxic effects on soil, plants and hence for humans or animals as consumer. 514:. In particular, member states committed themselves to "use and disseminate modern technology for data collection, transmission and assessment on land degradation". 788:"Generalized Soil Map of Europe ; aggregation of the FAO-Unesco soil units based on the characteristics determining the vulnerability to degradation processes" 1130:

Batjes, N.H., (1996). Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. European Journal of Soil Science, 47, 151–163. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2389.1996.tb01386.x

180:, or when external pressure is applied to the soil. The most relevant human-induced causes of soil compaction in agriculture are the use of heavy machineries, 1112:

Arvidsson, J. and Håkansson, I. (1991). A model for estimating crop yield losses caused by soil compaction , Soil and Tillage Research 20 : 319 - 332.

353:

and filtering services, soil regulates GHG fluxes. The loss of gases from soil to the atmosphere is often enhanced by the influence of soil compaction on

532: 23:

During the sugar beet harvest in late autumn in very moist soil condition, the lanes of agricultural equipment causes soil compaction of the clay soil.

267:

emission, decreases in available nitrogen in soil and reduced efficiency of nitrogen usage by crops. This may cause in an increase of fertilizer use.

406:. The infiltration rate of grassland soil without traffic is five times higher than on soil with severe traffic. A consequence might be a reduced 2434: 2470: 1103:

McKenzie, R. H., (2010) Agricultural Soil Compaction: Causes and Management, Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development Research Division, 1,2.

1346: 2687: 1271: 522:

acknowledged good practices. Good practices may vary from case to case, involving a variety of biological, chemical and technical methods.

41:

due to externally or internally applied loads. Compaction can adversely affect nearly all physical, chemical and biological properties and

1071:

from soil fertilized with nitrate: effect of compaction, soil moisture and rewetting , Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38 : 263 - 274.

121:

More specifically, in Europe approximately 32% and 18% of the subsoils are highly and moderately vulnerable to compaction respectively.

966:

Mulholland, B. and Fullen, M. A. (1991). Cattle trampling and soil compaction on loamy sands, Soil Use and Management 7 : 189-193.

72:. This process can cause on-site effects such as reduced crop growth, yield and quality as well as off-site effects such as increased 130:

forming a thin layer around them. This layer can shield particle–particle interaction thus reducing the stability of soil structure.

994:

Whalley, W., Dumitru, E. and Dexter, A. (1995). Biological effects of soil compaction , Soil and Tillage Research 35 : 53 - 68.

136:

As a consequence water and air is displaced and soil bulk density increases, resulting in a reduced permeability for water and air.

2444: 247:

properties are influenced by change in soil physical properties. One possible effect is a decrease in oxygen diffusion that causes

1080:

Pengthamkeerati, P., Motavalli, P. and Kremer, R. (2011). Soil microbial activity and functional diversity changed by compaction,

2550: 1706: 590: 280:. Soil compaction may not influence the quantity, but the distribution of macro fauna that is vital for soil structure including 2522: 1983: 684:

FAO (unknown). Conservation of natural resources for sustainable agriculture: what you should know about it. See page 2. URL:

60:

interact. External pressure due to the use of heavy machinery and inappropriate soil management can lead to the compaction of

697:

Batey, T. (2009). Soil compaction and soil management – a review. In: Soil Use and Management, 12, 25, 335-345. See page 335.

1296:

Schäffer, J.; Geißen, V.; Hoch, R.; Wilpert, K. v. (2001). Waldkalkung belebt Böden wieder. In: AFZ/Der Wald, 56, 1106-1109.

2460: 161:

Organic matter content, increases resistance to compaction as organic matter acts as a buffer, binding minerals and water

2487: 1689: 1216:

Gliński, J.; Horabik, J.; Lipiec, J. (Eds.) (2011). Encyclopedia of Agrophysics. Springer Verlag, Hamburg. see page 767.

410:. Especially in dryer regions suffering from a lack of water reserves, this poses a crucial risk. In regions where "the 2682: 1967: 1499: 357:

and changes in crop growth. When compacted soils are waterlogged or have an elevated water content, they tend to cause

930:

J. DeJong-Hughes, J. F. Moncrief, W. B. Voorhees, and J. B. Swan. 2001. Soil compaction: causes, effects and control.

1972: 1339: 931: 158:

Initial bulk density, dense soils are more resistant to compaction as the number of particle interactions is higher.

2515: 2455: 2439: 389:

The reduced permeability of compacted soil can result in local flooding. When water cannot infiltrate, ponding and

685: 2493: 1977: 826:

Hartge, Karl Heinrich and Horn, Rainer (1991). Einführung in die Bodenphysik, Enke Verlag. 2. Auflage, p. 25–115

2498: 2482: 1988: 1371: 735: 146:, with fine textured soils (high clay content) being more susceptible to compaction than coarse textured soils. 921:

Batey, T. (2009). Soil compaction and soil management - a review, Soil Use and Management 25 : 335 - 345.

1236: 139:

Susceptibility of soil to compaction depends on several factors, which influence soil particle interactions:

1332: 1185:

Batey, T. (2009). Soil compaction and soil management – a review. In: Soil Use and Management, 12, 25, 341.

2450: 2008: 2677: 2629: 2465: 1993: 1432: 1248: 447: 390: 1437: 808: 573:

In some areas, GIS-based technology was introduced to better monitor and control the traffic paths.

2587: 2381: 2003: 77: 50: 2656: 1998: 1961: 1682: 1366: 1260: 248: 1140: 2275: 1649: 1059:

Ruser, R., Flessa, H., Russow, R., Schmidt, G., Buegger, F. and Munch, J. (2006). Emission of N

619:

Whalley, W.R., Dumitru, E. & Dexter, A.R. (1995). "Biological effects of soil compaction".

57: 2646: 2330: 1006: 795: 418: 2411: 2305: 2129: 1018: 407: 310: 298: 85: 787: 373:

O) originates also from microbiological processes in soil and is reinforced by the use of

8: 1698: 1639: 1600: 536: 374: 365:) losses to the atmosphere due to an increased bacteria activity. The release of the GHG 1022: 943:

FAO. 2014. Machinery, tools and equipment, 2. Soil tillage in Conservation Agriculture.

467:

Soil bulk density, pore-size distribution, water permeability and the relative apparent

2602: 2249: 1882: 1675: 1595: 1538: 1494: 1042: 768: 667: 238: 222: 177: 56:

In agriculture, soil compaction is a complex problem in which soil, crops, weather and

273:

is also influenced by reduced soil aeration. Severe soil compaction may cause reduced

2295: 2164: 1555: 1402: 1046: 1034: 760: 663: 354: 270: 89: 772: 671: 49:, it is regarded as the "costliest and most serious environmental problem caused by 2476: 2169: 1632: 1026: 876:

Nachtergaele, Freddy and Batjes, Niels (2012). Harmonized world soil database. FAO.

750: 659: 637: 633: 511: 350: 346: 218: 114: 34: 2597: 2577: 2572: 2401: 2335: 2320: 2300: 2234: 2219: 2079: 1575: 1504: 1472: 932:

http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/tillage/soil-compaction/#density-effects

256: 333:

and floodings. Here, compacted soil may contribute to dry topsoil and increased

2606: 2529: 2209: 2154: 1617: 1590: 1570: 1482: 1427: 1422: 1084:

litter and cropping in a claypan soil , Applied Soil Ecology 48 : 71 - 80.

686:

http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/training_materials/cd27-english/sc/soil_compaction.pdf

560: 480: 334: 306: 244: 81: 69: 42: 31: 755: 581:

layers by deep ripping may be beneficial for plant growth and soil condition.

2671: 2640: 2543: 2536: 2376: 2345: 2254: 2139: 1644: 1521: 1477: 1283: 764: 455: 451: 422: 366: 326: 176:

Soil compaction can occur naturally by the drying and wetting process called

96: 73: 38: 1030: 2396: 2391: 2366: 2239: 2184: 1612: 1585: 1560: 1516: 1489: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1397: 1355: 1038: 734:

Nawaz, Muhammad Farrakh; Bourrié, Guilhem; Trolard, Fabienne (2012-01-31).

540: 143: 46: 1237:

http://www.unccd.int/Lists/SiteDocumentLibrary/conventionText/conv-eng.pdf

2592: 2406: 2340: 2310: 2244: 2224: 2144: 2124: 2104: 2094: 2089: 1622: 1545: 1526: 1007:"Plant roots sense soil compaction through restricted ethylene diffusion" 403: 191:

Use of large and heavy machineries for agriculture often causes not only

152: 149:

Soil structure, with angular, heterogeneous structures being more stable.

65: 429:

is restrained and also pesticides are more likely to reach groundwater.

2582: 2325: 2229: 2179: 2134: 2119: 2084: 2054: 1920: 1827: 1792: 1767: 1607: 1580: 1565: 1467: 1392: 426: 322: 281: 226: 1667: 2611: 2386: 2371: 2315: 2214: 2159: 2099: 1862: 1857: 1847: 1782: 1752: 1732: 1661: 1550: 301:

contributing to ongoing global environmental issues such as erosion,

274: 185: 184:

practice itself, inappropriate choice of tillage systems, as well as

650:

Batey, T. (2009). "Soil compaction and soil management – a review".

217:

Major effects on soil properties due to soil compaction are reduced

19: 2567: 2416: 2199: 2114: 2069: 1945: 1925: 1915: 1900: 1872: 1867: 1852: 1822: 1817: 1797: 1787: 1772: 1757: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1627: 1387: 944: 349:(GHG). It is seen as a major terrestrial pool of carbon. Providing 302: 234: 230: 1259:

Bundes-Bodenschutzgesetz vom 17. März 1998 (BGBl. I S. 502). URL:

2361: 2149: 2109: 2074: 2064: 2059: 2049: 2044: 1940: 1910: 1905: 1895: 1890: 1842: 1837: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1777: 1762: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1533: 1081: 510:

The United Nations General Assembly has agreed to jointly combat

411: 358: 330: 277: 252: 192: 181: 164: 61: 259:

processes in the soil. Possible consequences are an increase in

2259: 2194: 1935: 1930: 1832: 1447: 1324: 1261:

https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bbodschg/BJNR050210998.html

325:

and quality. Locally, these effects may have minor impacts on

2174: 1141:

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/land_use/index.php?idp=23

553: 450:

on the surface or in subsurface layers, visible reduction in

229:

growth in response to the accumulation of the plant hormone

64:, creating impermeable layers within the soil that restrict 2204: 2039: 2034: 2029: 2024: 1462: 564:

and improved water and air permeability should be reached.

251:

condition. Together with anaerobic condition, increases in

225:. Main physical negative effects to plants are restricted 2189: 1003: 260: 729: 727: 725: 723: 721: 421:. Due to a declining filter ability of soil, microbial 718: 632:

FAO (2003). Soil Compaction - an unnecessary form of

1153: 1151: 1149: 733: 402:Another off-site effect can be seen with regard to 321:Soil compaction causes reductions in crop growth, 196:important role for the degree of soil compaction. 1193: 1191: 37:, is the increase of bulk density or decrease in 2669: 1304: 1302: 1146: 736:"Soil compaction impact and modelling. A review" 638:http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/doc/Soil_compaction.pdf 2435:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated 16:Decrease in porosity of soil due to agriculture 2471:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists 1188: 1683: 1340: 1299: 834: 832: 237:due to increase in bulk density and reduced 103: 496: 2652: 1690: 1676: 1347: 1333: 829: 505: 822: 820: 818: 754: 649: 432: 2445:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute 917: 915: 913: 911: 909: 18: 2551:Soil Science Society of America Journal 1697: 591:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 2670: 2523:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 1984:Canadian system of soil classification 815: 1671: 1328: 906: 525: 2625: 2461:International Union of Soil Sciences 1284:"enhanced agricultural productivity" 743:Agronomy for Sustainable Development 567: 462: 385:Erosion, Flooding and Surface Water 2688:Environmental impact of agriculture 2488:Soil and Water Conservation Society 546: 291: 13: 1968:Unified Soil Classification System 1500:Soil retrogression and degradation 212: 167:, affects net charges of molecules 14: 2699: 1973:AASHTO Soil Classification System 785: 475: 284:due to reduction in large pores. 2651: 2636: 2635: 2624: 2516:Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B 2456:Indian Institute of Soil Science 2440:Canadian Society of Soil Science 2271: 2270: 1446: 1354: 945:http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/3b.html 664:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2009.00236.x 559:Another opportunity to increase 2494:Soil Science Society of America 1311: 1290: 1276: 1265: 1253: 1242: 1228: 1219: 1210: 1200: 1179: 1170: 1160: 1133: 1124: 1115: 1106: 1097: 1087: 1074: 1053: 997: 988: 979: 969: 960: 950: 937: 924: 897: 888: 879: 870: 861: 851: 841: 779: 749:(2). Springer Nature: 291–309. 454:and changes of soil structure, 441: 2499:World Congress of Soil Science 2483:Soil Science Society of Poland 1989:Australian Soil Classification 1980:(French classification system) 709: 700: 691: 688:(accessed November 14th 2014). 678: 643: 626: 613: 603: 487: 1: 1510:Soil compaction (agriculture) 934:. (last accessed: 19.11.2014) 640:(accessed November 15th 2014) 596: 341:Climate change and Energy use 947:(last accessed: 20.11. 2014) 124: 7: 2451:German Soil Science Society 2009:List of vineyard soil types 1143:(15.11.2014, chapter 1.2.3) 584: 10: 2704: 2630:Knowledge:WikiProject Soil 2466:International Year of Soil 1994:Polish Soil Classification 1433:Environmental soil science 207: 2683:Agricultural soil science 2620: 2560: 2507: 2427: 2354: 2288: 2268: 2018:Non-systematic soil types 2017: 1954: 1881: 1705: 1660: 1455: 1444: 1438:Agricultural soil science 1380: 1362: 786:B, Fraters (1996-03-31). 756:10.1007/s13593-011-0071-8 621:Soil and Tillage Research 469:gas diffusion coefficient 171: 104:History and current state 2588:Infiltration (hydrology) 2382:Geotechnical engineering 2004:List of U.S. state soils 1239:(accessed November 2014) 497:Avoidance and mitigation 255:saturation can increase 78:greenhouse gas emissions 51:conventional agriculture 2657:List of soil scientists 1999:1938 USDA soil taxonomy 1978:Référentiel pédologique 1962:FAO soil classification 1031:10.1126/science.abf3013 652:Soil Use and Management 506:Public policy responses 408:recharge of groundwater 76:run-off, soil erosion, 2428:Societies, Initiatives 1650:Soil water (retention) 803:Cite journal requires 433:Identification methods 24: 2647:Category soil science 2331:Soil salinity control 299:environmental impacts 233:and accessibility of 22: 2412:Agricultural science 2306:Soil guideline value 2130:Calcareous grassland 1707:World Reference Base 311:loss of biodiversity 90:loss of biodiversity 86:groundwater recharge 2508:Scientific journals 1699:Soil classification 1640:Soil organic matter 1601:Pore water pressure 1023:2021Sci...371..276P 375:nitrogen fertilizer 2603:Impervious surface 1883:USDA soil taxonomy 1709:for Soil Resources 1596:Pore space in soil 1539:Soil acidification 1495:Soil contamination 526:Biological methods 223:water infiltration 178:soil consolidation 25: 2678:Agricultural land 2665: 2664: 2296:Soil conservation 2282: 2281: 1556:Soil biodiversity 1403:Soil microbiology 1017:(6526): 276–280. 568:Technical methods 463:In the laboratory 271:Soil biodiversity 43:functions of soil 2695: 2655: 2654: 2639: 2638: 2628: 2627: 2477:OPAL Soil Centre 2274: 2273: 2170:Hydrophobic soil 1692: 1685: 1678: 1669: 1668: 1633:Soil respiration 1450: 1349: 1342: 1335: 1326: 1325: 1319: 1315: 1309: 1306: 1297: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1280: 1274: 1269: 1263: 1257: 1251: 1246: 1240: 1232: 1226: 1223: 1217: 1214: 1208: 1204: 1198: 1195: 1186: 1183: 1177: 1174: 1168: 1164: 1158: 1155: 1144: 1137: 1131: 1128: 1122: 1119: 1113: 1110: 1104: 1101: 1095: 1091: 1085: 1078: 1072: 1057: 1051: 1050: 1001: 995: 992: 986: 983: 977: 973: 967: 964: 958: 954: 948: 941: 935: 928: 922: 919: 904: 901: 895: 892: 886: 883: 877: 874: 868: 865: 859: 855: 849: 845: 839: 836: 827: 824: 813: 812: 806: 801: 799: 791: 783: 777: 776: 758: 740: 731: 716: 713: 707: 704: 698: 695: 689: 682: 676: 675: 658:(25): 335–345 . 647: 641: 634:land degradation 630: 624: 617: 611: 607: 547:Chemical methods 533:root penetration 512:land degradation 377:on arable land. 351:nutrient cycling 347:greenhouse gases 292:Off-site effects 219:air permeability 115:soil degradation 45:. Together with 39:porosity of soil 30:, also known as 2703: 2702: 2698: 2697: 2696: 2694: 2693: 2692: 2668: 2667: 2666: 2661: 2616: 2598:Crust (geology) 2578:Land management 2573:Land conversion 2556: 2503: 2423: 2402:Earth materials 2350: 2336:Erosion control 2321:Soil governance 2301:Soil management 2284: 2283: 2278: 2264: 2235:Subaqueous soil 2220:Serpentine soil 2080:Parent material 2013: 1950: 1877: 1708: 1701: 1696: 1656: 1576:Soil resilience 1505:Soil compaction 1473:Soil morphology 1451: 1442: 1376: 1358: 1353: 1323: 1322: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1300: 1295: 1291: 1282: 1281: 1277: 1270: 1266: 1258: 1254: 1247: 1243: 1233: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1189: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1171: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1147: 1138: 1134: 1129: 1125: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1098: 1092: 1088: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1005:January 2021). 1002: 998: 993: 989: 984: 980: 974: 970: 965: 961: 955: 951: 942: 938: 929: 925: 920: 907: 902: 898: 893: 889: 884: 880: 875: 871: 866: 862: 856: 852: 846: 842: 837: 830: 825: 816: 804: 802: 793: 792: 784: 780: 738: 732: 719: 714: 710: 705: 701: 696: 692: 683: 679: 648: 644: 631: 627: 618: 614: 608: 604: 599: 587: 570: 549: 528: 508: 499: 490: 478: 465: 446:Phenomena like 444: 435: 372: 364: 294: 264: 257:denitrification 215: 213:On-site effects 210: 174: 127: 106: 70:nutrient cycles 28:Soil compaction 17: 12: 11: 5: 2701: 2691: 2690: 2685: 2680: 2663: 2662: 2660: 2659: 2649: 2643: 2632: 2621: 2618: 2617: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2607:Surface runoff 2600: 2595: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2564: 2562: 2558: 2557: 2555: 2554: 2547: 2540: 2533: 2530:Plant and Soil 2526: 2519: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2504: 2502: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2485: 2480: 2474: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2442: 2437: 2431: 2429: 2425: 2424: 2422: 2421: 2420: 2419: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2358: 2356: 2355:Related fields 2352: 2351: 2349: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2285: 2280: 2279: 2269: 2266: 2265: 2263: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2247: 2242: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2212: 2210:Prime farmland 2207: 2202: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2165:Fuller's earth 2162: 2157: 2155:Expansive clay 2152: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2042: 2037: 2032: 2027: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2014: 2012: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1981: 1975: 1970: 1965: 1958: 1956: 1952: 1951: 1949: 1948: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1893: 1887: 1885: 1879: 1878: 1876: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1755: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1714: 1712: 1703: 1702: 1695: 1694: 1687: 1680: 1672: 1666: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1655: 1654: 1653: 1652: 1642: 1637: 1636: 1635: 1625: 1620: 1618:Soil biomantle 1615: 1610: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1598: 1591:Soil structure 1588: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1571:Soil fertility 1568: 1563: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1542: 1541: 1531: 1530: 1529: 1519: 1514: 1513: 1512: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1486: 1485: 1483:Soil formation 1480: 1475: 1465: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1452: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1428:Soil chemistry 1425: 1423:Soil mechanics 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1377: 1375: 1374: 1369: 1363: 1360: 1359: 1352: 1351: 1344: 1337: 1329: 1321: 1320: 1310: 1298: 1289: 1275: 1264: 1252: 1241: 1227: 1218: 1209: 1199: 1187: 1178: 1169: 1159: 1145: 1132: 1123: 1114: 1105: 1096: 1086: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1052: 996: 987: 978: 968: 959: 949: 936: 923: 905: 896: 887: 878: 869: 860: 850: 840: 828: 814: 805:|journal= 778: 717: 708: 699: 690: 677: 642: 625: 612: 601: 600: 598: 595: 594: 593: 586: 583: 569: 566: 561:soil fertility 548: 545: 537:organic matter 527: 524: 507: 504: 498: 495: 489: 486: 481:Remote sensing 477: 476:Remote sensing 474: 464: 461: 443: 440: 434: 431: 370: 362: 335:surface runoff 307:climate change 293: 290: 262: 239:soil pore size 214: 211: 209: 206: 173: 170: 169: 168: 162: 159: 156: 150: 147: 126: 123: 105: 102: 82:eutrophication 32:soil structure 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2700: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2673: 2658: 2650: 2648: 2644: 2642: 2641:Category soil 2633: 2631: 2623: 2622: 2619: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2601: 2599: 2596: 2594: 2591: 2589: 2586: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2565: 2563: 2559: 2553: 2552: 2548: 2546: 2545: 2544:Soil Research 2541: 2539: 2538: 2537:Pochvovedenie 2534: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2525: 2524: 2520: 2518: 2517: 2513: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2500: 2497: 2495: 2492: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2469: 2467: 2464: 2462: 2459: 2457: 2454: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2432: 2430: 2426: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2413: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2380: 2378: 2377:Geomorphology 2375: 2373: 2370: 2368: 2365: 2363: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2353: 2347: 2346:Liming (soil) 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2293: 2291: 2287: 2277: 2276:Types of soil 2267: 2261: 2258: 2256: 2255:Tropical peat 2253: 2251: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2231: 2228: 2226: 2223: 2221: 2218: 2216: 2213: 2211: 2208: 2206: 2203: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2140:Dry quicksand 2138: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2068: 2066: 2063: 2061: 2058: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2046: 2043: 2041: 2038: 2036: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2026: 2023: 2022: 2020: 2016: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1957: 1955:Other systems 1953: 1947: 1944: 1942: 1939: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1888: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1874: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1769: 1766: 1764: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1688: 1686: 1681: 1679: 1674: 1673: 1670: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1646: 1645:Soil moisture 1643: 1641: 1638: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1528: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1522:Soil salinity 1520: 1518: 1515: 1511: 1508: 1507: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1478:Pedodiversity 1476: 1474: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1357: 1350: 1345: 1343: 1338: 1336: 1331: 1330: 1327: 1314: 1305: 1303: 1293: 1285: 1279: 1273: 1268: 1262: 1256: 1250: 1245: 1238: 1231: 1222: 1213: 1203: 1194: 1192: 1182: 1173: 1163: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1142: 1136: 1127: 1118: 1109: 1100: 1090: 1083: 1077: 1056: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1000: 991: 982: 972: 963: 953: 946: 940: 933: 927: 918: 916: 914: 912: 910: 900: 891: 882: 873: 864: 854: 844: 835: 833: 823: 821: 819: 810: 797: 789: 782: 774: 770: 766: 762: 757: 752: 748: 744: 737: 730: 728: 726: 724: 722: 712: 703: 694: 687: 681: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 646: 639: 636:. p. 2. URL: 635: 629: 622: 616: 606: 602: 592: 589: 588: 582: 578: 574: 565: 562: 557: 555: 544: 542: 538: 535:and increase 534: 523: 519: 515: 513: 503: 494: 485: 482: 473: 470: 460: 457: 456:soil moisture 453: 449: 439: 430: 428: 424: 423:decomposition 420: 415: 413: 409: 405: 400: 399: 395: 392: 391:water logging 387: 386: 382: 378: 376: 368: 367:nitrous oxide 360: 356: 352: 348: 343: 342: 338: 336: 332: 328: 327:food security 324: 319: 318: 317:Food security 314: 312: 308: 304: 300: 289: 285: 283: 279: 276: 272: 268: 266: 258: 254: 250: 246: 245:Soil chemical 242: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 205: 201: 197: 194: 189: 187: 183: 179: 166: 163: 160: 157: 154: 151: 148: 145: 142: 141: 140: 137: 134: 131: 122: 119: 116: 110: 101: 98: 93: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 74:surface water 71: 67: 63: 59: 54: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 33: 29: 21: 2549: 2542: 2535: 2528: 2521: 2514: 2397:Biogeography 2392:Hydrogeology 2367:Geochemistry 2289:Applications 2185:Martian soil 1613:Soil horizon 1586:Soil texture 1561:Soil quality 1517:Soil sealing 1509: 1490:Soil erosion 1418:Soil physics 1413:Soil ecology 1408:Soil zoology 1398:Soil biology 1356:Soil science 1313: 1292: 1278: 1267: 1255: 1244: 1230: 1221: 1212: 1202: 1181: 1172: 1162: 1135: 1126: 1117: 1108: 1099: 1089: 1076: 1055: 1014: 1010: 999: 990: 981: 971: 962: 952: 939: 926: 899: 890: 881: 872: 863: 853: 843: 796:cite journal 781: 746: 742: 711: 702: 693: 680: 655: 651: 645: 628: 623:, 35, 53–68. 620: 615: 605: 579: 575: 571: 558: 550: 541:agroforestry 529: 520: 516: 509: 500: 491: 479: 466: 448:waterlogging 445: 442:In the field 436: 416: 401: 397: 396: 388: 384: 383: 379: 355:permeability 345:Soil stores 344: 340: 339: 320: 316: 315: 295: 286: 269: 243: 221:and reduced 216: 202: 198: 190: 175: 144:Soil texture 138: 135: 132: 128: 120: 111: 107: 97:salinization 94: 55: 47:soil erosion 27: 26: 2593:Groundwater 2407:Archaeology 2341:Agroecology 2311:Soil survey 2250:Terra rossa 2245:Terra preta 2225:Spodic soil 2145:Duplex soil 2125:Brown earth 2105:Alkali soil 2095:Rhizosphere 2090:Laimosphere 1964:(1974–1998) 1921:Inceptisols 1828:Plinthosols 1793:Kastanozems 1623:Soil carbon 1546:Soil health 1527:Alkali soil 1456:Soil topics 1381:Main fields 488:Limitations 404:groundwater 398:Groundwater 188:trampling. 35:degradation 2672:Categories 2583:Vegetation 2326:Soil value 2230:Stagnogley 2180:Lunar soil 2135:Dark earth 2120:Brickearth 2085:Pedosphere 2055:Soil crust 1863:Technosols 1848:Solonchaks 1768:Ferralsols 1733:Anthrosols 1608:Soil crust 1581:Soil color 1566:Soil value 1468:Pedosphere 1393:Edaphology 1272:Zai-system 597:References 427:pesticides 282:earthworms 253:soil water 227:plant root 153:Soil water 84:, reduced 2612:Petrichor 2387:Hydrology 2372:Petrology 2316:Soil test 2215:Quicksand 2160:Fill dirt 2100:Bulk soil 1946:Vertisols 1936:Spodosols 1926:Mollisols 1916:Histosols 1901:Aridisols 1873:Vertisols 1868:Umbrisols 1858:Stagnosol 1823:Planosols 1818:Phaeozems 1798:Leptosols 1783:Gypsisols 1773:Fluvisols 1753:Chernozem 1748:Cambisols 1743:Calcisols 1738:Arenosols 1662:Soil type 1551:Soil life 1047:231606782 765:1774-0746 419:pollution 313:in soil. 275:microbial 249:anaerobic 235:nutrients 186:livestock 125:Mechanism 58:machinery 2568:Land use 2561:See also 2417:Agrology 2200:Paleosol 2115:Blue goo 2070:Gypcrust 1941:Ultisols 1911:Gelisols 1906:Entisols 1896:Andisols 1891:Alfisols 1853:Solonetz 1843:Retisols 1838:Regosols 1813:Nitisols 1808:Luvisols 1803:Lixisols 1788:Histosol 1778:Gleysols 1763:Durisols 1758:Cryosols 1728:Andosols 1718:Acrisols 1628:Soil gas 1388:Pedology 1167:737–750. 1094:312-320. 1039:33446554 773:17247157 672:96618510 585:See also 452:porosity 331:droughts 303:flooding 231:ethylene 2645: 2447:(India) 2362:Geology 2150:Eluvium 2110:Bay mud 2075:Caliche 2065:Hardpan 2060:Claypan 2050:Subsoil 2045:Topsoil 1931:Oxisols 1833:Podzols 1723:Alisols 1711:(1998–) 1534:Soil pH 1367:History 1082:poultry 1019:Bibcode 1011:Science 412:subsoil 359:methane 278:biomass 208:Effects 193:topsoil 182:tillage 95:Unlike 62:subsoil 2634: 2260:Yedoma 2195:Muskeg 1067:and CO 1045: 1037: 858:96–103 848:96–103 771: 763: 670: 610:2014). 172:Causes 88:and a 2240:Takir 2175:Loess 1372:Index 1043:S2CID 769:S2CID 739:(PDF) 668:S2CID 554:guano 323:yield 66:water 2490:(US) 2479:(UK) 2473:(US) 2205:Peat 2040:Loam 2035:Clay 2030:Silt 2025:Sand 1463:Soil 1318:103. 1207:320. 1063:O, N 1035:PMID 976:1-8. 809:help 761:ISSN 309:and 68:and 2190:Mud 1027:doi 1015:371 957:15. 751:doi 660:doi 425:of 361:(CH 53:." 2674:: 1301:^ 1190:^ 1148:^ 1041:. 1033:. 1025:. 1013:. 1009:. 908:^ 831:^ 817:^ 800:: 798:}} 794:{{ 767:. 759:. 747:33 745:. 741:. 720:^ 666:. 656:12 654:. 369:(N 305:, 165:pH 92:. 80:, 2605:/ 1691:e 1684:t 1677:v 1348:e 1341:t 1334:v 1286:. 1069:2 1065:2 1061:2 1049:. 1029:: 1021:: 811:) 807:( 790:. 775:. 753:: 674:. 662:: 371:2 363:4 265:O 263:2 261:N

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.