229:
getters to the sodium, but even so wetting will fail below 200 °C. Before the cell can begin operation, it must be heated, which creates extra costs. To tackle this challenge, case studies to couple sodium–sulfur batteries to thermal solar energy systems. The heat energy collected from the sun would be used to pre-heat the cells and maintain the high temperatures for short periods between use. Once running, the heat produced by charging and discharging cycles is sufficient to maintain operating temperatures and usually no external source is required.
667:
energy, room temperature operation mitigates safety issues such as explosions which can occur due to failure of the solid electrolyte during operation at high temperatures. Research and development of sodium–sulfur batteries that can operate at room temperature is ongoing. Despite the higher theoretical energy density of sodium–sulfur cells at room temperature compared to high temperature, operation at room temperature introduces challenges like:
1989:
20:
88:. Poor market adoption of molten sodium-sulfur batteries is due to their safety and durability issues, such as a short cycle life of fewer than 1000 cycles on average (although there are reports of 15 year operation with 300 cycles per year). In 2023, only one company (NGK Insulators of Japan) produces molten NaS batteries on a commercial scale.
447:) are abundant in Japan. The first large-scale field testing took place at TEPCO's Tsunashima substation between 1993 and 1996, using 3 x 2 MW, 6.6 kV battery banks. Based on the findings from this trial, improved battery modules were developed and were made commercially available in 2000. The commercial NaS battery bank offers:
1132:
591:
periods. In addition to this power shifting, sodium-sulfur batteries could be used to assist in stabilizing the power output of the wind farm during wind fluctuations. These types of batteries present an option for energy storage in locations where other storage options are not feasible. For example,
666:
One of the main shortcomings of traditional sodium–sulfur batteries is that they require high temperatures to operate. This means that they must be preheated before use, and that they will consume some of their stored energy (up to 14%) to maintain this temperature when not in use. Aside from saving
490:
announced that they had developed a low temperature molten sodium ion battery that can output power at under 100 °C. The batteries have double the energy density of Li-ion and considerably lower cost. Sumitomo
Electric Industry CEO Masayoshi Matsumoto indicated that the company planned to begin
1402:
Y. Dong, I. W. Chen and J. Li, "Transverse and longitudinal degradations in ceramic solid electrolytes." Chemistry of
Materials, 34, 5749 (2022) 10.1021/acs.chemmater.2c00329; L. C. De Jonghe, "Impurities and solid electrolyte failure." Solid State Ionics, 7, 61 (1982) 10.1016/0167-2738(82)90070-4;
228:
above 250 °C, but a poor conductor of electrons, and thus avoids self-discharge. Sodium metal does not fully wet the BASE below 400 °C due to a layer of oxide(s) separating them; this temperature can be lowered to 300 °C by coating the BASE with certain metals and/or by adding oxygen
508:
During charge, sodium metal dendrites tend to form (slowly after several cycles) and propagate (rather quickly once they nucleate) into the intergrain boundaries in the solid beta-alumina electrolyte, eventually leading to internal short-circuiting and immediate failure. In general, a significant
474:
announced that it would test a wind farm energy storage battery based on twenty 50 kW sodium–sulfur batteries. The 80 tonne, 2 semi-trailer sized battery is expected to have 7.2 MW·h of capacity at a charge and discharge rate of 1 MW. Since then, NGK announced several large-scale deployments
177:
For operation, the entire battery must be heated to, or above, the melting point of sulfur at 119 °C. Sodium has a lower melting point, around 98 °C, so a battery that holds molten sulfur holds molten sodium by default. This presents a serious safety concern; sodium can be spontaneously
516:
Beta-alumina surface layer on the Na side turns grey after > 100 cycles. This is caused by a slower growth of micron-size sodium metal globules in the triple-junctions between the grains of the solid electrolyte. This process is possible, because the electronic conductivity of beta-alumina is
772:
The problem occurs when the soluble polysulfide forms migrate to the anode, where they form the insoluble polysulfides. These insoluble polysulfides form as dendrites on the anode which can damage the battery and interfere with the movement of sodium ions into the electrolyte. Furthermore, the
1133:
https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hard-Road-Lithium-Ion-Electric/dp/1612497624/ref=sr_1_1?crid=176CB5599LUX6&keywords=long+hard+road+the+lithium-ion+battery+and+the+electric+car&qid=1697893528&sprefix=Long+Hard+Road%3A+The+Lithium-Ion+Battery+and+the+Electric+Car%2Caps%2C68&sr=8-1
524:
Darkening of the beta-alumina also occurs on the sulfur side upon passing electric current, albeit at a slower schedule that the darkening on the sodium side. It is believed to be due to the deposition of carbon, which is added to the bulk sulfur to provide electronic conductivity.
126:
catholyte in place of molten sodium polysulfide, has had greater commercial interest in the past, but As of 2023 there are no commercial manufacturers of ZEBRA. Room-temperature sodium–sulfur batteries are also known. They use neither liquid sodium nor liquid sulfur nor sodium
773:
insoluble polysulfides at the anode cannot be converted back into sulfur when the battery is being recharged, which means that less sulfur is available for the battery to function (capacity loss). Research is being conducted into how the shuttle effect can be avoided.
692:
The shuttle effect in sodium–sulfur batteries leads to a loss of capacity, which can be defined as a reduction in the amount of energy that can be extracted from the battery. When the battery is being discharged, sodium ions react with sulfur (which is in the
499:
Molten sodium beta-alumina batteries failed to meet the durability and safety expectations, that were the basis of several commercialization attempts in the 1980s. A characteristic lifetime of NaS batteries was determined as 1,000-2,000 cycles in a
378:-hours per gram. The material fully coated ("wetted") the electrolyte. After 100 charge/discharge cycles, a test battery maintained about 97% of its initial storage capacity. The lower operating temperature allowed the use of a less-expensive
236:, the Na ion migrates to the sulfur container. The electron drives an electric current through the molten sodium to the contact, through the electrical load and back to the sulfur container. Here, another electron reacts with sulfur to form S
57:, and is fabricated from inexpensive and non-toxic materials. However, due to the high operating temperature required (usually between 300 and 350 °C), as well as the highly corrosive and reactive nature of sodium and
84:(300-400 Wh/L), molten sodium–sulfur batteries have not achieved a wide-scale deployment: there have been only ca. 200 installations, with a combined energy of 4 GWh and power of 0.56 GW, worldwide. vs. 948 GWh for
434:
Ltd. declared their interest in researching the NaS battery in 1983, and became the primary drivers behind the development of this type ever since. TEPCO chose the NaS battery because all its component elements
586:
and solar generation plants. In the case of a wind farm, the battery would store energy during times of high wind but low power demand. This stored energy could then be discharged from the batteries during
1433:
Z. Munshi, P. S. Nicholson and D. Weaver, "Effect of localized temperature development at flaw tips on the degradation of na-β/β″-alumina." Solid State Ionics, 37, 271 (1990) 10.1016/0167-2738(90)90187-V
642:
mission concept is also considering the use of this type of battery, as the rover and its payload are being designed to function for about 50 days on the hot surface of Venus without a cooling system.
166:, from corrosion on the inside. This outside container serves as the positive electrode, while the liquid sodium serves as the negative electrode. The container is sealed at the top with an airtight
960:
95:: large cells have less relative heat loss, so maintaining their high operating temperatures is easier. Commercially available cells are typically large with high capacities (up to 500 Ah).
1424:
M. Liu and L. C. De Jonahe, "Chemical stability of sodium beta -alumina electrolyte in sulfur/sodium polysulfide melts." Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 135, 741 (1988) 10.1149/1.2095734
1403:
D. Gourier, A. Wicker and D. Vivien, "E.S.R. Study of chemical coloration of β and β″ aluminates by metallic sodium." Materials
Research Bulletin, 17, 363 (1982) 10.1016/0025-5408(82)90086-1
623:
Because of its high energy density, the NaS battery has been proposed for space applications. Sodium–sulfur cells can be made space-qualified: in fact a test sodium-sulfur cell flew on the
950:
Spoerke, Erik D., Martha M. Gross, Stephen J. Percival, and Leo J. Small. "Molten Sodium
Batteries." Energy-Sustainable Advanced Materials (2021): 59-84. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-57492-5_3 .
356:
was not achieved during that time. Also, the battery life was estimated to be only 2 years. However, the program was terminated in 1995, after two of the leased car batteries caught fire.
1384:
A. C. Buechele, L. C. De Jonghe and D. Hitchcock, "Degradation of sodium β”-alumina: Effect of microstructure." Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 130, 1042 (1983) 10.1149/1.2119881
1393:
D. C. Hitchcock and L. C. De Jonghe, "Time-dependent degradation in sodium-beta” alumina solid electrolytes." Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 133, 355 (1986) 10.1149/1.2108578
546:
Passing current (e.g. >1 A/cm2) through beta-alumina can cause temperature gradient (e.g. > 50 °C/ 2 mm) in the electrolyte, which in turn results in a thermal stress.
517:
small but not zero. The formation of such sodium metal globules gradually increases the electronic conductivity of the electrolyte and causes electronic leakage and self-discharge;
574:
NaS batteries can be deployed to support the electric grid, or for stand-alone renewable power applications. Under some market conditions, NaS batteries provide value via energy
1375:
L. C. De Jonghe, L. Feldman and A. Beuchele, "Slow degradation and electron conduction in sodium/beta-aluminas." Journal of
Materials Science, 16, 780 (1981) 10.1007/BF02402796
1363:
Y. Dong, I. W. Chen, and J. Li, "Transverse and longitudinal degradations in ceramic solid electrolytes." Chemistry of
Materials, 34, 5749 (2022) 10.1021/acs.chemmater.2c00329
658:
prototype in 1991. The high operating temperature of sodium-sulfur batteries presented difficulties for electric vehicle use, however. The
Ecostar never went into production.
539:
Disproportionation of sulfur into aluminium sulfate and sodium polysulfide has been suggested as a degradation pathway. This mechanism is not mentioned in later publications.
174:) membrane, which selectively conducts Na. In commercial applications the cells are arranged in blocks for better heat conservation and are encased in a vacuum-insulated box.
394:
as part of the "Moonlight Project" in 1980. This project sought to develop a durable utility power storage device meeting the criteria shown below in a 10-year project.
1338:"Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd. - Press Release (2014) Development of "sEMSA," a New Energy Management System for Business Establishment/Plant Applications"
1513:
1879:
680:
Formation of dendrites on the sodium anode which create short-circuits in the battery. This is contributed to by the shuttle effect which is explained below.
276:
presents a hazard, because it spontaneously burns in contact with air and moisture, thus the system must be protected from water and oxidizing atmospheres.
467:
As of 2007, 165 MW of capacity were installed in Japan. NGK announced in 2008 a plan to expand its NaS factory output from 90 MW a year to 150 MW a year.
182:, equipped with such a battery, burst into flame during recharging, leading Ford to abandon the attempted development of molten NaS batteries for cars.
1354:
R. O. Ansell and J. I. Ansell, "Modeling the reliability of sodium-sulfur cells." Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf., 17, 127 (1987) 10.1016/0143-8174(87)90011-4
1526:
The facility offers energy-storage capabilities similar to those of pumped hydro facilities while helping to improve the balance of supply and demand
464:
Japan Wind Development opened a 51 MW wind farm that incorporates a 34 MW sodium-sulfur battery system at Futamata in Aomori Prefecture in May 2008.
1443:
131:, but rather operate on entirely different principles and face different challenges than the high-temperature molten NaS batteries discussed here.
1872:
324:. The car had a 100-mile driving range, which was twice as much as any other fully electric car demonstrated earlier. 68 of such vehicles were
1254:
1685:— originally presented as paper AIAA-2008-5796, 6th AIAA International Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., Cleveland OH, July 28–30, 2008.
391:
1214:
65:
applications, rather than for use in vehicles. Molten Na-S batteries are scalable in size: there is a 1 MW microgrid support system on
1461:
Walawalkar, R.; Apt, J.; Mancini, R. (2007). "Economics of electric energy storage for energy arbitrage and regulation in New York".
608:
532:
Oxygen depletion in the alumina near the sodium electrode has been suggested as a possible cause for the following crack formation.
1918:
1144:
292:
Mitsubishi Materials Corporation plant caught fire. Following the incident, NGK temporarily suspended production of NaS batteries.
1654:
811:
Wen, Z.; Hu, Y.; Wu, X.; Han, J.; Gu, Z. (2013). "Main Challenges for High Performance NAS Battery: Materials and Interfaces".
1084:
91:
Like many high-temperature batteries, sodium–sulfur cells become more economical with increasing size. This is because of the
1169:
158:
is usually made in a cylindrical configuration. The entire cell is enclosed by a steel casing that is protected, usually by
1724:
Wang, Yanjie; Zhang, Yingjie; Cheng, Hongyu; Ni, Zhicong; Wang, Ying; Xia, Guanghui; Li, Xue; Zeng, Xiaoyuan (2021-03-11).
578:(charging battery when electricity is abundant/cheap, and discharging into the grid when electricity is more valuable) and
1696:
615:, Japan. The facility offers energy storage to help manage energy levels during peak times with renewable energy sources.
879:
Adelhelm, Philipp; Hartmann, Pascal; Bender, Conrad L; Busche, Martin; Eufinger, Christine; Janek, Juergen (2015-04-23).
1298:
2189:
2076:
66:
1271:
974:
1577:
345:
2229:
1114:
997:"Liquid-metal electrode to enable ultra-low temperature sodium–beta alumina batteries for renewable energy storage"
858:
683:
Shorter cycle life which means that the cells must be replaced more often than their high-temperature counterparts.
2404:
2399:
2239:
604:
593:
2167:
349:
206:
171:
128:
1538:
1319:
582:. NaS batteries are a possible energy storage technology to support renewable energy generation, specifically
2249:
631:
of 150 W·h/kg (3 x nickel–hydrogen battery energy density), operating at 350 °C. It was launched on the
597:
565:
374:
In 2014, researchers identified a liquid sodium–caesium alloy that operates at 150 °C and produces 420
1911:
1861:
509:
threshold current density needs to be exceeded before such rapid Mode I fracture-degradation is initiated.
483:
264:
As the cell discharges, the sodium level drops. During the charging phase the reverse process takes place.
2214:
2081:
2254:
2224:
2209:
2177:
1792:"Towards high performance room temperature sodium–sulfur batteries: Strategies to avoid shuttle effect"
787:
382:
external casing instead of steel, offsetting some of the increased cost associated with using caesium.
341:
1849:"AEP'S Appalachian Power unit to install first U.S. use of commercial-scale energy storage technology"
2016:
1414:-alumina solid electrolytes." Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 133, 6 (1986) 10.1149/1.2108548
2284:
2182:
1560:
Koenig, A. A.; Rasmussen, J. R. (1990). "Development of a high specific power sodium sulfur cell".
1251:
1043:
Chen. (2015). A Combined Sodium Sulphur Battery/Solar Thermal Collector System for Energy Storage.
881:"From lithium to sodium: cell chemistry of room temperature sodium–air and sodium–sulfur batteries"
569:
461:
A demonstration project used NaS battery at Japan Wind Development Co.'s Miura Wind Park in Japan.
420:
1601:
Auxer, William (June 9–12, 1986). "The PB sodium sulfur cell for satellite battery applications".
151:, compared with liquid-metal batteries where the anode, the cathode and the membrane are liquids.
2409:
2289:
2234:
2219:
2172:
2152:
2111:
2086:
2066:
2046:
1904:
1791:
639:
2378:
2279:
416:
390:
The NaS battery was one of four battery types selected as candidates for intensive research by
333:
284:
Early on the morning of September 21, 2011, a 2000 kilowatt NaS battery system manufactured by
2244:
2140:
2061:
782:
412:
329:
309:
35:
2122:
2106:
2091:
1927:
1803:
1606:
1008:
880:
427:
155:
288:, owned by Tokyo Electric Power Company used for storing electricity and installed at the
8:
2274:
2259:
2194:
2162:
2157:
1973:
792:
561:
92:
85:
62:
54:
32:
1807:
1610:
1092:
1012:
2264:
2135:
1946:
1760:
1725:
1583:
1070:
913:
828:
612:
579:
317:
305:
58:
1988:
1045:
International Conference on Computer Science and Environmental Engineering (CSEE 2015)
2338:
2026:
1827:
1819:
1765:
1747:
1637:
1587:
1573:
1026:
995:
Lu, X.; Li, G.; Kim, J. Y.; Mei, D.; Lemmon, J. P.; Sprenkle, V. L.; Liu, J. (2014).
918:
900:
457:
Lifetime of 2,500 cycles at 100% depth of discharge (DOD), or 4,500 cycles at 80% DOD
2056:
1337:
1320:"The world's largest "virtual battery plant" is now operating in the Arabian desert"
1057:
Oshima, T.; Kajita, M.; Okuno, A. (2005). "Development of Sodium–Sulfur Batteries".
832:
352:. Despite the low materials cost, these batteries were expensive to produce, as the
2204:
2199:
2011:
1951:
1811:
1755:
1737:
1676:
1618:
1614:
1565:
1489:
1470:
1066:
1016:
908:
892:
820:
655:
487:
353:
289:
210:
194:
491:
production in 2015. Initial applications are envisaged to be buildings and buses.
364:
359:
As of 2009, a lower temperature, solid electrode version was under development in
2071:
1998:
1258:
1190:
1131:
Long Hard Road: The Lithium-Ion Battery and the Electric Car. 2022. C.J. Murray.
628:
209:(BASE) cylinder from the container of molten sulfur, which is fabricated from an
167:
1474:
674:
Volume expansion of sulfur, which creates mechanical stresses within the battery
2307:
1961:
1815:
1700:
1603:
Proceedings of the International Power Sources Symposium, 32nd, Cherry Hill, NJ
431:
371:
membrane to allow operation at 90 °C with all components remaining solid.
337:
285:
81:
50:
1742:
635:
mission in November 1997, and demonstrated 10 days of experimental operation.
2393:
1941:
1823:
1751:
1726:"Research Progress toward Room Temperature Sodium Sulfur Batteries: A Review"
1569:
904:
624:
313:
99:
1667:
Landis, G.A.; Harrison, R. (2010). "Batteries for Venus Surface Operation".
178:
inflammable in air, and sulfur is highly flammable. Several examples of the
2145:
2101:
2036:
1978:
1956:
1831:
1769:
1514:"Mitsubishi Installs 50 MW Energy Storage System to Japanese Power Company"
1277:
1030:
922:
824:
651:
321:
179:
77:
1848:
1191:"PNNL: News - 'Wetting' a battery's appetite for renewable energy storage"
935:
850:
2373:
2358:
2096:
2021:
896:
471:
320:
resumed its work on a Na-S battery powered electric car, which was named
241:
140:
1896:
205:
donates electrons to the external circuit. The sodium is separated by a
2317:
2051:
2031:
1412:
D. C. Hitchcock, "Oxygen depletion and slow crack growth in sodium beta
1021:
996:
163:
2363:
2353:
2343:
2312:
1968:
1641:
588:
583:
575:
46:
1680:
1632:
Garner, J. C.; Baker, W. E.; Braun, W.; Kim, J. (31 December 1995).
1229:"Japanese Companies Test System to Stabilize Output from Wind Power"
2041:
1228:
600:(CAES) requires some type of geologic feature such as a salt cave.
233:
159:
697:
form) at the cathode to form polysulfides in the following steps:
2348:
1790:
Tang, Wenwen; Aslam, Muhammad Kashif; Xu, Maowen (January 2022).
504:
distribution with k=0.5. There are several degradation pathways:
501:
444:
379:
368:
214:
148:
70:
19:
1880:"Low-cost battery built with four times the capacity of lithium"
650:
The first large-scale use of sodium–sulfur batteries was in the
596:
facilities require significant space and water resources, while
632:
440:
436:
375:
325:
273:
218:
202:
191:
43:
39:
170:
lid. An essential part of the cell is the presence of a BASE (
2333:
1562:
Proceedings of the 34th International Power Sources Symposium
198:
144:
878:
1444:"Aquion Energy to build microgrid battery system in Hawaii"
661:
360:
627:. The NaS flight experiment demonstrated a battery with a
2368:
1873:
Advanced Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Technologies
961:"Lithium Battery Production by Country: Top 12 Countries"
476:
225:
244:. The discharge process can be represented as follows:
1539:"World's largest sodium–sulphur ESS deployed in Japan"
1145:"New battery could change world, one house at a time"
475:
including a virtual plant distributed on 10 sites in
23:
Cut-away schematic diagram of a sodium–sulfur battery
1460:
1276:(in Japanese). Ngk.co.jp. 2008-07-28. Archived from
1631:
1605:. A88-16601 04–44. Electrochemical Society: 49–54.
1059:
International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology
671:
Poor conductivity of sulfur and sodium polysulfides
279:
1660:
1657:Geoffrey Landis, NASA Glenn Research Center. 2012.
1634:Sodium Sulfur Battery Cell Space Flight Experiment
1056:
2391:
1723:
1299:"Xcel Energy to trial wind power storage system"
677:Low reaction rates between the sodium and sulfur
645:
1862:"Giant battery smooths out variable wind power"
1648:
1559:
1666:
1172:. The American Ceramic Society. September 2009
555:
1912:
1855:. American Electric Power. 19 September 2005.
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1719:
1717:
851:"Pourable batteries could store green power"
401:8 hour charge/8 hour discharge at rated load
1789:
61:, these batteries are primarily suited for
1919:
1905:
1776:
1252:"Can Batteries Save Embattled Wind Power?"
994:
975:"Ford Unplugs Electric Vans After 2 Fires"
810:
763:reacts further with sodium ions to form Na
744:reacts further with sodium ions to form Na
725:reacts further with sodium ions to form Na
1926:
1759:
1741:
1714:
1487:
1085:"Q&A Concerning the NAS Battery Fire"
1020:
912:
1859:
1796:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
1245:
1112:
662:Room-temperature sodium–sulfur batteries
18:
1371:
1369:
946:
944:
844:
842:
69:CA (USA) and a 50 MW/300 MWh system in
2392:
1089:NAS Battery Fire Incident and Response
714:, which is soluble in the electrolyte.
1900:
1694:
1600:
1091:. NGK Insulators, Ltd. Archived from
848:
687:
98:A similar type of battery called the
49:. This type of battery has a similar
1366:
990:
988:
941:
839:
1226:
885:Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology
733:, which is also electrolyte-soluble
224:BASE is a good conductor of sodium
13:
1860:LaMonica, Martin (4 August 2010).
1115:"New battery packs powerful punch"
1071:10.1111/j.1744-7402.2004.tb00179.x
451:Capacity: 25–250 kWh per bank
407:Lifetime of 1,500 cycles or better
312:in the 1960s to power early-model
14:
2421:
1841:
985:
479:totaling 108 MW/648 MWh in 2019.
346:Electric Power Research Institute
197:sodium at the core serves as the
1987:
1170:"Ceramatec's home power storage"
300:
280:2011 Tsukuba Plant fire incident
1688:
1669:Journal of Propulsion and Power
1625:
1594:
1553:
1531:
1506:
1481:
1454:
1436:
1427:
1418:
1406:
1396:
1387:
1378:
1357:
1348:
1330:
1312:
1291:
1264:
1220:
1208:
1183:
1162:
1137:
1125:
1106:
1077:
1050:
861:from the original on 2009-03-28
605:Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
594:pumped-storage hydroelectricity
550:
139:Typical batteries have a solid
134:
1699:. Greencar.com. Archived from
1037:
967:
953:
929:
872:
804:
426:A consortium formed by TEPCO (
411:The other three were improved
350:California Air Resources Board
295:
217:. The sulfur is absorbed in a
207:beta-alumina solid electrolyte
172:beta-alumina solid electrolyte
129:beta-alumina solid electrolyte
1:
1488:Stahlkopf, Karl (June 2006).
1113:Davidson, Paul (2007-07-05).
813:Advanced Functional Materials
798:
646:Transport and heavy machinery
609:largest sodium–sulfur battery
598:compressed-air energy storage
566:Battery storage power station
494:
1697:"Ford Ecostar EV, Ron Cogan"
484:Sumitomo Electric Industries
190:During the discharge phase,
185:
7:
1475:10.1016/j.enpol.2006.09.005
1301:. BusinessGreen. 4 Mar 2008
776:
556:Grid and standalone systems
404:Efficiency of 70% or better
29:sodium–sulfur (NaS) battery
16:Type of molten-salt battery
10:
2426:
1816:10.1016/j.jcis.2021.07.114
849:Bland, Eric (2009-03-26).
654:demonstration vehicle, an
559:
417:redox flow (vanadium type)
342:Southern California Edison
2326:
2298:
2120:
2077:Metal–air electrochemical
1996:
1985:
1934:
1743:10.3390/molecules26061535
1695:Cogan, Ron (2007-10-01).
607:commissioned the world's
267:
232:When sodium gives off an
63:stationary energy storage
1884:The University of Sydney
1655:Venus Landsailing Rover.
1570:10.1109/IPSS.1990.145783
1490:"Taking Wind Mainstream"
1272:
1233:Japan for Sustainability
702:Sodium ions react with S
618:
570:Stand-alone power system
385:
1619:2027/uc1.31822015751399
1261:by Hiroki Yomogita 2008
979:Bloomberg Business News
640:Venus Landsailing Rover
76:Despite their very low
2405:Metal-sulfur batteries
2400:Rechargeable batteries
2379:Semipermeable membrane
2168:Lithium–iron–phosphate
825:10.1002/adfm.201200473
788:Lithium–sulfur battery
421:zinc–bromine batteries
334:Detroit Edison Company
24:
2250:Rechargeable alkaline
1928:Electrochemical cells
1001:Nature Communications
783:List of battery types
767:S, which is insoluble
752:, which is insoluble.
330:United Parcel Service
213:metal serving as the
143:membrane between the
86:lithium-ion batteries
55:lithium-ion batteries
22:
2230:Nickel–metal hydride
1273:2008年｜ニュース｜日本ガイシ株式会社
897:10.3762/bjnano.6.105
428:Tokyo Electric Power
2240:Polysulfide–bromide
2082:Nickel oxyhydroxide
1974:Thermogalvanic cell
1808:2022JCIS..606...22T
1611:1986poso.symp...49A
1149:Ammiraglio61's Blog
1013:2014NatCo...5.4578L
963:. 10 February 2023.
793:Molten-salt battery
562:Grid energy storage
398:1,000 kW class
201:, meaning that the
73:, Kyushu, (Japan).
59:sodium polysulfides
2003:(non-rechargeable)
1947:Concentration cell
1257:2011-09-27 at the
1227:jfs (2007-09-23).
1022:10.1038/ncomms5578
857:. Discovery News.
688:The Shuttle Effect
613:Fukuoka Prefecture
580:voltage regulation
306:Ford Motor Company
25:
2387:
2386:
454:Efficiency of 87%
38:that uses liquid
2417:
2183:Lithium–titanate
2128:
2004:
1991:
1952:Electric battery
1921:
1914:
1907:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1891:
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1869:
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1224:
1218:
1217:. ulvac-uc.co.jp
1212:
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1202:
1197:. August 1, 2014
1187:
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1024:
992:
983:
982:
971:
965:
964:
957:
951:
948:
939:
938:, NGK Insulators
936:NAS case studies
933:
927:
926:
916:
876:
870:
869:
867:
866:
846:
837:
836:
808:
656:electric vehicle
488:Kyoto University
354:economy of scale
125:
124:
123:
113:
112:
111:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2322:
2301:
2294:
2215:Nickel–hydrogen
2173:Lithium–polymer
2129:
2126:
2125:
2116:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1992:
1983:
1930:
1925:
1888:
1886:
1878:
1847:
1844:
1839:
1802:(Pt 1): 22–37.
1788:
1777:
1722:
1715:
1706:
1704:
1693:
1689:
1681:10.2514/1.41886
1665:
1661:
1653:
1649:
1630:
1626:
1599:
1595:
1580:
1558:
1554:
1544:
1542:
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1519:
1517:
1516:. 11 March 2016
1512:
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1297:
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1274:
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1259:Wayback Machine
1250:
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690:
664:
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629:specific energy
621:
572:
560:Main articles:
558:
553:
497:
482:In March 2011,
388:
303:
298:
282:
270:
259:
255:
251:
248:2 Na + 4 S → Na
239:
188:
137:
122:
119:
118:
117:
115:
110:
107:
106:
105:
103:
102:, which uses a
93:square–cube law
67:Catalina Island
17:
12:
11:
5:
2423:
2413:
2412:
2410:Energy storage
2407:
2402:
2385:
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2346:
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2320:
2315:
2310:
2308:Atomic battery
2304:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2280:Vanadium redox
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2255:Silver–cadmium
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2225:Nickel–lithium
2222:
2217:
2212:
2210:Nickel–cadmium
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2178:Lithium–sulfur
2175:
2170:
2165:
2155:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2138:
2132:
2130:
2127:(rechargeable)
2123:Secondary cell
2121:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2047:Edison–Lalande
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2008:
2006:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1965:
1964:
1962:Trough battery
1959:
1949:
1944:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1931:
1924:
1923:
1916:
1909:
1901:
1895:
1894:
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1843:
1842:External links
1840:
1838:
1837:
1775:
1713:
1687:
1675:(4): 649–654.
1659:
1647:
1624:
1593:
1578:
1564:. p. 30.
1552:
1541:. 3 March 2016
1530:
1505:
1480:
1453:
1448:spacedaily.com
1435:
1426:
1417:
1405:
1395:
1386:
1377:
1365:
1356:
1347:
1342:global-sei.com
1329:
1326:. 30 Jan 2019.
1311:
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1244:
1219:
1207:
1182:
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1136:
1124:
1105:
1076:
1049:
1036:
984:
981:. 6 June 1994.
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652:Ford "Ecostar"
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459:
458:
455:
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432:NGK Insulators
409:
408:
405:
402:
399:
387:
384:
338:US Post Office
308:pioneered the
302:
299:
297:
294:
290:Tsukuba, Japan
286:NGK Insulators
281:
278:
269:
266:
262:
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120:
108:
82:energy density
51:energy density
15:
9:
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4:
3:
2:
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2271:
2270:Sodium–sulfur
2268:
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2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
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2245:Potassium ion
2243:
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2088:
2085:
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2068:
2065:
2063:
2062:Lithium metal
2060:
2058:
2055:
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2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2017:Aluminium–air
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1942:Galvanic cell
1940:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1917:
1915:
1910:
1908:
1903:
1902:
1899:
1885:
1881:
1877:
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1863:
1858:
1854:
1853:News Releases
1850:
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1727:
1720:
1718:
1703:on 2008-12-03
1702:
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1579:0-87942-604-7
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1540:
1534:
1527:
1515:
1509:
1495:
1494:IEEE Spectrum
1491:
1484:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1463:Energy Policy
1457:
1449:
1445:
1439:
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1372:
1370:
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1339:
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1325:
1321:
1315:
1300:
1294:
1280:on 2010-03-23
1279:
1275:
1267:
1260:
1256:
1253:
1248:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1216:
1211:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1171:
1165:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1134:
1128:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1095:on 2012-10-28
1094:
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1080:
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1068:
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1053:
1046:
1040:
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1018:
1014:
1010:
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1002:
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991:
989:
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976:
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962:
956:
947:
945:
937:
932:
924:
920:
915:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
891:: 1016–1055.
890:
886:
882:
875:
860:
856:
852:
845:
843:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
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803:
794:
791:
789:
786:
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682:
679:
676:
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669:
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659:
657:
653:
643:
641:
636:
634:
630:
626:
625:Space Shuttle
616:
614:
610:
606:
603:In 2016, the
601:
599:
595:
590:
585:
581:
577:
571:
567:
563:
545:
541:
540:
538:
534:
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531:
527:
526:
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492:
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438:
433:
429:
424:
422:
418:
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397:
396:
395:
393:
383:
381:
377:
372:
370:
367:. They use a
366:
362:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:electric cars
311:
307:
301:United States
293:
291:
287:
277:
275:
265:
247:
246:
245:
243:
235:
230:
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220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
193:
183:
181:
175:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
152:
150:
146:
142:
132:
130:
101:
100:ZEBRA battery
96:
94:
89:
87:
83:
79:
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
45:
41:
37:
34:
31:is a type of
30:
21:
2285:Zinc–bromine
2269:
2092:Silver oxide
2027:Chromic acid
1999:Primary cell
1979:Voltaic pile
1957:Flow battery
1887:. Retrieved
1883:
1865:
1852:
1799:
1795:
1733:
1729:
1705:. Retrieved
1701:the original
1690:
1672:
1668:
1662:
1650:
1633:
1627:
1602:
1596:
1561:
1555:
1543:. Retrieved
1533:
1525:
1518:. Retrieved
1508:
1497:. Retrieved
1493:
1483:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1447:
1438:
1429:
1420:
1413:
1408:
1398:
1389:
1380:
1359:
1350:
1341:
1332:
1323:
1314:
1303:. Retrieved
1293:
1282:. Retrieved
1278:the original
1266:
1247:
1236:. Retrieved
1232:
1222:
1210:
1199:. Retrieved
1194:
1185:
1174:. Retrieved
1164:
1153:. Retrieved
1151:. 2010-01-15
1148:
1139:
1127:
1118:
1108:
1097:. Retrieved
1093:the original
1088:
1079:
1062:
1058:
1052:
1044:
1039:
1004:
1000:
978:
969:
955:
931:
888:
884:
874:
863:. Retrieved
854:
816:
812:
806:
771:
691:
665:
649:
637:
622:
602:
573:
551:Applications
498:
481:
469:
466:
463:
460:
425:
410:
389:
373:
358:
322:Ford Ecostar
304:
283:
271:
263:
231:
223:
189:
180:Ford Ecostar
176:
153:
138:
135:Construction
97:
90:
78:capital cost
75:
28:
26:
2374:Salt bridge
2359:Electrolyte
2290:Zinc–cerium
2275:Solid state
2260:Silver–zinc
2235:Nickel–zinc
2220:Nickel–iron
2195:Molten salt
2163:Dual carbon
2158:Lithium ion
2153:Lithium–air
2112:Zinc–carbon
2087:Silicon–air
2067:Lithium–air
1736:(6): 1535.
1469:(4): 2558.
819:(8): 1005.
472:Xcel Energy
376:milliampere
296:Development
242:polysulfide
141:electrolyte
42:and liquid
33:molten-salt
2394:Categories
2327:Cell parts
2318:Solar cell
2300:Other cell
2265:Sodium ion
2136:Automotive
1889:2022-12-13
1707:2010-04-12
1545:22 January
1520:22 January
1499:2010-04-12
1305:2010-04-12
1284:2010-04-12
1238:2010-04-12
1215:(Japanese)
1201:2016-06-25
1176:2014-06-26
1155:2014-06-26
1099:2014-06-26
1065:(3): 269.
1047:, 428–439.
865:2010-04-12
799:References
706:to form Na
584:wind farms
495:Challenges
316:. In 1989
164:molybdenum
47:electrodes
2364:Half-cell
2354:Electrode
2313:Fuel cell
2190:Metal–air
2141:Lead–acid
2057:Leclanché
1969:Fuel cell
1824:0021-9797
1752:1420-3049
1730:Molecules
1588:111022668
1119:USA Today
905:2190-4286
589:peak load
576:arbitrage
470:In 2010,
430:Co.) and
413:lead–acid
365:Ceramatec
240:, sodium
195:elemental
186:Operation
80:and high
2344:Catalyst
2205:Nanowire
2200:Nanopore
2146:gel–VRLA
2107:Zinc–air
2012:Alkaline
1832:34384963
1770:33799697
1255:Archived
1195:pnnl.gov
1031:25081362
1007:: 4578.
923:25977873
859:Archived
833:94930296
777:See also
234:electron
221:sponge.
160:chromium
2349:Cathode
2102:Zamboni
2072:Mercury
2037:Daniell
1804:Bibcode
1761:7999928
1607:Bibcode
1009:Bibcode
914:4419580
502:Weibull
445:alumina
380:polymer
369:NASICON
310:battery
215:cathode
168:alumina
149:cathode
71:Fukuoka
36:battery
2339:Binder
2097:Weston
2022:Bunsen
1875:(gone)
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1324:Quartz
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633:STS-87
568:, and
443:, and
441:sulfur
437:sodium
419:, and
348:, and
326:leased
274:sodium
268:Safety
260:~ 2 V)
219:carbon
192:molten
44:sulfur
40:sodium
2334:Anode
2052:Grove
2032:Clark
1935:Types
1584:S2CID
855:MSNBC
829:S2CID
619:Space
386:Japan
272:Pure
211:inert
199:anode
145:anode
2369:Ions
1866:CNET
1828:PMID
1820:ISSN
1766:PMID
1748:ISSN
1638:OSTI
1574:ISBN
1547:2020
1522:2020
1027:PMID
919:PMID
901:ISSN
638:The
486:and
392:MITI
361:Utah
318:Ford
258:cell
226:ions
162:and
156:cell
154:The
147:and
116:AlCl
104:NiCl
2042:Dry
1812:doi
1800:606
1756:PMC
1738:doi
1677:doi
1615:hdl
1566:doi
1471:doi
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