Electrochemistry - Knowledge

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acid batteries contain a mixture of sulfuric acid and water, as well as lead plates. The most common mixture used today is 30% acid. One problem, however, is if left uncharged acid will crystallize within the lead plates of the battery rendering it useless. These batteries last an average of 3 years with daily use but it is not unheard of for a lead acid battery to still be functional after 7–10 years. Lead-acid cells continue to be widely used in automobiles.

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negative of the reduction potential. A standard cell potential can be determined by looking up the standard electrode potentials for both electrodes (sometimes called half cell potentials). The one that is smaller will be the anode and will undergo oxidation. The cell potential is then calculated as the sum of the reduction potential for the cathode and the oxidation potential for the anode.

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for the SHE is zero, by definition. The polarity of the standard electrode potential provides information about the relative reduction potential of the electrode compared to the SHE. If the electrode has a positive potential with respect to the SHE, then that means it is a strongly reducing electrode which forces the SHE to be the anode (an example is Cu in aqueous CuSO

776:, sodium donates one electron and attains an oxidation state of +1. Chlorine accepts the electron and its oxidation state is reduced to −1. The sign of the oxidation state (positive/negative) actually corresponds to the value of each ion's electronic charge. The attraction of the differently charged sodium and chlorine ions is the reason they then form an 4865:

acid batteries) there is also a wide range of new emerging technologies such as fuel cells, large format lithium-ion batteries, electrochemical reactors and super-capacitors that are becoming increasingly commercial. Electrochemical or coulometric titrations were introduced for quantitative analysis of minute quantities in 1938 by the Hungarian chemists

849:, the loss of hydrogen implies oxidation of the molecule from which it is lost (and the hydrogen is reduced). This follows because the hydrogen donates its electron in covalent bonds with non-metals but it takes the electron along when it is lost. Conversely, loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen implies reduction. 3926:

and aluminium oxidize instantaneously in contact with the oxygen in the air. These metals form an extremely thin layer of oxidized metal on the surface, which bonds with the underlying metal. This thin oxide layer protects the underlying bulk of the metal from the air preventing the entire metal from

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The galvanic cell uses two different metal electrodes, each in an electrolyte where the positively charged ions are the oxidized form of the electrode metal. One electrode will undergo oxidation (the anode) and the other will undergo reduction (the cathode). The metal of the anode will oxidize, going

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Standard electrode potentials are usually tabulated as reduction potentials. However, the reactions are reversible and the role of a particular electrode in a cell depends on the relative oxidation/reduction potential of both electrodes. The oxidation potential for a particular electrode is just the

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was the first practical secondary (rechargeable) battery that could have its capacity replenished from an external source. The electrochemical reaction that produced current was (to a useful degree) reversible, allowing electrical energy and chemical energy to be interchanged as needed. Common lead

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In this example, the anode is the zinc metal which is oxidized (loses electrons) to form zinc ions in solution, and copper ions accept electrons from the copper metal electrode and the ions deposit at the copper cathode as an electrodeposit. This cell forms a simple battery as it will spontaneously

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is inherently an electrochemical process, as is production of metals like aluminum and titanium from their ores. Certain diabetes blood sugar meters measure the amount of glucose in the blood through its redox potential. In addition to established electrochemical technologies (like deep cycle lead

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The SHE electrode can be connected to any other electrode by a salt bridge and an external circuit to form a cell. If the second electrode is also at standard conditions, then the measured cell potential is called the standard electrode potential for the electrode. The standard electrode potential

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First, the reduced form of the metal to be oxidized at the anode (Zn) is written. This is separated from its oxidized form by a vertical line, which represents the limit between the phases (oxidation changes). The double vertical lines represent the saline bridge on the cell. Finally, the oxidized

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on the cathode. The two electrodes must be electrically connected to each other, allowing for a flow of electrons that leave the metal of the anode and flow through this connection to the ions at the surface of the cathode. This flow of electrons is an electric current that can be used to do work,

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of the products yielded on the electrodes was proportional to the value of current supplied to the cell, the length of time the current existed, and the molar mass of the substance analyzed. In other words, the amount of a substance deposited on each electrode of an electrolytic cell is directly

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To provide a complete electric circuit, there must also be an ionic conduction path between the anode and cathode electrolytes in addition to the electron conduction path. The simplest ionic conduction path is to provide a liquid junction. To avoid mixing between the two electrolytes, the liquid

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reaction. Unlike in other chemical reactions, in electrochemical reactions electrons are not transferred directly between atoms, ions, or molecules, but via the aforementioned electronically-conducting circuit. This phenomenon is what distinguishes an electrochemical reaction from a conventional

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which is shown as a reduction but, in fact, the SHE can act as either the anode or the cathode, depending on the relative oxidation/reduction potential of the other electrode/electrolyte combination. The term standard in SHE requires a supply of hydrogen gas bubbled through the electrolyte at a

661:. In 1911, Harvey Fletcher, working with Millikan, was successful in measuring the charge on the electron, by replacing the water droplets used by Millikan, which quickly evaporated, with oil droplets. Within one day Fletcher measured the charge of an electron within several decimal places. 2714:

Based on Gibbs' work, Nernst extended the theory to include the contribution from electric potential on charged species. As shown in the previous section, the change in Gibbs free energy for an electrochemical cell can be related to the cell potential. Thus, Gibbs' theory becomes

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from an oxidation state of 0 (in the solid form) to a positive oxidation state and become an ion. At the cathode, the metal ion in solution will accept one or more electrons from the cathode and the ion's oxidation state is reduced to 0. This forms a solid metal that

799:(Lose Electrons: Oxidation, Gain Electrons: Reduction). Oxidation and reduction always occur in a paired fashion such that one species is oxidized when another is reduced. For cases where electrons are shared (covalent bonds) between atoms with large differences in 826:. Thus, the oxidizing agent is always being reduced in a reaction; the reducing agent is always being oxidized. Oxygen is a common oxidizing agent, but not the only one. Despite the name, an oxidation reaction does not necessarily need to involve oxygen. In fact, a 1708:

generate a flow of electric current from the anode to the cathode through the external connection. This reaction can be driven in reverse by applying a voltage, resulting in the deposition of zinc metal at the anode and formation of copper ions at the cathode.

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immersed in water act as anode and cathode in the electrolytic process. The electrolysis starts with the application of an external voltage between the electrodes. This process will not occur except at extremely high voltages without an electrolyte such as

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and Zoltan Somogyi. Electrochemistry also has important applications in the food industry, like the assessment of food/package interactions, the analysis of milk composition, the characterization and the determination of the freezing end-point of

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can be used which consists of an electrolyte saturated gel in an inverted U-tube. As the negatively charged electrons flow in one direction around this circuit, the positively charged metal ions flow in the opposite direction in the electrolyte.

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or through the release of chemical energy. Oxidation and reduction describe the change of oxidation state that takes place in the atoms, ions or molecules involved in an electrochemical reaction. Formally, oxidation state is the hypothetical

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indicating a (very) non-spontaneous process. In order for this reaction to occur the power supply should provide at least a potential difference of 4 V. However, larger voltages must be used for this reaction to occur at a high rate.

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indicates that the reaction is more favorable to reduction as the concentration of Cu ions increases. Reduction will take place in the cell's compartment where the concentration is higher and oxidation will occur on the more dilute side.

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using zinc and mercuric oxide provided higher levels of power and capacity than the original dry cell for early electronic devices, but has been phased out of common use due to the danger of mercury pollution from discarded cells.

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A concentration cell is an electrochemical cell where the two electrodes are the same material, the electrolytes on the two half-cells involve the same ions, but the electrolyte concentration differs between the two half-cells.

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form of the metal to be reduced at the cathode, is written, separated from its reduced form by the vertical line. The electrolyte concentration is given as it is an important variable in determining the exact cell potential.

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The spontaneous redox reactions of a conventional battery produce electricity through the different reduction potentials of the cathode and anode in the electrolyte. However, electrolysis requires an external source of

3071:, connected through a salt bridge. This type of cell will generate a potential that can be predicted by the Nernst equation. Both can undergo the same chemistry (although the reaction proceeds in reverse at the anode) 2708:, which can be calculated by dividing concentrations of products by those of reactants, each raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient, using only those products and reactants that are aqueous or gaseous. 2566: 2400: 3040:

and is found in the study of plasmas and semiconductors as well. The value 0.05916 V in the above equation is just the thermal voltage at standard temperature multiplied by the natural logarithm of 10.

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Electrolysis in an aqueous solution is a similar process as mentioned in electrolysis of water. However, it is considered to be a complex process because the contents in solution have to be analyzed in

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from the cathode to the anode through the external circuit. If the current is driven in the opposite direction by imposing an external potential, then work is done on the cell to drive electrolysis.

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Although strong acids may be used in the apparatus, the reaction will not net consume the acid. While this reaction will work at any conductive electrode at a sufficiently large potential, platinum

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change for the process at standard conditions is very positive, about 474.4 kJ. The decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen can be performed in an electrolytic cell. In it, a pair of inert

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When comparing the reduction potentials in reactions 2 and 4, the oxidation of chloride ion is favored over oxidation of water, thus chlorine gas is produced at the anode and not oxygen gas.

4551:. In other words, although the voltage applied is thermodynamically sufficient to drive electrolysis, the rate is so slow that to make the process proceed in a reasonable time frame, the 765:. An atom or ion that gives up an electron to another atom or ion has its oxidation state increase, and the recipient of the negatively charged electron has its oxidation state decrease. 841:

For reactions involving oxygen, the gain of oxygen implies the oxidation of the atom or molecule to which the oxygen is added (and the oxygen is reduced). In organic compounds, such as

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There are various important electrochemical processes in both nature and industry, like the coating of objects with metals or metal oxides through electrodeposition, the addition (

4860:) of thin layers of metal from an object's surface, and the detection of alcohol in drunk drivers through the redox reaction of ethanol. The generation of chemical energy through 2591:°) for all of the reactants. When reactant concentrations differ from standard conditions, the cell potential will deviate from the standard potential. In the 20th century German 2276:

electrochemical reaction (change in Gibbs free energy less than zero) can be used to generate an electric current in electrochemical cells. This is the basis of all batteries and

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had discovered two types of static electricity, and that like charges repel each other whilst unlike charges attract. Du Fay announced that electricity consisted of two fluids:

343:, composition, and bulk. Galvani refuted this by obtaining muscular action with two pieces of the same material. Nevertheless, Volta's experimentation led him to develop the 1299:

Here, 'spectator ions' (K, Na) were omitted from the half-reactions. By multiplying the stoichiometric coefficients so the numbers of electrons in both half reaction match:

347:, which took advantage of the relatively high energy (weak bonding) of zinc and could deliver an electrical current for much longer than any other device known at the time. 3643:

for this process are relatively complex and not all of them are completely understood. It is believed the causes are the following: Electron transfer (reduction-oxidation)

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However, this value is only approximate, as reaction quotient is defined in terms of ion activities which can be approximated with the concentrations as calculated here.

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is the electrode where the reduction takes place. Electrodes can be made from any sufficiently conductive materials, such as metals, semiconductors, graphite, and even

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to the pipe above ground. The pipeline is forced to be a cathode and is protected from being oxidized and rusting. The magnesium anode is sacrificed. At intervals new

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A method commonly used to protect a structural metal is to attach a metal which is more anodic than the metal to be protected. This forces the structural metal to be

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with a standard electrode potential of 0.337 V). Conversely, if the measured potential is negative, the electrode is more oxidizing than the SHE (such as Zn in ZnSO

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must be examined in respect to its reduction and oxidation in both electrodes. Usually, water is electrolysed as mentioned above in electrolysis of water yielding

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The emf of the cell at zero current is the maximum possible emf. It can be used to calculate the maximum possible electrical energy that could be obtained from a

4819:"the amounts of bodies which are equivalent to each other in their ordinary chemical action have equal quantities of electricity naturally associated with them." 3562:

All the preceding types have water-based electrolytes, which limits the maximum voltage per cell. The freezing of water limits low temperature performance. The

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resulted from chemical action and that chemical combination occurred between substances of opposite charge. This work led directly to the isolation of metallic

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directly into electrical energy with a much higher efficiency than any combustion process; such devices have powered many spacecraft and are being applied to

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The loss of electrons from an atom or molecule is called oxidation, and the gain of electrons is reduction. This can be easily remembered through the use of

387:. He also observed that the amount of metal deposited and the amount of oxygen produced during an electrolytic process depended on the distance between the 1712:

junction can be provided through a porous plug that allows ion flow while minimizing electrolyte mixing. To further minimize mixing of the electrolytes, a

5015: 2943: 436:'s discovery of the magnetic effect of electric currents in 1820 was immediately recognized as an epoch-making advance, although he left further work on 61:. These reactions involve electrons moving via an electronically-conducting phase (typically an external electrical circuit, but not necessarily, as in 454:

demonstrated the electrical potential between the juncture points of two dissimilar metals when there is a temperature difference between the joints.

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One area on the surface of the metal acts as the anode, which is where the oxidation (corrosion) occurs. At the anode, the metal gives up electrons.

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Attempts to save a metal from becoming anodic are of two general types. Anodic regions dissolve and destroy the structural integrity of the metal.

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was produced when a pad was rubbed against the ball as it rotated. The globe could be removed and used as source for experiments with electricity.

3577:, an experimental type, offers the option of vastly larger energy capacity because its reactants can be replenished from external reservoirs. The 1738:

A cell diagram can be used to trace the path of the electrons in the electrochemical cell. For example, here is a cell diagram of a Daniell cell:

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created the first electric generator, which produced static electricity by applying friction in the machine. The generator was made of a large

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Faraday devised the laws of chemical electrodeposition of metals from solutions in 1857. He formulated the second law of electrolysis stating

4836:, which together with the first law of electrolysis has a significant number of applications in industry, as when used to protectively coat 6476: 4103:. Industrially this process takes place in a special cell named Downs cell. The cell is connected to an electrical power supply, allowing 1034:

Finally, the reaction is balanced by multiplying the stoichiometric coefficients so the numbers of electrons in both half reactions match

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of chloride ions is reduced in comparison to OH ions (whose concentration increases). The reaction also shows the production of gaseous

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A modern cell stand for electrochemical research. The electrodes attach to high-quality metallic wires, and the stand is attached to a

4666:, electrolysis, among many others while he studied quantitative analysis of electrochemical reactions. Also he was an advocate of the 2852: 1917:) is 0.34 V. By definition, the electrode potential for the SHE is zero. Thus, the Cu is the cathode and the SHE is the anode giving 695: 3992:. Scratches exposing the metal substrate will result in corrosion. The region under the coating adjacent to the scratch acts as the 3496:

The Nernst equation plays an important role in understanding electrical effects in cells and organelles. Such effects include nerve

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are extremely difficult to oxidize under normal circumstances, and require exposure to a powerful chemical oxidizing agent such as

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Badwal, Sukhvinder P. S.; Giddey, Sarbjit S.; Munnings, Christopher; Bhatt, Anand I.; Hollenkamp, Anthony F. (24 September 2014).

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is the cell current integrated over time and measured in coulombs (C); it can also be determined by multiplying the total number

555:, when dissolved in water, become to varying degrees split or dissociated into electrically opposite positive and negative ions. 172: 6503: 6271: 6059: 4940: 3314:{\displaystyle E=E^{\circ }-{\frac {0.05916\,\mathrm {V} }{2}}\log {\frac {_{\mathrm {diluted} }}{_{\mathrm {concentrated} }}}} 611:

of the voltaic cell in 1888. In 1889, he showed how the characteristics of the voltage produced could be used to calculate the

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is known as rust. The concentration of water associated with iron oxide varies, thus the chemical formula is represented by Fe

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Bubbles from the gases will be seen near both electrodes. The following half reactions describe the process mentioned above:

2412: 62: 6515: 6454: 4704: 3566:, which does not (and cannot) use water in the electrolyte, provides improved performance over other types; a rechargeable 3522:

Many types of battery have been commercialized and represent an important practical application of electrochemistry. Early

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Finally, Nernst divided through by the amount of charge transferred to arrive at a new equation which now bears his name:

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Conversely, non-spontaneous electrochemical reactions can be driven forward by the application of a current at sufficient

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A positive cell potential gives a negative change in Gibbs free energy. This is consistent with the cell production of an

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In his essay Galvani concluded that animal tissue contained a here-to-fore neglected innate, vital force, which he termed

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Hollaender, J. (2009). "Rapid assessment of food/package interactions by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)".

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pressure of 1 atm and an acidic electrolyte with H activity equal to 1 (usually assumed to be = 1 mol/liter, i.e.

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marked the birth of electrochemistry by establishing a bridge between chemical reactions and electricity on his essay

5991: 5973: 5959: 5949: 5935: 5921: 5507: 5330: 5306: 5272: 5255: 5215: 5191: 5170: 5128: 5096: 4985: 1595:, both scientists who conducted experiments on chemical reactions and electric current during the late 18th century. 4651: 2711:

Gibbs' key contribution was to formalize the understanding of the effect of reactant concentration on spontaneity.

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proposed a mathematical model to determine the effect of reactant concentration on electrochemical cell potential.

2288:) can be combined in a fuel cell to form water and energy, typically a combination of heat and electrical energy. 7320: 6341: 481: 17: 5519: 7199: 6361: 6278: 6044: 5954:

Brett CMA, Brett AMO, ELECTROCHEMISTRY, Principles, methods, and applications, Oxford University Press, (1993)

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Understanding of electrical matters began in the sixteenth century. During this century, the English scientist

803:, the electron is assigned to the atom with the largest electronegativity in determining the oxidation state. 65:) between electrodes separated by an ionically conducting and electronically insulating electrolyte (or ionic 6642: 6396: 6305: 6005: 4667: 665: 4821:

In other words, the quantities of different elements deposited by a given amount of electricity are in the

1769: 1763: 130: 551:(Investigations on the galvanic conductivity of electrolytes). From his results the author concluded that 7349: 6919: 6406: 6049: 4980: 3086: 1773: 643: 582: 537:

patented a new cell which eventually became the forerunner to the world's first widely used battery, the

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is formed as passage of electrons and ions occurs; thus if an electrolyte is present it will facilitate

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By multiplying the stoichiometric coefficients so the numbers of electrons in both half reaction match:

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published essentially the same theory about how acids and bases behave, using an electrochemical basis.

567: 469:(The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) in which he gave his complete theory of electricity. 7296: 6845: 6816: 6796: 6749: 6222: 2605:

had formulated a theory to predict whether a chemical reaction is spontaneous based on the free energy

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fires are often unquenchable, as fluorine is an even stronger oxidant (it has a weaker bond and higher

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showed that definite reduction products can result from electrolytic processes if the potential at the

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attraction as an outgrowth of his attempt to investigate the law of electrical repulsions as stated by

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value on standard reduction potential thus making it less thermodynamically favorable in the process.

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spanned by metal probes. He believed that this new force was a form of electricity in addition to the

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This process can yield large amounts of metallic sodium and gaseous chlorine, and is widely used in

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ball cast inside a glass globe, mounted on a shaft. The ball was rotated by means of a crank and an

7189: 7105: 6744: 6196: 5424:"The Isolation of an Ion, a Precision Measurement of its Charge, and the Correction of Stokes' Law" 5045: 4960: 4914: 4372: 3402:{\displaystyle E=0-{\frac {0.05916\,\mathrm {V} }{2}}\log {\frac {0.05}{2.0}}=0.0474\,\mathrm {V} } 702: 285:(Latin for Commentary on the Effect of Electricity on Muscular Motion) in 1791 where he proposed a 5854:

Mabrook, M.F.; Petty, M.C. (2003). "Effect of composition on the electrical conductance of milk".

5285: 433: 7127: 7038: 7001: 6885: 6811: 6632: 6615: 6558: 6285: 6166: 6074: 5035: 5020: 5010: 3984: 3483:{\displaystyle E=0-{\frac {0.0257\,\mathrm {V} }{2}}\ln {\frac {0.05}{2.0}}=0.0474\,\mathrm {V} } 1700: 650: 538: 441: 4324:

both hydrogen and oxygen formation, allowing for relatively low voltages (~2 V depending on the

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An electrochemical cell is a device that produces an electric current from energy released by a

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Rearranging to express the relation between standard potential and equilibrium constant yields

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After replacing values from the case mentioned, it is possible to calculate cell's potential:

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by introducing copper ions into the solution near the positive electrode and thus eliminating

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To protect pipelines, an ingot of buried or exposed magnesium (or zinc) is buried beside the

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are available. Such tabulations are referenced to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). The

477: 451: 414:'s work with electrolysis led to the conclusion that the production of electricity in simple 396: 368: 248: 35: 615:

change in the chemical reaction producing the voltage. He constructed an equation, known as

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and, to a lesser extent, electricity. For his work on magnets, Gilbert became known as the

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oxidizing. These metals are used in applications where corrosion resistance is important.

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in stages at the cathode and this became the model for other similar reduction processes.

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An example is an electrochemical cell, where two copper electrodes are submerged in two

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The same procedure as used in acidic medium can be applied, for example, to balance the

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to induce a chemical reaction, and this process takes place in a compartment called an

3060: 3050: 2178:{\displaystyle W_{\mathrm {max} }=W_{\mathrm {electrical} }=-n_{e}FE_{\mathrm {cell} }} 1725: 1607: 530: 54: 50: 5867: 1598:

Electrochemical cells have two conductive electrodes (the anode and the cathode). The

7303: 7265: 7230: 7213: 7151: 7069: 7064: 6992: 6977: 6947: 6868: 6835: 6806: 6801: 6776: 6766: 6686: 6674: 6553: 6466: 6324: 6257: 6232: 6227: 6217: 6130: 6089: 6069: 5969: 5955: 5945: 5931: 5917: 5899: 5836: 5801: 5762: 5630: 5503: 5361: 5326: 5302: 5268: 5251: 5211: 5187: 5166: 5145: 5124: 5102: 5092: 5050: 4826: 4548: 4544: 4536: 4379:, which is the positive ion, will be attracted to the cathode (−), thus reducing the 4338: 4221: 4074: 4070: 4028: 4005: 3640: 3505: 2705: 2673: 2058: 1993: 908: 858: 835: 800: 500: 415: 392: 209: 199: 151: 117: 7308: 7225: 6880: 6739: 6716: 6669: 6329: 6237: 5891: 5863: 5828: 5793: 5781: 5752: 5742: 5620: 5610: 5591:"Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies (open access)" 5481: 5446: 5040: 4990: 4970: 4857: 4679: 4639: 4161: 3855: 3675: 3002:{\displaystyle \Delta E=\Delta E^{\circ }-{\frac {0.05916\,\mathrm {V} }{n}}\log Q} 2934: 2824: 2266: 1592: 1175: 544: 511: 437: 332: 242: 226: 81: 66: 5450: 2196:

is the maximum amount of work that can be extracted from a system, one can write:

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is the valence number of the substance as an ion in solution (electrons per ion),

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The overall reaction for the process according to the analysis is the following:

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The standard potential of an electrochemical cell requires standard conditions (Δ

2582: 2310:, and the Gibbs free energy for an electrochemical cell is expressed as follows: 2062: 2004: 1989: 818: 758: 749: 706: 688: 680: 616: 578: 473: 58: 39: 4527:. Additional voltage is sometimes required, beyond the voltage predicted by the 4523:

Although the initial analysis is correct, there is another effect, known as the

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When a chemical reaction is driven by an electrical potential difference, as in

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where work is defined as positive when it increases the energy of the system.

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that an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of different elements were 100%

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The following cell diagram describes the concentration cell mentioned above:

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The following half reactions should be considered in the process mentioned:

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are added to balance each half-reaction. For example, in a reaction between

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and electrons (to compensate the oxidation changes) are added to the cell's

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At standard temperature, pressure and concentration conditions, the cell's

1721: 1684: 1647: 1639: 669: 631: 586: 476:'s experiments led him to state his two laws of electrochemistry. In 1836, 462: 411: 380: 344: 340: 317: 313: 77: 5840: 2561:{\displaystyle E_{cell}^{\circ }={\frac {0.05916\,\mathrm {V} }{n}}\log K} 2395:{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\circ }=-RT\ln K=-nFE_{\mathrm {cell} }^{\circ }} 444:

quickly repeated Ørsted's experiment, and formulated them mathematically.

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S.P.S BADWAL; S. Giddey; C. Munnings; A. I. Bhatt; A. Hollenkamp (2014).

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Fields of force: the development of a world view from Faraday to Einstein

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For example, the standard electrode potential for a copper electrode is:

1713: 1688: 1611: 684: 623: 552: 80:, or if a potential difference results from a chemical reaction as in an 6353: 5797: 3901:

or the low levels of sulfur species in the air develop a layer of black

3581:

can turn the chemical energy bound in hydrocarbon gases or hydrogen and

1996:. This can be expressed mathematically as the product of the cell's emf 383:

using Volta's battery. Soon thereafter Ritter discovered the process of

7156: 6171: 6079: 5997: 5000: 4165: 4086: 3916: 3898: 3671: 3582: 3543: 1914: 1692: 1406: 1112:

and adding the resulting half reactions to give the balanced reaction:

777: 762: 141:

He discovered various methods for producing and strengthening magnets.

5485: 4889: 30: 7218: 6520: 6385: 6140: 5723:"Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies" 5408: 5286:

Biography: or, Third division of "The English encyclopedia", Volume 2

4875: 4871: 4841: 4321: 4225: 4039:, would work very well but zinc is the least expensive useful metal. 4036: 3973: 3859: 3765: 3598: 3578: 3531: 2277: 1627: 1171: 904: 896: 872: 868: 571: 522: 458: 448: 423: 388: 309: 275: 271: 239: 232: 148: 134: 114: 85: 5884:

Kreysa, Gerhard; Ota, Ken-ichiro; Savinell, Robert F., eds. (2014).

863:

Electrochemical reactions in water are better analyzed by using the

488:

gas generation. Later results revealed that at the other electrode,

7240: 4635: 4631: 4391: 4384: 4368: 4229: 4210: 4104: 4100: 4011: 3923: 3912: 3663: 3539: 3523: 3497: 2812: 831: 784: 773: 741: 737: 658: 592: 485: 372: 325: 5121:

Beyond the mechanical universe: from electricity to modern physics

4772:

is the total electric charge that passed through the solution (in

4656:

Quantitative aspects of electrolysis were originally developed by

2571: 331:

Galvani's scientific colleagues generally accepted his views, but

7260: 5464:

Perry, Michael F. (2007). "Remembering the oil-drop experiment".

4773: 4555:

of the external source has to be increased (hence, overvoltage).

4552: 4390:

will then be attracted to the anode (+), where it is oxidized to

4035:. The zinc bars are replaced periodically. Other metals, such as 4032: 4018:

because the anode dissolves and has to be replaced periodically.

3967: 3947: 3894: 3832: 3603:

Corrosion is an electrochemical process, which reveals itself as

2828: 2592: 2292: 1603: 1410: 846: 753: 752:. This reaction can occur through the application of an external 627: 257: 169: 145: 111: 5942:

Inorganic chemistry: an industrial and environmental perspective

4344: 3931:, in contrast, has an oxide that forms in air and water, called 3678:

on the cathode, which is placed in another region of the metal.

2913:{\displaystyle \Delta E=\Delta E^{\circ }-{\frac {RT}{nF}}\ln Q} 2299:

of water into gaseous oxygen and hydrogen is a typical example.

5986: 4645: 4380: 4376: 4362: 4214: 4096: 3890: 3886: 3878: 3632: 3612: 3108:

where the half cell reactions for oxidation and reduction are:

1635: 842: 769: 419: 376: 301: 254: 166: 155: 120:

beside his electrical generator while conducting an experiment.

2794:{\displaystyle n_{e}F\Delta E=n_{e}F\Delta E^{\circ }-RT\ln Q} 816:, and the substance which accepts the electrons is called the 5091:. Ana Maria Oliveira Brett. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5088:

Electrochemistry : principles, methods, and applications

5005: 4837: 4822: 4387: 4206: 4110:

Reactions that take place in a Downs cell are the following:

4051: 3993: 3979: 3863: 3636: 3620: 3616: 3542:

was the first portable, non-spillable battery type that made

1599: 876: 729: 723: 506: 496: 297: 268: 236: 180: 5782:"Amperometric, bipotentiometric, and coulometric titrations" 5267:

The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia, Vol. 10 (1991)

4922:– a historical forerunner to the theory of electrochemistry. 4371:

in the cathode. On the other hand, sodium chloride in water

549:

Recherches sur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes

7235: 4763: 4762:

is the mass of the substance produced at the electrode (in

4687: 4660:

in 1834. Faraday is also credited to have coined the terms

4179: 4107:

to migrate from the power supply to the electrolytic cell.

4047: 4025: 4021: 3932: 3928: 3908: 3877:, such as copper and silver, slowly corrode through use. A 3667: 3631:

For iron rust to occur the metal has to be in contact with

3608: 3604: 2933:= 8.3145 J/(K·mol), the equation above can be expressed on 1631: 1602:

is defined as the electrode where oxidation occurs and the

827: 806:

The atom or molecule which loses electrons is known as the

492: 5964:

Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils and Holleman, Arnold Frederick

5360:. Oxford: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 15–16. 5232:

Electric science; its history, phenomena, and applications

4197:

Water can be converted to its component elemental gases, H

3889:

with exposure to the water and carbon dioxide in the air.

2490:= 298 K, the previous equation can be rewritten using the 1768:

To allow prediction of the cell potential, tabulations of

339:

replying that the frog's legs responded to differences in

283:"De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius" 7245: 5588: 5142:

Electrostatic accelerators: fundamentals and applications

4832:

An important aspect of the second law of electrolysis is

4080: 3988:). This prevents the metal surface from being exposed to 3768: 745: 630:

is kept constant. In 1898, he explained the reduction of

619:, which related the voltage of a cell to its properties. 1731:

The electrochemical cell voltage is also referred to as

213:

Late 1780s diagram of Galvani's experiment on frog legs.

5119:

Richard P. Olenick, Tom M. Apostol, David L. Goodstein

4698:

Below is a simplified equation of Faraday's first law:

4325: 2475:{\displaystyle E_{cell}^{\circ }={\frac {RT}{nF}}\ln K} 1793: 838:, and thus accepts electrons even better) than oxygen. 657:) to determine the electric charge carried by a single 42:(right), both credited as founders of electrochemistry. 683:

apparatus. Some years later, he was awarded the 1948

395:

and anticipated the discovery of thermoelectricity by

5710:

https://www.electro-glo.com/what-is-electropolishing/

4745:{\displaystyle m={\frac {1}{F}}\cdot {\frac {QM}{n}}} 4707: 4547:

for the chloride ion is very low, hence favorable in

4543:

considerations. In fact, it has been proven that the

3922:

Some common metals oxidize extremely rapidly in air.

3421: 3340: 3142: 2946: 2855: 2724: 2614: 2503: 2415: 2319: 2205: 2074: 1966:

value because the standard electrode potential is an

1653:

The half reactions in a Daniell cell are as follows:

5358:

Light alloys from traditional alloys to nanocrystals

4885: 4331: 3779:. Fe ions oxidize further, following this equation: 1808:

where the standard electrode potential is −0.76 V).

480:

invented a primary cell which solved the problem of

5323:

Electricity and magnetism: a historical perspective

2255:{\displaystyle \Delta G=-n_{e}FE_{\mathrm {cell} }} 2046:of electrons transferred (measured in moles) times 736:. It refers to electrochemical processes involving 4744: 4205:, through the application of an external voltage. 3482: 3401: 3313: 3001: 2912: 2793: 2658:{\displaystyle \Delta G=\Delta G^{\circ }+RT\ln Q} 2657: 2560: 2474: 2394: 2254: 2177: 426:by electrolysis of their molten salts, and of the 5883: 4788:is the molar mass of the substance (in grams per 7336: 4024:bars are attached to various locations on steel 1973: 1958:of a balanced cell equation will not change the 467:"Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet" 359:Sir Humphry Davy's portrait in the 19th century. 5520:The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1948 Arne Tiselius 4874:mixes, or the determination of free acidity in 4678:Faraday concluded after several experiments on 3946:While it is almost impossible to prevent anode/ 2572:Cell emf dependency on changes in concentration 1757: 1583:redox reaction. This kind of cell includes the 5206:John Robert Norris, Douglas W. Ribbons (1972) 3958:is not possible and corrosion will not occur. 3897:that are exposed to high sulfur foods such as 3764:Iron corrosion takes place in an acid medium; 6369: 6013: 5532:The International Society of Electrochemistry 5351: 4345:Electrolysis of a solution of sodium chloride 3869: 3570:is an essential part of many mobile devices. 5853: 4646:Quantitative electrolysis and Faraday's laws 3954:material covers the metal, contact with the 3534:systems, and were the source of current for 2065:and is expressed by the following equation: 1614:, which contains ions that can freely move. 852: 830:can be fed by an oxidant other than oxygen; 5182:J. A. M. Bleeker, Johannes Geiss, M. Huber 4513:Reaction 1 is discarded as it has the most 3546:and other portable devices practical. The 1364:the balanced overall reaction is obtained: 791:(Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain) and 6376: 6362: 6020: 6006: 5818: 5016:Important publications in electrochemistry 4178:for this process is approximately −4 3938: 3125:Overall reaction: Cu (2.0 M) → Cu (0.05 M) 2013:transferred through the external circuit. 717: 6383: 5912:Ebbing, Darrell D. and Gammon, Steven D. 5756: 5746: 5624: 5614: 3474: 3440: 3393: 3359: 3168: 3129:The cell's emf is calculated through the 3063:solutions, whose concentrations are 0.05 2978: 2537: 899:ions and water are added to balance each 696:International Society of Electrochemistry 6027: 5887:Encyclopedia of Applied Electrochemistry 5421: 5061:Standard electrode potential (data page) 4620: 4602: 4592: 4563: 4495: 4463: 4423: 4402: 4290: 4268: 4186: 3823: 3784: 3723: 3719: 3689: 3655: 3076: 1781: 1678: 1669: 1662: 1568: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1121: 1117: 1098: 1079: 1066: 1062: 1047: 1018: 998: 985: 980: 965: 945: 930: 919: 591: 505: 354: 231: 208: 106: 53:concerned with the relationship between 29: 5674: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5658: 5656: 5646: 5644: 5566: 5564: 5562: 5552: 5550: 5548: 5546: 5498:William L. Masterton, Cecile N. Hurley 4626:As the overall reaction indicates, the 4355:The presence of water in a solution of 4054:are buried to replace those dissolved. 3862:, explaining why rusting is quicker in 1623:such as turn a motor or power a light. 191:or negative, electricity. This was the 14: 7337: 6272:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 5317: 5315: 5184:The century of space science, Volume 1 4941:Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy 4095:can be electrolyzed to yield metallic 4081:Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride 4014:, thus spared corrosion. It is called 3044: 1724:is capable of measuring the change of 574:using electrolysis of molten alumina. 6357: 6060:High-performance liquid chromatograph 6001: 5779: 5463: 5242: 5240: 5084: 3999: 3775:in the atmosphere and water, forming 1699:with a noble gas and sealed with the 1610:. In between these electrodes is the 787:devices. Two of the most popular are 7291: 6312: 5930:, Volume 1, World Scientific (1999) 5665: 5653: 5641: 5573: 5559: 5543: 5325:, Greenwood Publishing Group (2007) 5226: 5224: 5163:The discovery of subatomic particles 5123:, Cambridge University Press (1986) 371:succeeded in decomposing water into 173:Charles François de Cisternay du Fay 124: 7315: 6336: 5890:. New York, NY: Springer New York. 5500:Chemistry: Principles and Reactions 5312: 5202: 5200: 1728:between the anode and the cathode. 1540:the balanced equation is obtained: 653:began a series of experiments (see 581:concluded important studies of the 566:developed an efficient method (the 24: 5288:, Bradbury, Evans & Co. (1867) 5237: 5165:Cambridge University Press (2003) 4936:Electrochemical coloring of metals 3476: 3442: 3395: 3361: 3302: 3299: 3296: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3269: 3250: 3246: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3197: 3193: 3170: 2980: 2956: 2947: 2865: 2856: 2760: 2738: 2624: 2615: 2576: 2539: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2320: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2206: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2087: 2084: 2081: 1876:(1 atm) | H (1 M) || Cu (1 M) | Cu 679:developed the first sophisticated 503:) would produce a higher voltage. 133:spent 17 years experimenting with 25: 7361: 5979: 5821:Food Additives & Contaminants 5250:, Oxford University Press (1995) 5221: 5208:Methods in microbiology, Volume 6 5085:Brett, Christopher M. A. (1993). 4986:Electrochemical energy conversion 4332:Electrolysis of aqueous solutions 3982:or other less conductive metals ( 3704:Global reaction for the process: 3626: 1400: 585:and electrolytic dissociation of 187:), or positive, electricity; and 7314: 7302: 7290: 7279: 7278: 6335: 6323: 6311: 6300: 6299: 5985: 5234:, Ingram, Cooke (1853) pp. 27–31 5197: 4888: 3119:Reduction: Cu (2.0 M) + 2 e → Cu 3101:| Cu (0.05 M) || Cu (2.0 M) | Cu 2280:. For example, gaseous oxygen (O 2061:. This energy is referred to as 890: 547:published his thesis in 1884 on 5877: 5847: 5812: 5773: 5714: 5702: 5690: 5681: 5582: 5525: 5513: 5492: 5457: 5415: 5401: 5392: 5383: 5374: 5345: 5336: 5291: 5278: 5248:The world of physical chemistry 4847: 4616: 4609: 4588: 4570: 4491: 4459: 4430: 4341:, whether reduced or oxidized. 4314: 4307: 4286: 4279: 4264: 4154: 4122: 4057: 3791: 3738:Standard emf for iron rusting: 3715: 3685: 1165: 637: 350: 55:electrical potential difference 6045:Atomic absorption spectrometer 5261: 5176: 5155: 5134: 5113: 5078: 4581: 4484: 4452: 4300: 4257: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4115: 3803: 3758:° = 1.23V − (−0.44 V) = 1.67 V 3731: 3697: 3264: 3242: 3211: 3189: 2923:Assuming standard conditions ( 2003:measured in volts (V) and the 1668:Copper electrode (cathode): Cu 1646:, respectively, is known as a 1136: 1106: 1043: 1027: 960: 457:In 1827, the German scientist 13: 1: 6643:Interface and colloid science 6397:Glossary of chemical formulae 5868:10.1016/S0260-8774(03)00054-2 5451:10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.32.349 5072: 4806: 4668:law of conservation of energy 4652:Faraday's law of electrolysis 4406: 3708: 3651: 3615:and their respective alloys, 3589:for the public power system. 3538:. The zinc-manganese dioxide 3120: 3113: 3102: 3098: 3080: 2680:° is the cell potential when 1974:Spontaneity of redox reaction 1877: 1869: 1747: 1743: 1673: 1658: 1587:or Voltaic cell, named after 1128: 1094: 1014: 926: 887:for oxidation and reduction. 712: 287:"nerveo-electrical substance" 267:In the late 18th century the 198:, which was to be opposed by 5708:"What is Electropolishing?" 5697:Faraday, Michael (1791–1867) 5422:Millikan, Robert A. (1911). 4673: 3592: 1770:standard electrode potential 1764:Standard electrode potential 1758:Standard electrode potential 607:developed the theory of the 328:(i.e., static electricity). 165:By the mid-18th century the 7: 6920:Bioorganometallic chemistry 6407:List of inorganic compounds 6050:Flame emission spectrometer 5928:Nobel Lectures in Chemistry 5856:Journal of Food Engineering 5230:Frederick Collier Bakewell 4981:Electrochemical engineering 4881: 3771:come from reaction between 2927:= 298 K or 25 °C) and 1956:stoichiometric coefficients 1774:standard hydrogen electrode 1746:| Zn (1 M) || Cu (1 M) | Cu 694:A year later, in 1949, the 644:The Electrochemical Society 391:. By 1801, Ritter observed 219:Charles-Augustin de Coulomb 103:History of electrochemistry 10: 7366: 6846:Dynamic covalent chemistry 6817:Enantioselective synthesis 6797:Physical organic chemistry 6750:Organolanthanide chemistry 5502:, Cengage Learning (2008) 4810: 4802:(96485 coulombs per mole). 4649: 4348: 4190: 4084: 4061: 4003: 3978:Metals can be coated with 3971: 3965: 3961: 3870:Corrosion of common metals 3607:or tarnish on metals like 3596: 3515: 3511: 3048: 2601:In the late 19th century, 2580: 1977: 1761: 1657:Zinc electrode (anode): Zn 1572: 856: 721: 666:Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted 289:on biological life forms. 263:in the early 19th century. 100: 96: 7274: 7177: 6938: 6854: 6775: 6725: 6601: 6544: 6435:Electroanalytical methods 6420: 6392: 6295: 6246: 6205: 6149: 6126:Ion mobility spectrometry 6116:Electroanalytical methods 6098: 6035: 5896:10.1007/978-1-4419-6996-5 5833:10.1080/02652039709374574 5354:"Production of Aluminium" 4956:Electrochemical potential 4946:Electroanalytical methods 4695:passed through the cell. 4128:Cathode (reduction): 2 Na 3670:, reducing oxygen in the 2302:The relation between the 853:Balancing redox reactions 768:For example, when atomic 447:In 1821, Estonian-German 406:made improvements to the 7190:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 7106:Supramolecular chemistry 6745:Organometallic chemistry 5968:, Academic Press (2001) 5944:, Academic Press (1997) 5748:10.3389/fchem.2014.00079 5616:10.3389/fchem.2014.00079 5046:Protein film voltammetry 4961:Electrochemiluminescence 4915:Bipolar electrochemistry 4576:Cathode (reduction): 2 H 4274:Cathode (reduction): 2 H 4209:does not decompose into 4031:to render the ship hull 3885:forms on the surface of 3087:Le Chatelier's principle 703:quantum electrochemistry 687:for his work in protein 337:"animal electric fluid," 335:rejected the idea of an 7128:Combinatorial chemistry 7039:Food physical chemistry 7002:Environmental chemistry 6886:Bioorthogonal chemistry 6812:Retrosynthetic analysis 6633:Chemical thermodynamics 6616:Spectroelectrochemistry 6559:Computational chemistry 6286:Analytical Biochemistry 6075:Melting point apparatus 5940:Swaddle, Thomas Wilson 5780:Stock, John T. (1978). 5297:William Berkson (1974) 5036:Plasma electrochemistry 5021:Magnetoelectrochemistry 5011:List of electrochemists 4693:quantity of electricity 4684:non-spontaneous process 4562:Anode (oxidation): 2 Cl 4375:in Na and Cl ions. The 4114:Anode (oxidation): 2 Cl 3939:Prevention of corrosion 1984:During operation of an 1776:undergoes the reaction 718:Oxidation and reduction 651:Robert Andrews Millikan 393:thermoelectric currents 345:first practical battery 125:16th–18th century 7200:of element discoveries 7046:Agricultural chemistry 7034:Carbohydrate chemistry 6925:Bioinorganic chemistry 6790:Alkane stereochemistry 6735:Coordination chemistry 6564:Mathematical chemistry 6430:Instrumental chemistry 6265:Analytica Chimica Acta 5727:Frontiers in Chemistry 5595:Frontiers in Chemistry 5398:Nobel Lectures, p. 342 5389:Nobel Lectures, p. 363 5380:Nobel Lectures, p. 170 5352:Polmear, I.J. (2006). 4746: 4252:Anode (oxidation): 2 H 4138:Overall reaction: 2 Na 4091:When molten, the salt 4048:connected electrically 3484: 3403: 3315: 3003: 2914: 2795: 2659: 2562: 2476: 2396: 2256: 2179: 1704: 1626:A galvanic cell whose 1180:potassium permanganate 740:transfer to or from a 605:Walther Hermann Nernst 601: 600:portrait in the 1910s. 515: 430:from theirs, in 1808. 404:William Hyde Wollaston 360: 264: 214: 139:"Father of Magnetism." 121: 43: 7195:Timeline of chemistry 7092:Post-mortem chemistry 7077:Clandestine chemistry 7007:Atmospheric chemistry 6930:Biophysical chemistry 6762:Solid-state chemistry 6712:Equilibrium chemistry 6621:Photoelectrochemistry 6157:Coning and quartering 6065:Infrared spectrometer 5342:Nobel Lectures, p. 59 5284:Charles Knight (ed.) 5031:Photoelectrochemistry 4926:Corrosion engineering 4747: 4597:Overall reaction: 2 H 4535:. This may be due to 4295:Overall reaction: 2 H 4193:Electrolysis of water 4187:Electrolysis of water 3666:are transferred from 3564:lithium metal battery 3518:Battery (electricity) 3485: 3404: 3316: 3030:is also known as the 3004: 2915: 2796: 2660: 2563: 2477: 2397: 2257: 2180: 1695:-shaped container is 1682: 1569:Electrochemical cells 595: 514:portrait circa 1880s. 509: 452:Thomas Johann Seebeck 434:Hans Christian Ørsted 428:alkaline earth metals 397:Thomas Johann Seebeck 369:Johann Wilhelm Ritter 358: 294:"animal electricity," 235: 221:developed the law of 212: 206:later in the century. 110: 38:(left) and physicist 33: 7185:History of chemistry 7140:Chemical engineering 6915:Bioorganic chemistry 6665:Structural chemistry 6402:List of biomolecules 6279:Analytical Chemistry 6121:Gravimetric analysis 6085:Optical spectrometer 6029:Analytical chemistry 5994:at Wikimedia Commons 5786:Analytical Chemistry 5570:Swaddle, pp. 308–314 5537:20 June 2010 at the 5321:Brian Scott Baigrie 5246:Keith James Laidler 5026:Nanoelectrochemistry 4705: 4691:proportional to the 3419: 3338: 3140: 2944: 2853: 2722: 2612: 2603:Josiah Willard Gibbs 2501: 2413: 2317: 2304:equilibrium constant 2203: 2072: 2017:Electrical energy = 1992:is transformed into 1986:electrochemical cell 1726:electrical potential 1575:Electrochemical cell 903:. For example, when 568:Hall–Héroult process 465:in this famous book 7208:The central science 7162:Ceramic engineering 7087:Forensic toxicology 7060:Chemistry education 6958:Radiation chemistry 6940:Interdisciplinarity 6893:Medicinal chemistry 6831:Fullerene chemistry 6707:Microwave chemistry 6576:Molecular mechanics 6571:Molecular modelling 5966:Inorganic chemistry 5798:10.1021/ac50028a001 5739:2014FrCh....2...79B 5678:Ebbing, pp. 837–839 5662:Wiberg, pp. 235–239 5650:Ebbing, pp. 800–801 5607:2014FrCh....2...79B 5579:Wiberg, pp. 210–212 5556:Wiberg, pp. 215–216 5478:2007PhT....60e..56P 5443:1911PhRvI..32..349M 4966:Electrodeionization 4910:Bioelectrochemistry 4905:Bioelectromagnetism 4351:Chloralkali process 3587:grid energy storage 3568:lithium-ion battery 3508:of a somatic cell. 3116:→ Cu (0.05 M) + 2 e 3045:Concentration cells 2527: 2492:Briggsian logarithm 2439: 2391: 1980:Spontaneous process 1733:electromotive force 1608:conductive polymers 1418:Unbalanced reaction 1407:complete combustion 1191:Unbalanced reaction 916:Unbalanced reaction 865:ion-electron method 772:reacts with atomic 734:reduction-oxidation 701:By the 1960s–1970s 698:(ISE) was founded. 655:oil drop experiment 646:(ECS) was founded. 609:electromotive force 521:produced the first 93:chemical reaction. 63:electroless plating 27:Branch of chemistry 7350:Physical chemistry 7251:Chemical substance 7113:Chemical synthesis 7082:Forensic chemistry 6963:Actinide chemistry 6905:Clinical chemistry 6586:Molecular geometry 6581:Molecular dynamics 6536:Elemental analysis 6489:Separation process 6192:Separation process 6187:Sample preparation 5699:, Wolfram Research 5210:, Academic Press. 5186:, Springer (2001) 4931:Cyclic voltammetry 4827:equivalent weights 4825:of their chemical 4800:Faraday's constant 4742: 4525:overvoltage effect 4000:Sacrificial anodes 3641:chemical reactions 3526:powered the first 3480: 3399: 3311: 3061:copper(II) sulfate 3051:Concentration cell 2999: 2910: 2791: 2655: 2558: 2504: 2472: 2416: 2392: 2366: 2252: 2175: 2048:Faraday's constant 1968:intensive property 1705: 1691:(not pictured). A 895:In acidic medium, 709:and his students. 602: 531:electrodynamometer 525:in 1839. In 1846, 516: 442:André-Marie Ampère 416:electrolytic cells 361: 265: 261:Napoleon Bonaparte 215: 122: 88:, it is called an 51:physical chemistry 44: 7330: 7329: 7266:Quantum mechanics 7231:Chemical compound 7214:Chemical reaction 7152:Materials science 7070:General chemistry 7065:Amateur chemistry 6993:Photogeochemistry 6978:Stellar chemistry 6948:Nuclear chemistry 6869:Molecular biology 6836:Polymer chemistry 6807:Organic synthesis 6802:Organic reactions 6767:Ceramic chemistry 6757:Cluster chemistry 6687:Chemical kinetics 6675:Molecular physics 6554:Quantum chemistry 6467:Mass spectrometry 6351: 6350: 6233:Standard addition 6228:Internal standard 6218:Calibration curve 6131:Mass spectrometry 6090:Spectrophotometer 6070:Mass spectrometer 6055:Gas chromatograph 5990:Media related to 5914:General Chemistry 5905:978-1-4419-6995-8 5486:10.1063/1.2743125 5367:978-0-7506-6371-7 5051:Reactivity series 4867:László Szebellédy 4740: 4722: 4545:activation energy 4222:Gibbs free energy 4075:electrolytic cell 4071:electrical energy 4006:Sacrificial anode 3996:of the reaction. 3556:lead–acid battery 3506:resting potential 3466: 3450: 3385: 3369: 3309: 3178: 2988: 2935:base-10 logarithm 2899: 2811:is the number of 2706:reaction quotient 2674:Gibbs free energy 2547: 2461: 2284:) and hydrogen (H 2059:chemical reaction 1994:electrical energy 1950:°(Cu/Cu) = 0.34 V 1170:In basic medium, 909:sodium bismuthate 859:Chemical equation 836:electronegativity 801:electronegativity 705:was developed by 596:German scientist 579:Friedrich Ostwald 535:Georges Leclanché 365:William Nicholson 324:form produced by 308:form produced by 200:Benjamin Franklin 152:Otto von Guericke 118:Otto von Guericke 57:and identifiable 49:is the branch of 16:(Redirected from 7357: 7345:Electrochemistry 7318: 7317: 7306: 7294: 7293: 7282: 7281: 7226:Chemical element 6881:Chemical biology 6740:Magnetochemistry 6717:Mechanochemistry 6670:Chemical physics 6611:Electrochemistry 6516:Characterization 6378: 6371: 6364: 6355: 6354: 6339: 6338: 6327: 6315: 6314: 6303: 6302: 6238:Isotope dilution 6022: 6015: 6008: 5999: 5998: 5992:Electrochemistry 5989: 5909: 5872: 5871: 5851: 5845: 5844: 5827:(6–7): 617–626. 5816: 5810: 5809: 5777: 5771: 5770: 5760: 5750: 5718: 5712: 5706: 5700: 5694: 5688: 5685: 5679: 5676: 5663: 5660: 5651: 5648: 5639: 5638: 5628: 5618: 5586: 5580: 5577: 5571: 5568: 5557: 5554: 5541: 5529: 5523: 5522:, nobelprize.org 5517: 5511: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5472:(5, 56): 56–60. 5461: 5455: 5454: 5428: 5419: 5413: 5412: 5405: 5399: 5396: 5390: 5387: 5381: 5378: 5372: 5371: 5349: 5343: 5340: 5334: 5319: 5310: 5295: 5289: 5282: 5276: 5265: 5259: 5244: 5235: 5228: 5219: 5204: 5195: 5180: 5174: 5161:Steven Weinberg 5159: 5153: 5138: 5132: 5117: 5111: 5110: 5082: 5041:Pourbaix diagram 4991:Electrosynthesis 4971:Electropolishing 4898: 4893: 4892: 4858:electropolishing 4751: 4749: 4748: 4743: 4741: 4736: 4728: 4723: 4715: 4680:electric current 4640:sodium hydroxide 4622: 4618: 4611: 4604: 4594: 4590: 4583: 4572: 4565: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4486: 4468: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4411: 4408: 4404: 4316: 4309: 4302: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4270: 4266: 4259: 4228:usually made of 4162:mineral dressing 4156: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4135: 4131: 4124: 4117: 3950:formation, if a 3883:copper carbonate 3856:electric circuit 3846: 3825: 3817: 3805: 3797: 3793: 3786: 3733: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3710: 3699: 3691: 3687: 3657: 3653: 3489: 3487: 3486: 3481: 3479: 3467: 3459: 3451: 3446: 3445: 3435: 3408: 3406: 3405: 3400: 3398: 3386: 3378: 3370: 3365: 3364: 3354: 3320: 3318: 3317: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3307: 3306: 3305: 3262: 3261: 3260: 3240: 3239: 3238: 3237: 3209: 3208: 3207: 3187: 3179: 3174: 3173: 3163: 3158: 3157: 3122: 3115: 3104: 3100: 3082: 3078: 3028: 3026: 3025: 3022: 3019: 3008: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2989: 2984: 2983: 2973: 2968: 2967: 2937:as shown below: 2919: 2917: 2916: 2911: 2900: 2898: 2890: 2882: 2877: 2876: 2825:Faraday constant 2800: 2798: 2797: 2792: 2772: 2771: 2756: 2755: 2734: 2733: 2664: 2662: 2661: 2656: 2636: 2635: 2567: 2565: 2564: 2559: 2548: 2543: 2542: 2532: 2526: 2521: 2481: 2479: 2478: 2473: 2462: 2460: 2452: 2444: 2438: 2433: 2401: 2399: 2398: 2393: 2390: 2385: 2384: 2332: 2331: 2267:electric current 2261: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2251: 2250: 2249: 2227: 2226: 2184: 2182: 2181: 2176: 2174: 2173: 2172: 2150: 2149: 2134: 2133: 2132: 2092: 2091: 2090: 1879: 1871: 1783: 1749: 1745: 1675: 1671: 1664: 1660: 1593:Alessandro Volta 1352: 1351: 1350: 1340: 1339: 1338: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1288: 1287: 1286: 1276: 1275: 1274: 1246: 1245: 1244: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1138: 1130: 1123: 1119: 1108: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1081: 1068: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1059: 1049: 1045: 1029: 1020: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1000: 987: 982: 979: 978: 977: 967: 962: 947: 944: 943: 942: 932: 928: 921: 545:Svante Arrhenius 539:zinc–carbon cell 512:Svante Arrhenius 510:Swedish chemist 438:electromagnetism 333:Alessandro Volta 296:which activated 243:Alessandro Volta 227:Joseph Priestley 204:one-fluid theory 194:two-fluid theory 82:electric battery 47:Electrochemistry 34:English chemist 21: 7365: 7364: 7360: 7359: 7358: 7356: 7355: 7354: 7335: 7334: 7331: 7326: 7270: 7173: 7167:Polymer science 7123:Click chemistry 7118:Green chemistry 7012:Ocean chemistry 6988:Biogeochemistry 6934: 6850: 6822:Total synthesis 6785:Stereochemistry 6771: 6721: 6638:Surface science 6628:Thermochemistry 6597: 6540: 6511:Crystallography 6416: 6388: 6382: 6352: 6347: 6291: 6242: 6201: 6145: 6094: 6037:Instrumentation 6031: 6026: 5982: 5906: 5880: 5875: 5852: 5848: 5817: 5813: 5778: 5774: 5719: 5715: 5707: 5703: 5695: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5677: 5666: 5661: 5654: 5649: 5642: 5587: 5583: 5578: 5574: 5569: 5560: 5555: 5544: 5539:Wayback Machine 5530: 5526: 5518: 5514: 5497: 5493: 5462: 5458: 5431:Physical Review 5426: 5420: 5416: 5407: 5406: 5402: 5397: 5393: 5388: 5384: 5379: 5375: 5368: 5350: 5346: 5341: 5337: 5320: 5313: 5296: 5292: 5283: 5279: 5266: 5262: 5245: 5238: 5229: 5222: 5205: 5198: 5181: 5177: 5160: 5156: 5139: 5135: 5118: 5114: 5099: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5070: 5056:Redox titration 4951:Electrocatalyst 4920:Contact tension 4894: 4887: 4884: 4850: 4815: 4809: 4729: 4727: 4714: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4676: 4658:Michael Faraday 4654: 4648: 4615: 4608: 4600: 4587: 4579: 4569: 4534: 4508: 4499: 4490: 4482: 4475: 4466: 4458: 4450: 4443: 4434: 4429: 4418: 4409: 4357:sodium chloride 4353: 4347: 4334: 4313: 4306: 4298: 4285: 4277: 4263: 4255: 4241:(most used 0.1 4235:sodium chloride 4204: 4200: 4195: 4189: 4153: 4121: 4093:sodium chloride 4089: 4083: 4066: 4060: 4008: 4002: 3976: 3970: 3964: 3941: 3872: 3850: 3844: 3842: 3838: 3830:Iron(III) oxide 3821: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3801: 3795: 3790: 3729: 3714: 3695: 3684: 3629: 3601: 3595: 3548:mercury battery 3520: 3514: 3504:as well as the 3475: 3458: 3441: 3436: 3434: 3420: 3417: 3416: 3394: 3377: 3360: 3355: 3353: 3339: 3336: 3335: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3186: 3169: 3164: 3162: 3153: 3149: 3141: 3138: 3137: 3131:Nernst equation 3053: 3047: 3039: 3032:thermal voltage 3023: 3020: 3017: 3016: 3014: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2963: 2959: 2945: 2942: 2941: 2891: 2883: 2881: 2872: 2868: 2854: 2851: 2850: 2809: 2767: 2763: 2751: 2747: 2729: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2684:is equal to 1, 2631: 2627: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2585: 2583:Nernst equation 2579: 2577:Nernst equation 2574: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2522: 2508: 2502: 2499: 2498: 2453: 2445: 2443: 2434: 2420: 2414: 2411: 2410: 2386: 2371: 2370: 2327: 2323: 2318: 2315: 2314: 2287: 2283: 2236: 2235: 2231: 2222: 2218: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2159: 2158: 2154: 2145: 2141: 2101: 2100: 2096: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2069: 2063:electrical work 2045: 2038: 2029: 2023: 2012: 2005:electric charge 2002: 1990:chemical energy 1982: 1976: 1965: 1954:Changes in the 1938: 1926: 1913:(measured by a 1904: 1896: 1888: 1875: 1854: 1846: 1838: 1830: 1822: 1807: 1803: 1787: 1766: 1760: 1620:electrodeposits 1577: 1571: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1512: 1504: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1476: 1464: 1453: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1403: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1356: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1344: 1342: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1332: 1330: 1325: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1311: 1309: 1293: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1280: 1278: 1273: 1270: 1269: 1268: 1266: 1250: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1236: 1234: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1168: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1142: 1140: 1134: 1127: 1104: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1083: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1051: 1041: 1025: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1005: 1003: 976: 973: 972: 971: 969: 958: 941: 938: 937: 936: 934: 925: 893: 880: 861: 855: 819:oxidizing agent 750:oxidation state 748:, changing its 726: 720: 715: 707:Revaz Dogonadze 689:electrophoresis 681:electrophoretic 640: 617:Nernst equation 564:Charles M. Hall 474:Michael Faraday 353: 320:as well as the 131:William Gilbert 127: 105: 99: 90:electrochemical 59:chemical change 40:Michael Faraday 28: 23: 22: 18:Electrochemical 15: 12: 11: 5: 7363: 7353: 7352: 7347: 7328: 7327: 7325: 7324: 7312: 7300: 7288: 7275: 7272: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7222: 7221: 7211: 7204: 7203: 7202: 7192: 7187: 7181: 7179: 7175: 7174: 7172: 7171: 7170: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7149: 7148: 7147: 7137: 7136: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7110: 7109: 7108: 7097: 7096: 7095: 7094: 7089: 7079: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7056: 7055: 7054: 7053: 7051:Soil chemistry 7043: 7042: 7041: 7036: 7029:Food chemistry 7026: 7024:Carbochemistry 7021: 7019:Clay chemistry 7016: 7015: 7014: 7009: 6998: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6990: 6980: 6974:Astrochemistry 6970:Cosmochemistry 6967: 6966: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6953:Radiochemistry 6944: 6942: 6936: 6935: 6933: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6910:Neurochemistry 6907: 6902: 6901: 6900: 6890: 6889: 6888: 6878: 6877: 6876: 6871: 6860: 6858: 6852: 6851: 6849: 6848: 6843: 6841:Petrochemistry 6838: 6833: 6828: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6793: 6792: 6781: 6779: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6753: 6752: 6742: 6737: 6731: 6729: 6723: 6722: 6720: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6702:Spin chemistry 6699: 6697:Photochemistry 6694: 6689: 6684: 6682:Femtochemistry 6679: 6678: 6677: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6651: 6650: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6607: 6605: 6599: 6598: 6596: 6595: 6594: 6593: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6567: 6566: 6556: 6550: 6548: 6542: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6507: 6506: 6501: 6494:Chromatography 6491: 6486: 6485: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6464: 6463: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6437: 6432: 6426: 6424: 6418: 6417: 6415: 6414: 6412:Periodic table 6409: 6404: 6399: 6393: 6390: 6389: 6381: 6380: 6373: 6366: 6358: 6349: 6348: 6346: 6345: 6333: 6321: 6309: 6296: 6293: 6292: 6290: 6289: 6282: 6275: 6268: 6261: 6253: 6251: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6209: 6207: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6153: 6151: 6147: 6146: 6144: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6111:Chromatography 6108: 6102: 6100: 6096: 6095: 6093: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6041: 6039: 6033: 6032: 6025: 6024: 6017: 6010: 6002: 5996: 5995: 5981: 5980:External links 5978: 5977: 5976: 5962: 5952: 5938: 5925: 5910: 5904: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5873: 5862:(3): 321–325. 5846: 5811: 5772: 5713: 5701: 5689: 5680: 5664: 5652: 5640: 5581: 5572: 5558: 5542: 5524: 5512: 5491: 5456: 5437:(2): 349–397. 5414: 5400: 5391: 5382: 5373: 5366: 5344: 5335: 5311: 5290: 5277: 5260: 5236: 5220: 5196: 5175: 5154: 5133: 5112: 5097: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4976:Electroplating 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4896:Science portal 4883: 4880: 4862:photosynthesis 4856:) or removal ( 4854:electroplating 4849: 4846: 4834:electroplating 4813:Electroplating 4811:Main article: 4808: 4805: 4804: 4803: 4793: 4783: 4777: 4767: 4753: 4752: 4739: 4735: 4732: 4726: 4721: 4718: 4713: 4710: 4675: 4672: 4650:Main article: 4647: 4644: 4624: 4623: 4613: 4606: 4598: 4595: 4585: 4577: 4574: 4567: 4532: 4511: 4510: 4506: 4488: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4456: 4448: 4445: 4441: 4427: 4420: 4416: 4349:Main article: 4346: 4343: 4339:half reactions 4333: 4330: 4318: 4317: 4311: 4304: 4296: 4293: 4283: 4275: 4272: 4261: 4253: 4202: 4198: 4191:Main article: 4188: 4185: 4158: 4157: 4151: 4136: 4126: 4119: 4085:Main article: 4082: 4079: 4062:Main article: 4059: 4056: 4004:Main article: 4001: 3998: 3966:Main article: 3963: 3960: 3952:non-conducting 3940: 3937: 3903:silver sulfide 3881:of green-blue 3875:Coinage metals 3871: 3868: 3848: 3840: 3836: 3827: 3826: 3819: 3811: 3807: 3799: 3788: 3773:carbon dioxide 3762: 3761: 3760: 3759: 3753: 3748:° (cathode) − 3736: 3735: 3734: 3727: 3712: 3702: 3701: 3700: 3693: 3682: 3661: 3660: 3659: 3628: 3627:Iron corrosion 3625: 3597:Main article: 3594: 3591: 3536:electroplating 3516:Main article: 3513: 3510: 3491: 3490: 3478: 3473: 3470: 3465: 3462: 3457: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3433: 3430: 3427: 3424: 3410: 3409: 3397: 3392: 3389: 3384: 3381: 3376: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3322: 3321: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3266: 3259: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3218: 3213: 3206: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3185: 3182: 3177: 3172: 3167: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3145: 3127: 3126: 3123: 3117: 3106: 3105: 3084: 3083: 3049:Main article: 3046: 3043: 3037: 3010: 3009: 2998: 2995: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2971: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2955: 2952: 2949: 2921: 2920: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2897: 2894: 2889: 2886: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2864: 2861: 2858: 2841:cell potential 2807: 2802: 2801: 2790: 2787: 2784: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2743: 2740: 2737: 2732: 2728: 2666: 2665: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2623: 2620: 2617: 2596:Walther Nernst 2581:Main article: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2568: 2557: 2554: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2484: 2483: 2471: 2468: 2465: 2459: 2456: 2451: 2448: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2404: 2403: 2389: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2350: 2347: 2344: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2285: 2281: 2263: 2262: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2234: 2230: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2187: 2186: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2157: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2137: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2099: 2095: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2078: 2043: 2036: 2031: 2030: 2027: 2021: 2010: 2000: 1978:Main article: 1975: 1972: 1963: 1952: 1951: 1941: 1940: 1936: 1924: 1907: 1906: 1902: 1894: 1886: 1880: 1873: 1857: 1856: 1852: 1844: 1836: 1828: 1820: 1805: 1801: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1762:Main article: 1759: 1756: 1751: 1750: 1677: 1676: 1666: 1644:copper sulfate 1573:Main article: 1570: 1567: 1566: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1538: 1537: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1514: 1510: 1502: 1495: 1494: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1474: 1466: 1462: 1451: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1402: 1401:Neutral medium 1399: 1398: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1362: 1361: 1354: 1347: 1335: 1327: 1323: 1316: 1307: 1297: 1296: 1291: 1283: 1271: 1256: 1248: 1241: 1232: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1184:sodium sulfite 1167: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1145: 1132: 1125: 1110: 1109: 1102: 1088: 1073: 1056: 1039: 1032: 1031: 1023: 1008: 990: 974: 956: 948: 939: 923: 892: 889: 885:half-reactions 878: 857:Main article: 854: 851: 809:reducing agent 795:the lion says 722:Main article: 719: 716: 714: 711: 639: 636: 598:Walther Nernst 529:developed the 461:expressed his 402:By the 1810s, 385:electroplating 352: 349: 196:of electricity 160:electric spark 126: 123: 101:Main article: 98: 95: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7362: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7342: 7340: 7333: 7323: 7322: 7313: 7311: 7310: 7305: 7301: 7299: 7298: 7289: 7287: 7286: 7277: 7276: 7273: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7256:Chemical bond 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7220: 7217: 7216: 7215: 7212: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7198: 7197: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7182: 7180: 7176: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7154: 7153: 7150: 7146: 7145:Stoichiometry 7143: 7142: 7141: 7138: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7114: 7111: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7102: 7101:Nanochemistry 7099: 7098: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7084: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7062: 7061: 7058: 7057: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7047: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7004: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6985: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6968: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6950: 6949: 6946: 6945: 6943: 6941: 6937: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6899: 6896: 6895: 6894: 6891: 6887: 6884: 6883: 6882: 6879: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6857: 6853: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6826:Semisynthesis 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6791: 6788: 6787: 6786: 6783: 6782: 6780: 6778: 6774: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6728: 6724: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6676: 6673: 6672: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6660:Sonochemistry 6658: 6656: 6655:Cryochemistry 6653: 6649: 6648:Micromeritics 6646: 6645: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6612: 6609: 6608: 6606: 6604: 6600: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6565: 6562: 6561: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6549: 6547: 6543: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6526:Wet chemistry 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6469: 6468: 6465: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6442: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6427: 6425: 6423: 6419: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6394: 6391: 6387: 6379: 6374: 6372: 6367: 6365: 6360: 6359: 6356: 6344: 6343: 6334: 6332: 6331: 6326: 6322: 6320: 6319: 6310: 6308: 6307: 6298: 6297: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6283: 6281: 6280: 6276: 6274: 6273: 6269: 6267: 6266: 6262: 6260: 6259: 6255: 6254: 6252: 6250: 6245: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6223:Matrix effect 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6210: 6208: 6204: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6182:Pulverization 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6148: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6097: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6042: 6040: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6023: 6018: 6016: 6011: 6009: 6004: 6003: 6000: 5993: 5988: 5984: 5983: 5975: 5974:0-12-352651-5 5971: 5967: 5963: 5961: 5960:0-19-855389-7 5957: 5953: 5951: 5950:0-12-678550-3 5947: 5943: 5939: 5937: 5936:981-02-3405-8 5933: 5929: 5926: 5923: 5922:0-618-73879-7 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5850: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5815: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5768: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5698: 5693: 5687:Wiberg, p. 65 5684: 5675: 5673: 5671: 5669: 5659: 5657: 5647: 5645: 5636: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5585: 5576: 5567: 5565: 5563: 5553: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5540: 5536: 5533: 5528: 5521: 5516: 5509: 5508:0-495-12671-3 5505: 5501: 5495: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5466:Physics Today 5460: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5425: 5418: 5410: 5404: 5395: 5386: 5377: 5369: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5348: 5339: 5332: 5331:0-313-33358-0 5328: 5324: 5318: 5316: 5308: 5307:0-7100-7626-6 5304: 5301:, Routledge. 5300: 5294: 5287: 5281: 5274: 5273:0-85229-529-4 5270: 5264: 5257: 5256:0-19-855919-4 5253: 5249: 5243: 5241: 5233: 5227: 5225: 5217: 5216:0-12-521546-0 5213: 5209: 5203: 5201: 5193: 5192:0-7923-7196-8 5189: 5185: 5179: 5172: 5171:0-521-82351-X 5168: 5164: 5158: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5130: 5129:0-521-30430-X 5126: 5122: 5116: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5098:0-19-855389-7 5094: 5090: 5089: 5081: 5077: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4996:Frost diagram 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4902: 4897: 4891: 4886: 4879: 4877: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4845: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4830: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4814: 4801: 4797: 4794: 4791: 4787: 4784: 4781: 4778: 4775: 4771: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4757: 4756: 4737: 4733: 4730: 4724: 4719: 4716: 4711: 4708: 4701: 4700: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4671: 4669: 4665: 4664: 4659: 4653: 4643: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4628:concentration 4596: 4575: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4549:kinetic terms 4546: 4542: 4541:thermodynamic 4538: 4530: 4526: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4504: 4478: 4471: 4446: 4439: 4421: 4414: 4400: 4399: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4389: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4364: 4358: 4352: 4342: 4340: 4329: 4327: 4323: 4294: 4273: 4251: 4250: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4240: 4239:sulfuric acid 4236: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4218:spontaneously 4216: 4212: 4208: 4194: 4184: 4181: 4177: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4163: 4137: 4127: 4113: 4112: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4088: 4078: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4055: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4040: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4017: 4016:"sacrificial" 4013: 4007: 3997: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3959: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3944: 3936: 3934: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3867: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3834: 3831: 3782: 3781: 3780: 3778: 3777:carbonic acid 3774: 3770: 3767: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3680: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3662: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3624: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3560: 3557: 3552: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3519: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3471: 3468: 3463: 3460: 3455: 3452: 3447: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3425: 3422: 3415: 3414: 3413: 3390: 3387: 3382: 3379: 3374: 3371: 3366: 3356: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3334: 3333: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324:The value of 3257: 3254: 3204: 3201: 3183: 3180: 3175: 3165: 3159: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3143: 3136: 3135: 3134: 3132: 3124: 3118: 3112:Oxidation: Cu 3111: 3110: 3109: 3096: 3095: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3074: 3073: 3072: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3052: 3042: 3036: 3033: 3029: 2996: 2993: 2990: 2985: 2975: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2953: 2950: 2940: 2939: 2938: 2936: 2932: 2931: 2926: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2887: 2884: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2859: 2849: 2848: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2773: 2768: 2764: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2741: 2735: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2717: 2716: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2672:is change in 2671: 2652: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2640: 2637: 2632: 2628: 2621: 2618: 2608: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2590: 2584: 2555: 2552: 2549: 2544: 2534: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2515: 2512: 2509: 2505: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2457: 2454: 2449: 2446: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2417: 2409: 2408: 2407: 2387: 2367: 2363: 2360: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2328: 2324: 2313: 2312: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2268: 2232: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2199: 2198: 2197: 2195: 2190: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2135: 2097: 2093: 2076: 2068: 2067: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2042: 2035: 2026: 2020: 2016: 2015: 2014: 2009: 2006: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1981: 1971: 1969: 1961: 1957: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1934: 1930: 1923: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1900: 1892: 1884: 1881: 1867: 1866: 1865: 1864: 1860: 1850: 1842: 1834: 1826: 1818: 1815: 1814: 1813: 1809: 1797: 1795: 1779: 1778: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1765: 1755: 1741: 1740: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1715: 1709: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1681: 1667: 1656: 1655: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1638:submerged in 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1621: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1589:Luigi Galvani 1586: 1585:Galvanic cell 1582: 1576: 1543: 1542: 1541: 1535: 1515: 1508: 1500: 1499: 1498: 1493: 1492:+ 20 e + 20 H 1478: 1470: 1467: 1460: 1456: 1449: 1445: 1442: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1367: 1366: 1365: 1360: 1328: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1300: 1295: 1264: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1230: 1226: 1223: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1115: 1114: 1113: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1001: 994: 991: 989: 963: 952: 949: 917: 914: 913: 912: 910: 906: 902: 901:half-reaction 898: 891:Acidic medium 888: 886: 882: 874: 870: 866: 860: 850: 848: 844: 839: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 820: 815: 811: 810: 804: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 781: 779: 775: 771: 766: 764: 760: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 732:" stands for 731: 725: 710: 708: 704: 699: 697: 692: 690: 686: 682: 678: 677:Arne Tiselius 673: 671: 667: 662: 660: 656: 652: 647: 645: 635: 633: 629: 625: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 599: 594: 590: 588: 587:organic acids 584: 580: 575: 573: 569: 565: 561: 556: 554: 550: 546: 542: 540: 536: 532: 528: 527:Wilhelm Weber 524: 520: 519:William Grove 513: 508: 504: 502: 498: 494: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 470: 468: 464: 460: 455: 453: 450: 445: 443: 439: 435: 431: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 408:galvanic cell 405: 400: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 357: 348: 346: 342: 338: 334: 329: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 290: 288: 284: 280: 279:Luigi Galvani 277: 273: 270: 262: 259: 256: 252: 250: 244: 241: 238: 234: 230: 228: 224: 223:electrostatic 220: 211: 207: 205: 201: 197: 195: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 171: 168: 163: 161: 157: 153: 150: 147: 144:In 1663, the 142: 140: 136: 132: 119: 116: 113: 109: 104: 94: 91: 87: 83: 79: 74: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 41: 37: 32: 19: 7332: 7319: 7307: 7295: 7283: 7133:Biosynthesis 6983:Geochemistry 6898:Pharmacology 6874:Cell biology 6864:Biochemistry 6692:Spectroscopy 6610: 6591:VSEPR theory 6440:Spectroscopy 6384:Branches of 6340: 6328: 6316: 6304: 6284: 6277: 6270: 6263: 6256: 6249:publications 6213:Chemometrics 6197:Sub-sampling 6136:Spectroscopy 5886: 5878:Bibliography 5859: 5855: 5849: 5824: 5820: 5814: 5789: 5785: 5775: 5730: 5726: 5716: 5704: 5692: 5683: 5598: 5594: 5584: 5575: 5527: 5515: 5494: 5469: 5465: 5459: 5434: 5430: 5417: 5403: 5394: 5385: 5376: 5357: 5347: 5338: 5293: 5280: 5263: 5178: 5157: 5140:R. Hellborg 5136: 5115: 5087: 5080: 4851: 4848:Applications 4831: 4818: 4816: 4795: 4785: 4779: 4769: 4759: 4754: 4697: 4677: 4661: 4655: 4638:and aqueous 4625: 4557: 4539:rather than 4528: 4522: 4519: 4512: 4502: 4469: 4447:Cathode: 2 H 4437: 4412: 4396: 4392:chlorine gas 4367:and gaseous 4365:in the anode 4360: 4354: 4335: 4319: 4247: 4196: 4173: 4159: 4132:+ 2 e → 2 Na 4109: 4099:and gaseous 4090: 4067: 4064:Electrolysis 4058:Electrolysis 4041: 4020: 4015: 4009: 3990:electrolytes 3983: 3977: 3945: 3942: 3921: 3907: 3873: 3853: 3828: 3763: 3755: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3630: 3602: 3575:flow battery 3572: 3561: 3553: 3521: 3502:cardiac beat 3495: 3492: 3411: 3330: 3325: 3323: 3133:as follows: 3128: 3107: 3092: 3085: 3058: 3054: 3034: 3013: 3011: 2929: 2924: 2922: 2845: 2843:(in volts). 2836: 2820: 2805: 2803: 2713: 2710: 2701: 2698:gas constant 2693: 2688:is absolute 2685: 2681: 2677: 2669: 2667: 2600: 2588: 2586: 2494:as follows: 2487: 2485: 2405: 2307: 2301: 2297:electrolysis 2290: 2271: 2264: 2191: 2188: 2056: 2051: 2040: 2033: 2032: 2024: 2018: 2007: 1997: 1983: 1959: 1953: 1947: 1942: 1932: 1928: 1921: 1908: 1898: 1897:(cathode) – 1890: 1882: 1863:Cell diagram 1862: 1861: 1858: 1848: 1847:(cathode) + 1840: 1832: 1831:(cathode) – 1824: 1816: 1810: 1798: 1790: 1767: 1752: 1737: 1730: 1719: 1710: 1706: 1685:potentiostat 1652: 1648:Daniell cell 1640:zinc sulfate 1625: 1616: 1597: 1578: 1539: 1533: 1506: 1496: 1491: 1472: 1468: 1458: 1454: 1447: 1443: 1417: 1404: 1363: 1358: 1303: 1298: 1289: 1262: 1258: 1252: 1228: 1224: 1190: 1169: 1166:Basic medium 1111: 1075: 1070: 1033: 1021: 996: 992: 983: 954: 950: 915: 907:reacts with 894: 862: 840: 823: 817: 813: 807: 805: 796: 792: 788: 782: 767: 733: 727: 700: 693: 674: 670:Martin Lowry 663: 648: 641: 638:20th century 632:nitrobenzene 621: 603: 583:conductivity 576: 570:) to obtain 560:Paul Héroult 557: 553:electrolytes 548: 543: 517: 495:(i.e., zinc 482:polarization 478:John Daniell 471: 466: 456: 446: 432: 412:Humphry Davy 401: 381:electrolysis 362: 351:19th century 341:metal temper 336: 330: 322:"artificial" 321: 314:electric eel 305: 293: 291: 286: 282: 266: 246: 245:showing his 229:in England. 216: 203: 193: 188: 184: 176: 164: 143: 138: 128: 89: 78:electrolysis 75: 46: 45: 36:John Daniell 7321:WikiProject 6546:Theoretical 6531:Calorimetry 6342:WikiProject 6206:Calibration 6167:Dissolution 6106:Calorimetry 5409:"About ECS" 5258:pp. 219–220 5066:Voltammetry 4663:electrolyte 4422:Anode: 2 Cl 4401:Cathode: Na 4373:dissociates 3985:passivation 3956:electrolyte 3692:+ 4 e → 2 H 3544:flashlights 2690:temperature 2274:spontaneous 2194:free energy 1931:°(Cu/Cu) – 1714:salt bridge 1689:galvanostat 1612:electrolyte 1581:spontaneous 685:Nobel Prize 624:Fritz Haber 613:free energy 533:. In 1868, 490:amalgamated 440:to others. 318:torpedo ray 189:"resinous," 7339:Categories 7157:Metallurgy 6856:Biological 6422:Analytical 6247:Prominent 6172:Filtration 6099:Techniques 6080:Microscope 5792:(5): 1–9. 5150:3540239839 5073:References 5001:Fuel cells 4807:Second law 4479:Anode: 2 H 4226:electrodes 4169:industries 4166:metallurgy 4087:Downs cell 3972:See also: 3917:aqua regia 3864:salt water 3672:atmosphere 3079:+ 2 e → Cu 3012:Note that 2692:(Kelvin), 2278:fuel cells 2192:Since the 1915:multimeter 1839:(anode) = 1693:shot glass 1672:+ 2 e → Cu 1628:electrodes 1501:20 H + 5 O 778:ionic bond 728:The term " 713:Principles 389:electrodes 312:or by the 179:(from the 177:"vitreous" 7219:Catalysis 6727:Inorganic 6521:Titration 6386:chemistry 6141:Titration 5806:0003-2700 5309:pp. 34 ff 4876:olive oil 4872:ice-cream 4842:corrosion 4840:to avoid 4725:⋅ 4686:that the 4674:First law 4584:+ 2 e → H 4509:= +1.23 V 4476:= –0.83 V 4455:+ 2 e → H 4444:= +1.36 V 4419:= –2.71 V 4383:ion. The 4322:catalyzes 4282:+ 2 e → H 4105:electrons 4037:magnesium 3974:Anodizing 3893:coins or 3860:oxidation 3752:° (anode) 3664:Electrons 3599:Corrosion 3593:Corrosion 3579:fuel cell 3532:telephone 3528:telegraph 3524:wet cells 3456:⁡ 3432:− 3375:⁡ 3351:− 3184:⁡ 3160:− 3155:∘ 2994:⁡ 2970:− 2965:∘ 2957:Δ 2948:Δ 2905:⁡ 2879:− 2874:∘ 2866:Δ 2857:Δ 2813:electrons 2786:⁡ 2774:− 2769:∘ 2761:Δ 2739:Δ 2650:⁡ 2633:∘ 2625:Δ 2616:Δ 2553:⁡ 2524:∘ 2467:⁡ 2436:∘ 2388:∘ 2358:− 2349:⁡ 2337:− 2329:∘ 2321:Δ 2216:− 2207:Δ 2139:− 2037:ele,trans 2028:ele,trans 2011:ele,trans 1784:+ 2 e → H 1722:voltmeter 1469:Oxidation 1444:Reduction 1384:O → 2 MnO 1329:6 OH + 3 1259:Oxidation 1225:Reduction 1174:ions and 1124:+ 5 NaBiO 997:2 e + 6 H 993:Reduction 951:Oxidation 905:manganese 814:reductant 789:"OIL RIG" 675:In 1937, 664:In 1923, 649:In 1909, 642:In 1902, 622:In 1898, 577:In 1894, 572:aluminium 558:In 1886, 523:fuel cell 472:In 1832, 459:Georg Ohm 449:physicist 424:potassium 363:In 1800, 310:lightning 306:"natural" 276:anatomist 272:physician 240:physicist 217:In 1785, 149:physicist 135:magnetism 115:physicist 86:fuel cell 7285:Category 7241:Molecule 7178:See also 6603:Physical 6306:Category 6162:Dilution 6150:Sampling 5767:25309898 5635:25309898 5535:Archived 5131:, p. 160 5107:26398887 4882:See also 4774:coulombs 4636:chlorine 4632:hydrogen 4601:O + 2 Cl 4515:negative 4405:+ e → Na 4385:chloride 4369:hydrogen 4361:gaseous 4230:platinum 4211:hydrogen 4101:chlorine 4044:pipeline 4033:cathodic 4012:cathodic 3924:Titanium 3913:platinum 3540:dry cell 3498:synapses 3067:and 2.0 2835:), and Δ 2829:coulombs 1735:or emf. 1227:: 3 e + 867:, where 832:fluorine 785:mnemonic 774:chlorine 742:molecule 738:electron 659:electron 486:hydrogen 373:hydrogen 326:friction 71:solution 7297:Commons 7261:Alchemy 6777:Organic 6318:Commons 6258:Analyst 6177:Masking 5916:(2007) 5841:9373526 5758:4174133 5735:Bibcode 5626:4174133 5603:Bibcode 5474:Bibcode 5439:Bibcode 5275:, p. 90 5173:, p. 15 5144:(2005) 4553:voltage 4537:kinetic 4220:as the 4046:and is 3968:Coating 3962:Coating 3948:cathode 3895:cutlery 3833:hydrate 3822:O + 8 H 3512:Battery 3412:or by: 3357:0.05916 3166:0.05916 3027:⁠ 3015:⁠ 2976:0.05916 2839:is the 2823:is the 2704:is the 2696:is the 2593:chemist 2535:0.05916 2293:voltage 1905:(anode) 1855:(anode) 1697:aerated 1604:cathode 1411:propane 1396:+ 2 KOH 1322:→ 2 MnO 1294:O + 2 e 1209:O → MnO 922:+ NaBiO 847:ethanol 824:oxidant 754:voltage 628:cathode 501:mercury 497:alloyed 302:muscles 269:Italian 258:emperor 249:battery 237:Italian 185:"glass" 170:chemist 97:History 67:species 7309:Portal 6455:UV-Vis 6330:Portal 5972: 5958: 5948: 5934: 5920: 5902: 5839: 5804: 5765: 5755: 5733:: 79. 5633: 5623: 5601:: 79. 5510:p. 379 5506: 5364: 5329: 5305: 5271: 5254: 5218:p. 248 5214: 5194:p. 227 5190: 5169: 5148: 5127: 5105: 5095: 4838:metals 4755:where 4619:+ 2 OH 4591:+ 2 OH 4500: 4467: 4462:+ 2 OH 4435: 4410: 4381:sodium 4377:cation 4363:oxygen 4289:+ 2 OH 4215:oxygen 4146:→ 2 Na 4142:+ 2 Cl 4097:sodium 4052:ingots 3891:Silver 3887:copper 3879:patina 3806:→ 2 Fe 3794:+ (4+2 3722:→ 2 Fe 3639:. The 3633:oxygen 3613:copper 3583:oxygen 3472:0.0474 3438:0.0257 3391:0.0474 2668:Here Δ 2295:. The 1796:= 0). 1703:block. 1701:Teflon 1636:copper 1556:→ 3 CO 1536:+ 20 H 1528:→ 3 CO 1509:→ 10 H 1487:→ 3 CO 1388:+ 3 Na 1372:+ 3 Na 1368:2 KMnO 1326:+ 8 OH 1310:O + 2 1193:: KMnO 1158:+ 5 Na 1154:+ 5 Bi 1120:+ 2 Mn 1101:+ 15 H 1097:→ 5 Bi 1078:+ 30 H 1065:+ 16 H 1046:+ 2 Mn 843:butane 770:sodium 759:charge 420:sodium 410:. Sir 377:oxygen 298:nerves 255:French 167:French 156:sulfur 146:German 112:German 6482:MALDI 6450:Raman 5427:(PDF) 5333:p. 73 5152:p. 52 5006:ITIES 4823:ratio 4764:grams 4682:in a 4573:+ 2 e 4498:+ 4 e 4494:+ 4 H 4433:+ 2 e 4388:anion 4303:→ 2 H 4271:+ 4 e 4267:+ 4 H 4207:Water 4201:and O 4125:+ 2 e 4029:hulls 3994:anode 3980:paint 3726:+ 2 H 3718:+ 4 H 3688:+ 4 H 3676:water 3674:into 3658:+ 2 e 3637:water 3621:brass 3617:steel 2817:moles 2804:Here 1935:°(H/H 1665:+ 2 e 1600:anode 1560:+ 4 H 1552:+ 5 O 1520:O + C 1455:+ 4 e 1353:+ 3 H 1306:+ 4 H 1247:→ MnO 1221:+ KOH 1176:water 1131:→ 7 H 1022:+ 3 H 988:+ 5 e 984:+ 8 H 875:ion, 822:, or 812:, or 797:"GER" 793:"LEO" 763:ionic 730:redox 724:Redox 499:with 181:Latin 69:in a 7236:Atom 6504:HPLC 5970:ISBN 5956:ISBN 5946:ISBN 5932:ISBN 5918:ISBN 5900:ISBN 5837:PMID 5802:ISSN 5763:PMID 5631:PMID 5504:ISBN 5362:ISBN 5327:ISBN 5303:ISBN 5269:ISBN 5252:ISBN 5212:ISBN 5188:ISBN 5167:ISBN 5146:ISBN 5125:ISBN 5103:OCLC 5093:ISBN 4790:mole 4688:mass 4621:(aq) 4612:+ Cl 4603:(aq) 4593:(aq) 4566:→ Cl 4564:(aq) 4533:cell 4496:(aq) 4464:(aq) 4426:→ Cl 4424:(aq) 4403:(aq) 4291:(aq) 4269:(aq) 4213:and 4174:The 4164:and 4150:+ Cl 4118:→ Cl 4026:ship 4022:Zinc 3933:rust 3929:Iron 3911:and 3909:Gold 3899:eggs 3824:(aq) 3785:(aq) 3783:4 Fe 3769:ions 3744:° = 3724:(aq) 3720:(aq) 3707:2 Fe 3690:(aq) 3668:iron 3656:(aq) 3654:→ Fe 3635:and 3619:and 3609:iron 3605:rust 3573:The 3554:The 3530:and 3500:and 3461:0.05 3380:0.05 3077:(aq) 2833:mole 2827:(in 2815:(in 2700:and 2022:cell 2001:cell 1943:Or, 1925:cell 1887:cell 1821:cell 1782:(aq) 1670:(aq) 1663:(aq) 1661:→ Zn 1642:and 1634:and 1632:zinc 1630:are 1591:and 1534:20 e 1507:20 e 1432:→ CO 1357:O + 1341:→ 3 1263:2 OH 1235:O + 1213:+ Na 1197:+ Na 1182:and 1160:(aq) 1156:(aq) 1152:(aq) 1139:+ 2 1122:(aq) 1118:(aq) 1116:14 H 1099:(aq) 1082:+ 5 1080:(aq) 1076:10 e 1071:10 e 1067:(aq) 1063:(aq) 1050:→ 2 1048:(aq) 1019:(aq) 1017:→ Bi 999:(aq) 986:(aq) 981:(aq) 966:(aq) 964:+ Mn 946:(aq) 931:(aq) 929:→ Bi 920:(aq) 918:: Mn 828:fire 668:and 562:and 493:zinc 422:and 375:and 367:and 316:and 300:and 274:and 183:for 7246:Ion 6477:ICP 6460:NMR 5892:doi 5864:doi 5829:doi 5794:doi 5753:PMC 5743:doi 5621:PMC 5611:doi 5482:doi 5447:doi 4798:is 4617:(g) 4610:(g) 4605:→ H 4589:(g) 4582:(l) 4571:(g) 4507:red 4492:(g) 4487:→ O 4485:(l) 4474:red 4460:(g) 4453:(l) 4442:red 4431:(g) 4417:red 4407:(s) 4328:). 4315:(g) 4310:+ O 4308:(g) 4301:(l) 4287:(g) 4280:(g) 4265:(g) 4260:→ O 4258:(l) 4245:). 4237:or 4176:emf 4155:(g) 4148:(l) 4144:(l) 4140:(l) 4134:(l) 4130:(l) 4123:(g) 4116:(l) 3854:An 3851:O. 3804:(l) 3798:) H 3792:(g) 3787:+ O 3732:(l) 3716:(g) 3711:+ O 3709:(s) 3698:(l) 3686:(g) 3652:(s) 3611:or 3464:2.0 3383:2.0 3372:log 3181:log 3121:(s) 3114:(s) 3103:(s) 3099:(s) 3081:(s) 2991:log 2819:), 2676:, Δ 2550:log 2486:At 2054:). 1964:red 1911:emf 1903:red 1895:red 1878:(s) 1872:| H 1870:(s) 1853:oxi 1845:red 1837:red 1829:red 1780:2 H 1748:(s) 1744:(s) 1674:(s) 1659:(s) 1516:6 H 1479:+ C 1473:6 H 1450:+ O 1448:4 H 1436:+ H 1428:+ O 1420:: C 1409:of 1380:+ H 1359:6 e 1312:MnO 1304:6 e 1290:+ H 1237:MnO 1205:+ H 1141:MnO 1137:(l) 1129:(s) 1107:(l) 1095:(s) 1084:BiO 1052:MnO 1044:(l) 1038:8 H 1028:(l) 1015:(s) 1004:BiO 970:MnO 961:(l) 955:4 H 935:MnO 927:(s) 845:or 746:ion 744:or 463:law 379:by 253:to 202:'s 84:or 73:). 7341:: 6976:/ 6972:/ 6824:/ 6499:GC 6472:EI 6445:IR 5898:. 5860:60 5858:. 5835:. 5825:14 5823:. 5800:. 5790:50 5788:. 5784:. 5761:. 5751:. 5741:. 5729:. 5725:. 5667:^ 5655:^ 5643:^ 5629:. 5619:. 5609:. 5597:. 5593:. 5561:^ 5545:^ 5480:. 5470:60 5468:. 5445:. 5435:32 5433:. 5429:. 5356:. 5314:^ 5239:^ 5223:^ 5199:^ 5101:. 4878:. 4844:. 4829:. 4792:), 4776:), 4766:), 4670:. 4642:. 4634:, 4394:. 4326:pH 4171:. 4077:. 3919:. 3905:. 3866:. 3650:Fe 3623:. 3453:ln 3097:Cu 3075:Cu 3018:RT 2902:ln 2783:ln 2647:ln 2464:ln 2346:ln 2306:, 2272:A 1988:, 1970:. 1927:= 1889:= 1868:Pt 1823:= 1794:pH 1742:Zn 1720:A 1650:. 1532:+ 1505:+ 1471:: 1457:→ 1446:: 1413:: 1392:SO 1376:SO 1343:SO 1331:SO 1279:SO 1277:→ 1267:SO 1265:+ 1261:: 1255:OH 1251:+ 1217:SO 1201:SO 1186:: 1172:OH 1069:+ 1002:+ 995:: 968:→ 953:: 933:+ 911:. 873:OH 871:, 780:. 691:. 589:. 541:. 399:. 7210:" 7206:" 6377:e 6370:t 6363:v 6021:e 6014:t 6007:v 5924:, 5908:. 5894:: 5870:. 5866:: 5843:. 5831:: 5808:. 5796:: 5769:. 5745:: 5737:: 5731:2 5637:. 5613:: 5605:: 5599:2 5488:. 5484:: 5476:: 5453:. 5449:: 5441:: 5411:. 5370:. 5109:. 4796:F 4786:M 4780:n 4770:Q 4760:m 4738:n 4734:M 4731:Q 4720:F 4717:1 4712:= 4709:m 4614:2 4607:2 4599:2 4586:2 4580:O 4578:2 4568:2 4531:° 4529:E 4505:° 4503:E 4489:2 4483:O 4481:2 4472:° 4470:E 4457:2 4451:O 4449:2 4440:° 4438:E 4428:2 4415:° 4413:E 4312:2 4305:2 4299:O 4297:2 4284:2 4278:O 4276:2 4262:2 4256:O 4254:2 4243:M 4203:2 4199:2 4180:V 4152:2 4120:2 3849:2 3847:H 3845:x 3843:· 3841:3 3839:O 3837:2 3820:2 3818:H 3816:x 3814:· 3812:3 3810:O 3808:2 3802:O 3800:2 3796:x 3789:2 3766:H 3756:E 3750:E 3746:E 3742:E 3730:O 3728:2 3713:2 3696:O 3694:2 3683:2 3681:O 3477:V 3469:= 3448:2 3443:V 3429:0 3426:= 3423:E 3396:V 3388:= 3367:2 3362:V 3348:0 3345:= 3342:E 3326:E 3303:d 3300:e 3297:t 3294:a 3291:r 3288:t 3285:n 3282:e 3279:c 3276:n 3273:o 3270:c 3265:] 3258:+ 3255:2 3251:u 3247:C 3243:[ 3235:d 3232:e 3229:t 3226:u 3223:l 3220:i 3217:d 3212:] 3205:+ 3202:2 3198:u 3194:C 3190:[ 3176:2 3171:V 3151:E 3147:= 3144:E 3069:M 3065:M 3038:T 3035:V 3024:F 3021:/ 2997:Q 2986:n 2981:V 2961:E 2954:= 2951:E 2930:R 2925:T 2908:Q 2896:F 2893:n 2888:T 2885:R 2870:E 2863:= 2860:E 2837:E 2831:/ 2821:F 2808:e 2806:n 2789:Q 2780:T 2777:R 2765:E 2758:F 2753:e 2749:n 2745:= 2742:E 2736:F 2731:e 2727:n 2702:Q 2694:R 2686:T 2682:Q 2678:G 2670:G 2653:Q 2644:T 2641:R 2638:+ 2629:G 2622:= 2619:G 2589:G 2556:K 2545:n 2540:V 2529:= 2519:l 2516:l 2513:e 2510:c 2506:E 2488:T 2482:. 2470:K 2458:F 2455:n 2450:T 2447:R 2441:= 2431:l 2428:l 2425:e 2422:c 2418:E 2402:. 2382:l 2379:l 2376:e 2373:c 2368:E 2364:F 2361:n 2355:= 2352:K 2343:T 2340:R 2334:= 2325:G 2308:K 2286:2 2282:2 2247:l 2244:l 2241:e 2238:c 2233:E 2229:F 2224:e 2220:n 2213:= 2210:G 2185:, 2170:l 2167:l 2164:e 2161:c 2156:E 2152:F 2147:e 2143:n 2136:= 2130:l 2127:a 2124:c 2121:i 2118:r 2115:t 2112:c 2109:e 2106:l 2103:e 2098:W 2094:= 2088:x 2085:a 2082:m 2077:W 2052:F 2050:( 2044:e 2041:n 2034:Q 2025:Q 2019:E 2008:Q 1998:E 1962:° 1960:E 1948:E 1939:) 1937:2 1933:E 1929:E 1922:E 1901:° 1899:E 1893:° 1891:E 1885:° 1883:E 1874:2 1851:° 1849:E 1843:° 1841:E 1835:° 1833:E 1827:° 1825:E 1819:° 1817:E 1806:4 1802:4 1786:2 1687:/ 1564:O 1562:2 1558:2 1554:2 1550:8 1548:H 1546:3 1544:C 1530:2 1526:8 1524:H 1522:3 1518:2 1513:O 1511:2 1503:2 1489:2 1485:8 1483:H 1481:3 1477:O 1475:2 1465:O 1463:2 1461:H 1459:2 1452:2 1440:O 1438:2 1434:2 1430:2 1426:8 1424:H 1422:3 1394:4 1390:2 1386:2 1382:2 1378:3 1374:2 1370:4 1355:2 1348:4 1336:3 1324:2 1317:4 1308:2 1292:2 1284:4 1272:3 1253:4 1249:2 1242:4 1233:2 1231:H 1229:2 1219:4 1215:2 1211:2 1207:2 1203:3 1199:2 1195:4 1146:4 1135:O 1133:2 1126:3 1105:O 1103:2 1089:3 1057:4 1042:O 1040:2 1026:O 1024:2 1009:3 975:4 959:O 957:2 940:4 924:3 897:H 881:O 879:2 877:H 869:H 251:" 247:" 20:)

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Index