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During the process of smelting iron, ferrous slag is created, but dominated by calcium and silicon compositions. Through this process, ferrous slag can be broken down into blast furnace slag (produced from iron oxides of molten iron), then steel slag (forms when steel scrap and molten iron combined).
522:
area there were a vast number of differential metallurgical processes in use. A slag by-product of such workings was a colorful, glassy material found on the surfaces of slag from ancient copper foundries. It was primarily blue or green and was formerly chipped away and melted down to make glassware
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of other metals. During smelting, when the ore is exposed to high temperatures, these impurities are separated from the molten metal and can be removed. Slag is the collection of compounds that are removed. In many smelting processes, oxides are introduced to control the slag chemistry, assisting in
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Granulated blast furnace slag is used in the manufacture of high-performance concretes, especially those used in the construction of bridges and coastal features, where its low permeability and greater resistance to chlorides and sulfates can help to reduce corrosive action and deterioration of the
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of toxic elements and hyperalkaline runoffs into the soil and water, endangering the local ecological communities. Leaching concerns are typically around non-ferrous or base metal slags, which tend to have higher concentrations of toxic elements. However, ferrous and ferroalloy slags may also have
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to produce cementitious properties that primarily contribute to the later strength gain of concrete. This leads to concrete with reduced permeability and better durability. Careful consideration of the slag type used is required, as the high calcium oxide and magnesium oxide content can lead to
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Historically, the re-smelting of iron ore slag was common practice, as improved smelting techniques permitted greater iron yields—in some cases exceeding that which was originally achieved. During the early 20th century, iron ore slag was also ground to a powder and used to make
717:-based calculation of the carbonation potential can lead to overestimation that can further obfuscate the material's true potential. To this end, some have proposed performing a series of experiments testing the reactivity of a specific slag material (i.e.,
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Dissolution of slags generate alkalinity that can be used to precipitate out metals, sulfates, and excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in wastewater treatment. Similarly, ferrous slags have been used as soil conditioners to re-balance
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Ferrous slags are produced in different stages of the iron and steelmaking processes resulting in varying physiochemical properties. Additionally, the rate of cooling of the slag material affects its degree of
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of the smelting, and minimizing any re-oxidation of the final liquid metal product before the molten metal is removed from the furnace and used to make solid metal. In some smelting processes, such as
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Slags have one of the highest carbonation potential among the industrial alkaline waste due their high calcium oxide and magnesium oxide content, inspiring further studies to test its feasibility in
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Copper slag, the waste product of smelting copper ores, was studied in an abandoned Penn Mine in
California, US. For six to eight months per year, this region is flooded and becomes a reservoir for
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and magnesium oxide content, which are often converted to its hydrated forms if excessive volume expansions are not desired. On the other hand, water quenched blast furnace slags have greater
1498:
O'Connor, James; Nguyen, Thi Bang Tuyen; Honeyands, Tom; Monaghan, Brian; O'Dea, Damien; Rinklebe, Jörg; Vinu, Ajayan; Hoang, Son A.; Singh, Gurwinder; Kirkham, M. B.; Bolan, Nanthi (2021).
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Netinger Grubeša, Ivanka; Barišić, Ivana; Fucic, Aleksandra; Bansode, Samitinjay S. (2016-01-01), Netinger Grubeša, Ivanka; Barišić, Ivana; Fucic, Aleksandra; Bansode, Samitinjay S. (eds.),
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further diversifying its range of properties. For example, slow cooled blast furnace slags (or air-cooled slags) tend have more crystalline phases than quenched blast furnace slags (
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products and jewelry. It was also ground into powder to add to glazes for use in ceramics. Some of the earliest such uses for the by-products of slag have been found in ancient
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Due to the large demand for ferrous, ferralloy, and non-ferrous materials, slag production has increased throughout the years despite recycling (most notably in the iron and
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and elemental metals. It is important to note, the oxide form may or may not be present once the molten slag solidifies and forms amorphous and crystalline components.
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in non-ferrous smelting, for instance, is designed to remove the iron and silica that often occurs with those ores, and separates them as iron-silicate-based slags.
180:, and others depending on the specifics of the raw materials used. Furthermore, slag can be classified based on the abundance of iron among other major components.
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slags due to the ores' compositions, and they have more potential to impact the environment negatively than ferrous slag. The smelting of copper, lead and
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in a different industry (e.g. construction) can be carried by the wind, affecting a larger ecosystem. It can be ingested and inhaled, posing a direct
389:, and aluminium. As the slag is cooled down by water, several chemical reactions from a temperature of around 2,600 °F (1,430 °C) (such as
1557:"Effective CO2-specific sequestration capacity of steel slags and variability in their leaching behaviour in view of industrial mineral carbonation"
2138:
1940:
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702:) methods (e.g., direct aqueous sequestration, dry gas-solid carbonation among others). Across these CCS methods, slags can be transformed into
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However, high physical and chemical variability across different types of slags results in performance and yield inconsistencies. Moreover,
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effect, it is valued as fertilizer in gardens and farms in steel making areas. However, the most important application is construction.
2767:
1781:
La Plante, Erika
Callagon; Mehdipour, Iman; Shortt, Ian; Yang, Kai; Simonetti, Dante; Bauchy, Mathieu; Sant, Gaurav N. (2021-08-16).
843:), which can accumulate to as thick as 20 cm. This can also lead to the dissolution of other metals in slag, such as iron (Fe),
452:
Non-ferrous slag is produced from non-ferrous metals of natural ores. Non-ferrous slag can be characterized into copper, lead, and
2608:
1324:
Grubeša, Ivanka
Netinger; Barišić, Ivana (2021-08-04). "Chapter 7: Diverse Applications of Slags in the Construction Industry".
2070:
Fredericci, C.; Zanotto, E.D.; Ziemath, E.C. (2000). "Crystallization mechanism and properties of a blast furnace slag glass".
102:
slag). Slag generated from the EAF process can contain toxic metals, which can be hazardous to human and environmental health.
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Slags are transported along with slag tailings to "slag dumps", where they are exposed to weathering, with the possibility of
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in ferrous smelting is designed to minimize iron loss, which gives out the significant amount of iron, following by oxides of
1911:
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90:). Within these general categories, slags can be further categorized by their precursor and processing conditions (e.g.,
1126:
309:, Youngstown, Ohio, November 1941. Slag is drawn off the furnace just before the molten steel is poured into ladles for
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1287:"The long-term accelerated expansion of various ladle-furnace basic slags and their soil-stabilization applications"
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and railroad ballast. During this time, it was also used as an aggregate and had begun being integrated into the
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Romanov, Vyacheslav; Soong, Yee; Carney, Casey; Rush, Gilbert E.; Nielsen, Benjamin; O'Connor, William (2015).
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release a highly abrasive dust that has caused car parts to wear at significantly greater than normal rates.
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19:
This article is about the metalworking by-product. For the
British slang term for a promiscuous woman, see
2522:
1252:
1183:, Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 249–281,
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54:
and recycled metals depending on the type of material being produced. Slag is mainly a mixture of metal
409:
1783:"Controls on CO2 Mineralization Using Natural and Industrial Alkaline Solids under Ambient Conditions"
1556:
1413:"Autojen jakohihnojen rikkoutumisen taustalla ferrokromikuonan eli OKTO-murskeen aiheuttama kuluminen"
1286:
195:
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2057:(1982). "Hydration, structure, and properties of blast furnace slag cements, mortars, and concrete".
722:
130:
1500:"Production, characterisation, utilisation, and beneficial soil application of steel slag: A review"
1692:"A Review of the Influence of Steel Furnace Slag Type on the Properties of Cementitious Composites"
266:
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separated from the metal, and assisting in the removal of sulfur and phosphorus from the steel.
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phases giving it latent hydraulic properties (as discovered by Emil Langen in 1862) similar to
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during home broadband installation. The concrete road surface is opened up during the process.
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Ortega-López, Vanesa; Manso, Juan M.; Cuesta, Isidoro I.; González, Javier J. (2014-10-15).
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1388:"High Performance Cement for High Strength and Extreme Durability by Konstantin Sobolev"
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2004:
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1154:(11th ed.). Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA: The AISE Steel Foundation. p. 10.
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them, which raises concerns about highly weathered slag dumps and upcycled materials.
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2008:
1959:"Geochemistry of Extremely Alkaline (pH > 12) Ground Water in Slag-Fill Aquifers"
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These hydraulic properties have also been used for soil stabilization in roads and
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346:) making it denser and better suited as an aggregate. It may also have higher free
129:(WSA) estimates that 600 kg of co-materials (co-products and by-products)(about 90
1798:
1525:
1030:
Recycled
Materials and Byproducts in Highway Applications—Summary Report, Volume 1
404:, Arizona, showing the striations from the rusting corrugated sheets retaining it.
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1253:"4 – Application of blast furnace slag in civil engineering: Worldwide studies"
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Slag can also be used to create fibers used as an insulation material called
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420:, US, ferrous slag usually contains lower concentration of various types of
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2340:
2000:
1963:
1643:
Ragipani, Raghavendra; Bhattacharya, Sankar; Suresh, Akkihebbal K. (2021).
1613:
1541:
1152:
The Making, Shaping, and
Treating of Steel, Steelmaking and Refining Volume
1088:
925:
864:
856:
824:
417:
1232:"The chemical composition of glass in Ancient Egypt by Mikey Brass (1999)"
471:. Samples collected from the reservoir showed the higher concentration of
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1565:. Special issue: Sustainability, Resource Conservation & Recycling.
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273:– ladle furnace route. To flux the silica produced during steelmaking,
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slags, air-cooled blast furnace slag, granulated blast furnace slag,
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1434:
Gomes, Helena I.; Mayes, William M.; Ferrari, Rebecca (2021-08-04),
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1177:"10 – Properties of SCC with industrial by-products as aggregates"
408:
Based on a case study at the
Hopewell National Historical Site in
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1892:"Chapter 5: Slag Leaching Properties and Release of Contaminants"
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169:
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63:
2025:
Dimitrova, S.V. (1996). "Metal sorption on blast-furnace slag".
1218:
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Self-Compacting
Concrete: Materials, Properties and Applications
980:
Piatak, Nadine M.; Parsons, Michael B.; Seal, Robert R. (2015).
635:
Particulate (concrete dust) emission with the use of electrical
329:
slags, which are produced through different smelting processes.
2716:
2223:
1957:
Roadcap, George S.; Kelly, Walton R.; Bethke, Craig M. (2005).
1284:
1257:
Characteristics and Uses of Steel Slag in Building Construction
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are added, as well as other types of slag conditioners such as
251:
210:
79:
651:. A 2022 study in Finland found that road surfaces containing
78:(by-products of recovering non-ferrous materials like copper,
2250:
1645:"A review on steel slag valorisation via mineral carbonation"
1415:(in Finnish). Geological Survey of Finland. 20 September 2022
1027:
Stroup-Gardiner, Mary; Wattenberg-Komas, Tanya (2013-06-24).
982:"Characteristics and environmental aspects of slag: A review"
910:
557:
524:
390:
310:
246:) are introduced for refractory protection, neutralizing the
230:
lining from excessive wear. In this case, the slag is termed
218:
146:
134:
109:
Global production of iron and steel, 1942–2018, according to
55:
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26:
1065:. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 17 Nov 2023.
453:
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83:
20:
1642:
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The major components of these slags include the oxides of
2196:
735:
Particulates § Controlling technologies and measures
483:
Slags can serve other purposes, such as assisting in the
51:
1744:"Some Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Mortars and Concrete"
1127:"worldsteel | Steel industry co-products position paper"
475:(Cd) and lead (Pb) that exceeded regulatory guidelines.
396:
1690:
Brand, Alexander S.; Fanijo, Ebenezer O. (2020-11-19).
1598:"Mineralization of Carbon Dioxide: A Literature Review"
804:
706:
to be used in the plastic, and concrete industries and
658:
1825:"Chapter 6: Environmental Impact of Slag Particulates"
1595:
1175:
Cwirzen, Andrzej (2020-01-01), Siddique, Rafat (ed.),
362:
The major phases of ferrous slag contain calcium-rich
599:
excessive volume expansion and cracking in concrete.
226:
the removal of impurities and protecting the furnace
213:, and other metals are found in impure states called
30:
Molten slag is carried outside and poured into a dump
855:(Mo), which become insoluble in water and mobile as
710:
for metals to be used in the electronic industries.
675:
Because of the slowly released phosphate content in
594:), which is formed during cement hydration, via the
444:
to levels that can exceed environmental guidelines.
725:(TCT) to account for its complex chemical network.
1956:
1898:, Chemistry in the Environment, pp. 151–173,
1831:, Chemistry in the Environment, pp. 174–193,
1442:, Chemistry in the Environment, pp. 234–267,
1330:. Chemistry in the Environment. pp. 194–233.
874:slags to be recycled into the smelting process or
728:
1433:
979:
200:The Manufacture of Iron – Carting Away the Scoriæ
2754:
1890:Ettler, VojtÄ›ch; VĂtková, Martina (2021-08-04),
261:, slag is typically produced either through the
1823:Ettler, Vojtěch; Kierczak, Jakub (2021-08-04),
1436:"Chapter 8: Environmental Applications of Slag"
1822:
1323:
502:Early slag from Denmark, c. 200–500
172:, iron, and aluminium, with lesser amounts of
2132:
1889:
819:ions that leads to a higher concentration of
583:". Granulated blast furnace slags react with
672:as sources of calcium and magnesium.
66:(co-products of processing iron and steel),
2667:
1939:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
1872:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
1787:ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
1689:
1483:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
1372:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
1103:"Iron and Steel Statistics and Information"
831:promotes the mineralization of dissolved CO
70:(a by-product of ferroalloy production) or
16:By-product of smelting ores and used metals
2139:
2125:
2146:
2024:
1719:
1709:
1208:
870:Fine slags and slag dusts generated from
796:Dissolution of slags can produce highly
775:
686:
621:
497:
495:, the slag can be the valuable product.
395:
296:
194:
104:
25:
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1149:
815:) in slags react with water to produce
2755:
1554:
234:. A good example is steelmaking slag:
187:for more detailed mineral information
2120:
1952:
1950:
1885:
1883:
1818:
1816:
679:-containing slag, and because of its
344:ground granulated blast furnace slags
1649:Reaction Chemistry & Engineering
975:
973:
971:
969:
967:
965:
921:Ground granulated blast furnace slag
784:Indiana Harbor steelmaking facility.
738:
659:Wastewater treatment and agriculture
2053:
1291:Construction and Building Materials
863:alkaline ground water discharge is
447:
153:. However, slags can contain metal
145:Slag is usually a mixture of metal
62:. Broadly, it can be classified as
13:
2018:
1947:
1880:
1813:
1555:Doucet, Frédéric J. (2010-02-01).
643:Slag is also used as aggregate in
292:
14:
2794:
2160:Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy
2099:
2072:Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids
1303:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.023
962:
835:(from the atmosphere) to produce
428:. However, some of them, such as
2768:Materials with minor glass phase
1985:10.1111/j.1745-6584.2005.00060.x
780:Pile of steelmaking slag at the
743:
2111:Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Slag
1774:
1736:
1683:
1636:
1589:
1548:
1491:
1427:
1405:
1380:
1317:
1278:
1244:
1211:"Ilmenite smelting: the basics"
1006:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2014.04.009
859:. The most effective method to
729:Health and environmental effect
704:precipitated calcium carbonates
552:dates back to the 1800s, where
543:
509:
478:
332:
317:There are three types of slag:
209:In nature, iron, copper, lead,
190:
1505:Journal of Hazardous Materials
1224:
1202:
1168:
1143:
1119:
1095:
1020:
886:, mines, disposal sites, etc.
573:granulated blast furnace slags
538:
400:A path through a slag heap in
140:
1:
2513:Bottom-blown oxygen converter
2092:10.1016/S0022-3093(00)00145-9
1799:10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c00838
1526:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126478
956:
723:topological constraint theory
575:are used in combination with
393:) take place within the slag.
301:Slag run-off from one of the
2047:10.1016/0043-1354(95)00104-S
1575:10.1016/j.mineng.2009.09.006
1259:, Woodhead, pp. 51–66,
882:to the communities near the
535:, also known as slag glass.
133:is slags) are generated per
7:
1904:10.1039/9781839164576-00151
1837:10.1039/9781839164576-00174
1448:10.1039/9781839164576-00234
1336:10.1039/9781839164576-00194
889:
10:
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2154:
1209:Pistorius, P. C. (2007).
1150:Fruehan, Richard (1998).
2239:Underground in soft rock
2234:Underground in hard rock
2059:ACI Journal Proceedings
1906:(inactive 2024-05-06),
1839:(inactive 2024-05-06),
1748:ACI Journal Proceedings
1450:(inactive 2024-05-06),
1338:(inactive 2024-05-06).
127:World Steel Association
1614:10.1002/cben.201500002
785:
640:
604:railroad constructions
506:
405:
314:
206:
114:
31:
2567:(by aqueous solution)
2399:Gravity Concentration
2148:Extractive metallurgy
807:values above 12. The
779:
698:capture and storage (
687:Emerging applications
634:
550:construction industry
501:
399:
366:-group silicates and
300:
198:
108:
29:
2682:Hall–Héroult process
2361:Mechanical screening
1562:Minerals Engineering
986:Applied Geochemistry
548:Use of slags in the
491:smelting to produce
436:, can accumulate in
303:open hearth furnaces
271:electric arc furnace
185:iron and steel slags
100:electric arc furnace
96:basic oxygen furnace
2404:Magnetic separation
2351:Cyclonic separation
2172:(by physical means)
2157:Metallurgical assay
2084:2000JNCS..273...64F
2039:1996WatRe..30..228D
1977:2005GrWat..43..806R
1896:Metallurgical Slags
1829:Metallurgical Slags
1793:(32): 10727–10739.
1711:10.3390/app10228210
1518:2021JHzM..41926478O
1440:Metallurgical Slags
1327:Metallurgical Slags
998:2015ApGC...57..236P
596:pozzolanic reaction
556:were used to build
554:blast furnace slags
485:temperature control
257:As a co-product of
137:of steel produced.
2485:Refractory linings
2356:Gyratory equipment
2168:Mineral processing
1661:10.1039/D1RE00035G
1602:ChemBioEng Reviews
1131:www.worldsteel.org
857:particulate matter
786:
756:. You can help by
641:
507:
406:
370:-group silicates.
315:
221:and mixed in with
207:
115:
32:
2750:
2749:
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2699:
2661:
2656:Electrometallurgy
2650:
2649:
2609:Gold chlorination
2568:
2557:
2556:
2443:
2432:
2431:
2394:Jig concentrators
2192:Natural resources
2187:Geological survey
2173:
1913:978-1-78801-887-6
1846:978-1-78801-887-6
1457:978-1-78801-887-6
1345:978-1-78801-887-6
1266:978-0-08-100368-8
1190:978-0-12-817369-5
1080:978-0-309-70011-5
1048:978-0-309-22368-3
817:calcium hydroxide
809:calcium silicates
774:
773:
632:
305:of a steel mill,
283:calcium aluminate
48:pyrometallurgical
42:or co-product of
34:The general term
2790:
2763:Amorphous solids
2665:
2664:
2660:(by electricity)
2659:
2642:Pan amalgamation
2614:Gold cyanidation
2604:In situ leaching
2572:
2571:
2566:
2447:
2446:
2441:
2202:Economic geology
2177:
2176:
2171:
2141:
2134:
2127:
2118:
2117:
2095:
2066:
2050:
2013:
2012:
1954:
1945:
1944:
1938:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1887:
1878:
1877:
1871:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1820:
1811:
1810:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1723:
1713:
1697:Applied Sciences
1687:
1681:
1680:
1655:(7): 1152–1178.
1640:
1634:
1633:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1482:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1400:
1399:
1390:. Archived from
1384:
1378:
1377:
1371:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1215:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1114:
1113:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1024:
1018:
1017:
977:
901:Circular economy
782:Cleveland-Cliffs
769:
766:
747:
739:
697:
653:ferrochrome slag
645:asphalt concrete
633:
593:
493:titanium dioxide
448:Non-ferrous slag
432:(As), iron, and
426:non-ferrous slag
267:oxygen converter
202:(slag), an 1873
121:industries) and
2798:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2753:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2696:
2687:Castner process
2658:
2646:
2623:
2565:
2563:Hydrometallurgy
2553:
2527:
2523:IsaKidd process
2489:
2440:
2428:
2379:Froth flotation
2365:
2319:
2257:
2170:
2162:
2150:
2145:
2102:
2021:
2019:Further reading
2016:
1955:
1948:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1914:
1888:
1881:
1865:
1864:
1859:
1857:
1847:
1821:
1814:
1779:
1775:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1688:
1684:
1641:
1637:
1594:
1590:
1553:
1549:
1496:
1492:
1476:
1475:
1470:
1468:
1458:
1432:
1428:
1418:
1416:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1397:
1395:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1365:
1364:
1358:
1356:
1346:
1322:
1318:
1283:
1279:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1249:
1245:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1213:
1207:
1203:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1148:
1144:
1135:
1133:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1111:
1109:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1081:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1049:
1025:
1021:
978:
963:
959:
906:Clinker (waste)
892:
842:
834:
814:
770:
764:
761:
754:needs expansion
748:
737:
731:
721:) or using the
696:
692:
689:
661:
622:
592:
588:
577:Portland cement
562:cement industry
546:
541:
512:
481:
450:
356:Portland cement
335:
295:
293:Classifications
245:
193:
151:silicon dioxide
143:
60:silicon dioxide
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2796:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2677:Electrowinning
2673:
2671:
2662:
2652:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2633:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2580:
2578:
2569:
2559:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2508:Parkes process
2505:
2499:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2482:
2476:
2474:Flash smelting
2471:
2466:
2461:
2455:
2453:
2444:
2438:Pyrometallurgy
2434:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2427:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2375:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2278:
2273:
2267:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2217:Precious metal
2214:
2209:
2204:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2181:
2174:
2164:
2163:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2144:
2143:
2136:
2129:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2108:
2101:
2100:External links
2098:
2097:
2096:
2078:(1–3): 64–75.
2067:
2051:
2033:(1): 228–232.
2027:Water Research
2020:
2017:
2015:
2014:
1971:(6): 806–816.
1946:
1912:
1879:
1845:
1812:
1773:
1760:10.14359/11515
1735:
1682:
1635:
1608:(4): 231–256.
1588:
1569:(3): 262–269.
1547:
1490:
1456:
1426:
1404:
1379:
1344:
1316:
1277:
1265:
1243:
1223:
1201:
1189:
1167:
1160:
1142:
1118:
1094:
1079:
1071:10.17226/26881
1054:
1047:
1039:10.17226/22552
1019:
960:
958:
955:
954:
953:
948:
943:
941:Slag (welding)
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
891:
888:
840:
832:
812:
772:
771:
751:
749:
742:
730:
727:
715:stoichiometric
694:
688:
685:
660:
657:
590:
571:Today, ground
545:
542:
540:
537:
511:
508:
480:
477:
465:drinking water
449:
446:
422:trace elements
334:
331:
307:Republic Steel
294:
291:
243:
204:wood engraving
192:
189:
142:
139:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2795:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2663:
2657:
2653:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2637:Patio process
2635:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2620:
2619:Bayer process
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2599:Tank leaching
2597:
2595:
2594:Dump leaching
2592:
2590:
2589:Heap leaching
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2573:
2570:
2564:
2560:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2530:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2469:Zinc smelting
2467:
2465:
2464:Lead smelting
2462:
2460:
2459:Iron smelting
2457:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2445:
2439:
2435:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2371:Concentration
2368:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2142:
2137:
2135:
2130:
2128:
2123:
2122:
2119:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2106:Types of Slag
2104:
2103:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2022:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1951:
1942:
1936:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1884:
1875:
1869:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1817:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1698:
1693:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1639:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1558:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1494:
1486:
1480:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1430:
1414:
1408:
1394:on 2009-08-03
1393:
1389:
1383:
1375:
1369:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1328:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1281:
1268:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1233:
1227:
1219:
1212:
1205:
1192:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1163:
1161:0-930767-02-0
1157:
1153:
1146:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1108:
1104:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1050:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
961:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
896:Calcium cycle
894:
893:
887:
885:
881:
877:
873:
868:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
838:
830:
826:
822:
818:
810:
806:
802:
799:
794:
791:
783:
778:
768:
759:
755:
752:This section
750:
746:
741:
740:
736:
726:
724:
720:
716:
711:
709:
705:
701:
684:
682:
678:
673:
671:
667:
656:
654:
650:
646:
638:
620:
618:
617:
611:
607:
605:
600:
597:
586:
582:
578:
574:
569:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
536:
534:
528:
526:
521:
520:Mediterranean
517:
505:
500:
496:
494:
490:
486:
476:
474:
470:
466:
461:
459:
455:
445:
443:
442:surface water
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
403:
398:
394:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
371:
369:
365:
359:
357:
353:
349:
348:calcium oxide
345:
341:
340:crystallinity
330:
328:
324:
320:
312:
308:
304:
299:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
269:route or the
268:
264:
263:blast furnace
260:
255:
253:
249:
241:
237:
233:
229:
224:
220:
216:
212:
205:
201:
197:
188:
186:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
138:
136:
132:
128:
125:efforts. The
124:
120:
112:
107:
103:
101:
97:
93:
92:blast furnace
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
28:
22:
2721:
2669:Electrolysis
2629:Amalgamation
2384:Jameson cell
2341:Hydrocyclone
2075:
2071:
2062:
2058:
2030:
2026:
1968:
1964:Ground Water
1962:
1925:, retrieved
1895:
1858:, retrieved
1828:
1790:
1786:
1776:
1751:
1747:
1738:
1721:10919/100961
1704:(22): 8210.
1701:
1695:
1685:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1605:
1601:
1591:
1566:
1560:
1550:
1509:
1503:
1493:
1469:, retrieved
1439:
1429:
1419:20 September
1417:. Retrieved
1407:
1396:. Retrieved
1392:the original
1382:
1357:. Retrieved
1326:
1319:
1294:
1290:
1280:
1270:, retrieved
1256:
1246:
1235:. Retrieved
1226:
1217:
1204:
1194:, retrieved
1180:
1170:
1151:
1145:
1134:. Retrieved
1130:
1121:
1110:. Retrieved
1107:www.usgs.gov
1106:
1097:
1062:
1057:
1029:
1022:
989:
985:
926:Heavy metals
869:
865:air sparging
825:ground water
795:
787:
765:January 2024
762:
758:adding to it
753:
712:
690:
674:
662:
649:paving roads
642:
614:
612:
608:
601:
570:
547:
544:Construction
529:
513:
510:Ancient uses
482:
479:Applications
462:
451:
418:Pennsylvania
407:
372:
360:
336:
333:Ferrous slag
316:
256:
231:
208:
199:
191:Ore smelting
182:
159:
144:
116:
35:
33:
2783:By-products
2773:Steelmaking
2705:Co-products
2539:Calcination
2503:Cupellation
2419:Dry washing
2408:Magnetation
2331:Ore sorting
2296:Pebble mill
2263:Comminution
1754:(9). 1956.
1297:: 455–464.
992:: 236–266.
880:health risk
801:groundwater
719:dissolution
670:fertilizers
610:structure.
585:portlandite
581:slag cement
579:to create "
539:Modern uses
533:agate glass
514:During the
438:groundwater
391:oxidization
375:steel mills
327:non-ferrous
259:steelmaking
141:Composition
119:steelmaking
76:base metals
72:non-ferrous
2757:Categories
2742:Stamp sand
2692:Downs cell
2424:Buddle pit
2414:Rocker box
2271:Stamp mill
2212:Base metal
2180:Extraction
1927:2021-11-27
1860:2021-11-27
1512:: 126478.
1471:2021-11-27
1398:2009-06-18
1359:2021-11-27
1272:2021-11-27
1237:2009-06-18
1196:2021-11-26
1136:2021-11-27
1112:2021-11-27
957:References
931:Mill scale
853:molybdenum
851:(Ni), and
829:alkalinity
733:See also:
677:phosphorus
637:power tool
566:geopolymer
516:Bronze Age
469:irrigation
416:counties,
373:Slag from
323:ferroalloy
238:(CaO) and
228:refractory
178:phosphorus
98:slag, and
88:phosphorus
68:ferroalloy
40:by-product
2584:Lixiviant
2549:Liquation
2442:(by heat)
2303:Ball mill
2246:Recycling
2055:Roy, D.M.
1993:0017-467X
1922:238945892
1855:238952198
1807:238670674
1768:0002-8061
1730:2076-3417
1677:236390725
1669:2058-9883
1622:2196-9744
1583:0892-6875
1534:0304-3894
1466:238967817
1368:cite book
1354:238965391
1311:0950-0618
1014:0883-2927
946:Spoil tip
845:manganese
823:(OH-) in
821:hydroxide
616:slag wool
434:manganese
402:Clarkdale
387:magnesium
352:amorphous
311:ingotting
287:fluorspar
275:limestone
240:magnesite
236:quicklime
232:synthetic
223:silicates
174:manganese
166:magnesium
123:upcycling
38:may be a
2778:Smelting
2712:Tailings
2576:Leaching
2544:Roasting
2495:Refining
2479:ISASMELT
2451:Smelting
2308:Rod mill
2291:SAG mill
2276:Arrastra
2113:, US EPA
2009:12325820
2001:16324002
1935:citation
1868:citation
1542:34323725
1479:citation
1220:: 75–84.
1089:38190460
951:Tailings
936:Pozzolan
890:See also
876:upcycled
861:detoxify
798:alkaline
790:leaching
489:ilmenite
368:melilite
279:dolomite
219:oxidized
217:, often
155:sulfides
44:smelting
2737:Red mud
2727:Clinker
2481:furnace
2389:Panning
2346:Trommel
2336:Vanning
2313:IsaMill
2286:AG mill
2281:Crusher
2229:Surface
2207:Mineral
2080:Bibcode
2035:Bibcode
1973:Bibcode
1630:1187926
1514:Bibcode
994:Bibcode
916:Fly ash
872:milling
837:calcite
827:. This
708:leached
666:soil pH
518:of the
473:cadmium
458:bauxite
430:arsenic
414:Chester
383:silicon
379:calcium
364:olivine
319:ferrous
277:and/or
248:alumina
170:silicon
162:calcium
64:ferrous
2717:Gangue
2518:Poling
2324:Sizing
2224:Mining
2007:
1999:
1991:
1920:
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1843:
1805:
1766:
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1077:
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1012:
884:plants
849:nickel
847:(Mn),
811:(CaSiO
681:liming
589:Ca(OH)
252:silica
211:nickel
183:Visit
147:oxides
80:nickel
56:oxides
2532:Other
2251:Scrap
2005:S2CID
1918:S2CID
1851:S2CID
1803:S2CID
1673:S2CID
1462:S2CID
1350:S2CID
1214:(PDF)
911:Dross
839:(CaCO
803:with
564:as a
558:roads
525:Egypt
424:than
410:Berks
242:(MgCO
135:tonne
2732:Chat
2722:Slag
2065:(6).
1997:PMID
1989:ISSN
1941:link
1908:ISBN
1874:link
1841:ISBN
1764:ISSN
1726:ISSN
1665:ISSN
1626:OSTI
1618:ISSN
1579:ISSN
1538:PMID
1530:ISSN
1485:link
1452:ISBN
1421:2022
1374:link
1340:ISBN
1307:ISSN
1261:ISBN
1185:ISBN
1156:ISBN
1085:PMID
1075:ISBN
1043:ISBN
1010:ISSN
668:and
647:for
467:and
454:zinc
440:and
412:and
250:and
215:ores
149:and
111:USGS
86:and
84:zinc
58:and
52:ores
36:slag
21:Slut
2197:Ore
2088:doi
2076:273
2043:doi
1981:doi
1900:doi
1833:doi
1795:doi
1756:doi
1716:hdl
1706:doi
1657:doi
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1571:doi
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1510:419
1444:doi
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1299:doi
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700:CCS
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