1934:. Plows were most effective for treating dense brush prior to planting, often in conjunction with a planting machine. Scarifying teeth, e.g., Young's teeth, were sometimes used to prepare sites for planting, but their most effective use was found to be preparing sites for seeding, particularly in backlog areas carrying light brush and dense herbaceous growth. Rolling choppers found application in treating heavy brush but could be used only on stone-free soils. Finned drums were commonly used on jack pine–spruce cutovers on fresh brushy sites with a deep duff layer and heavy slash, and they needed to be teamed with a tractor pad unit to secure good distribution of the slash. The S.F.I. scarifier, after strengthening, had been "quite successful" for two years, promising trials were under way with the cone scarifier and barrel ring scarifier, and development had begun on a new flail scarifier for use on sites with shallow, rocky soils. Recognition of the need to become more effective and efficient in site preparation led the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests to adopt the policy of seeking and obtaining for field testing new equipment from Scandinavia and elsewhere that seemed to hold promise for Ontario conditions, primarily in the north. Thus, testing was begun of the Brackekultivator from Sweden and the Vako-Visko rotary furrower from Finland.
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supply, improved wildlife habitat and cutblock aesthetics, as well as reduced public criticism of previous logging practices. Stewart et al. (2001) developed statistical models to predict the natural establishment and height growth of understorey white spruce in the boreal mixedwood forest in
Alberta using data from 148 permanent sample plots and supplementary information about height growth of white spruce regeneration and the amount and type of available substrate. A discriminant model correctly classified 73% of the sites as to presence or absence of a white spruce understorey, based on the amount of spruce basal area, rotten wood, ecological nutrient regime, soil clay fraction, and elevation, although it explained only 30% of the variation in the data. On sites with a white spruce understorey, a regression model related the abundance of regeneration to rotten wood cover, spruce basal area, pine basal area, soil clay fraction, and grass cover (R² = 0.36). About half the seedlings surveyed grew on rotten wood, and only 3% on mineral soil, and seedlings were ten times more likely to have established on these substrates than on litter. Exposed mineral soil covered only 0.3% of the observed transect area.
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trenching slightly reduced the mortality of black spruce but significantly increased the mortality of white spruce. Significant difference in height was found between open and sheltered plantations for black spruce but not for white spruce, and root collar diameter in sheltered plantations was significantly larger than in open plantations for black spruce but not for white spruce. Black spruce open plantation had significantly smaller volume (97 cm) compared with black spruce sheltered (210 cm), as well as white spruce open (175 cm) and sheltered (229 cm) plantations. White spruce open plantations also had smaller volume than white spruce sheltered plantations. For transplant stock, strip plantations had a significantly higher volume (329 cm) than open plantations (204 cm). Wang et al. (2000) recommended that sheltered plantation site preparation should be used.
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risk of climatic maladaptation. Ontario adopted a seed zone system in the 1970s based on G.A. Hills' 1952 site regions and provincial resource district boundaries, but
Ontario's seed zones are now based on homogeneous climatic regions developed with the Ontario Climate Model. The regulations stipulate that source-identified seedlots may be either a general collection, when only the seed zone of origin is known, or a stand collection from a specific latitude and longitude. The movement of general-collection seed and stock across seed zone boundaries is prohibited, but the use of stand-collection seed and stock in another seed zone is acceptable when the Ontario Climate Model shows that the planting site and place of seed origin are climatically similar. The 12 seed zones for white spruce in Quebec are based mainly on ecological regions, with a few modifications for administrative convenience.
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used. A common method of cold stratification, is to soak seed in tap water for up to 24 h, superficially dry it, then store moist for some weeks or even months at temperatures just above freezing. Although Hellum (1968) found that cold stratification of an
Alberta seed source led to irregular germination, with decreasing germination with increasing length of the stratification period, Hocking's (1972) paired test with stratified and nonstratified Alberta seed from several sources revealed no trends in response to stratification. Hocking suggested that seed maturity, handling, and storage needed to be controlled before the need for stratification could be determined. Later, Winston and Haddon (1981) found that the storage of white spruce cones for 4 weeks at 5 °C prior to extraction obviated the need for stratification.
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that: (1) operational measures that protected residual stems may not unduly increase costs, (2) all felling, conifers and hardwoods, needs to be done in one operation to minimize the entry of the feller-buncher into the residual stand, (3) several operational procedures can reduce understorey damage, some of them without incurring extra costs, and (4) successful harvesting of treatment blocks depends primarily on the intelligent location of skid trails and landings. In summary, the key to protecting the white spruce understorey without sacrificing logging efficiency is a combination of good planning, good supervision, the use of appropriate equipment, and having conscientious, well-trained operators.Even the best plan will not reduce understorey damage unless its implementation is supervised.
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Preparatory cut; 2) Establishment cut; and 3) Removal cut. The success of practising a shelterwood system is closely related to: 1. the length of the regeneration period, i.e. the time from the shelterwood cutting to the date when a new generation of trees has been established; 2.the quality of the new tree stand with respect to stand density and growth; and 3.the value increment of the shelter trees. Information on the establishment, survival and growth of seedlings influenced by the cover of shelter trees, as well as on the growth of these trees, is needed as a basis for modelling the economic return of practising a shelterwood system. The method's objective is to establish new forest reproduction under the shelter of the retained trees. Unlike the seed-tree method, residual trees alter
556:. In poor seed years, site preparation can be carried out on mesic and drier sites with more chance of success, because of the generally longer receptivity of seedbeds there than those on moister sites. Although an indifferent seed year can suffice if seed distribution is good and environmental conditions favourable to seedling germination and survival, small amounts of seed are particularly vulnerable to depredation by small mammals. Considerable flexibility is possible in timing site preparation to coincide with cone crops. Treatment can be applied either before any logging takes place, between partial cuts, or after logging. In cut and leave strips, seedbed preparation can be carried out as a single operation, pre-scarifying the leave strips, post-scarifying the cut strips.
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vitiate the effectiveness of a herbicide treatment include: weather, especially temperature, prior to and during application; weather, especially wind, during application; weather, especially precipitation, in the 12 to 24 hours after application; vegetation characteristics, including species, size, shape, phenological stage, vigour, and distribution of weeds; crop characteristics, including species, phenology, and condition; the effects of other treatments, such as preliminary shearblading, burning or other prescribed or accidental site preparation; and the herbicide used, including dosage, formulation, carrier, spreader, and mode of application. There is a lot that can go wrong, but a herbicide treatment can be as good or better than any other method of site preparation.
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mixtures, relative to single-species or mixed-species conifer forest. After harvesting or other disturbance, mixedwood stands commonly enter a prolonged period in which hardwoods overtop the coniferous component, subjecting them to intense competition in an understorey. It is well established that the regeneration and growth potential of understorey conifers in mixedwood stands is correlated to the density of competing hardwoods. To help apply "free-to-grow" regulations in
British Columbia and Alberta, management guidelines based on distance-dependent relations within a limited radius of crop trees were developed, but Lieffers et al. (2002) found that free-growing stocking standards did not adequately characterize light competition between broadleaf and
1740:, as in the B15, B18a, and B19a Sections of Manitoba, and elsewhere. Until the latter part of the last century, white spruce understorey was mostly viewed as money in the bank on a long-term, low interest deposit, with final yield to be realized after slow natural succession, but the resource became increasingly threatened with the intensification of harvesting of aspen. White spruce plantations on mixedwood sites proved expensive, risky, and generally unsuccessful. This prompted efforts to see what might be done about growing aspen and white spruce on the same landbase by protecting existing white spruce advance growth, leaving a range of viable crop trees during the first cut, then harvesting both
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per merchantable unit volume against diameter at breast height (dbh), and (b) weight of fine slash (<1.27 cm) also against dbh, and produced a table of slash weight and size distribution on one acre of a hypothetical stand of white spruce. When the diameter distribution of a stand is unknown, an estimate of slash weight and size distribution can be obtained from average stand diameter, number of trees per unit area, and merchantable cubic foot volume. The sample trees in Kiil's study had full symmetrical crowns. Densely growing trees with short and often irregular crowns would probably be overestimated; open-grown trees with long crowns would probably be underestimated.
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1366:. Clear felling had no significant influence on air temperature at 2 m above the ground surface, but the daily air temperature maxima at 10 cm were greater in the clear-felled area than in the uncut forest, while the daily minima at 10 cm were lower. Night frosts were more common in the clear-felled area. Daily soil temperatures at 5 cm depth were 2 °C to 3 °C greater in the clear-felled area than in the uncut forest, and temperatures at depths of 50 cm and 100 cm were 3 °C to 5 °C greater. The differences between the clear-felled and uncut areas did not diminish during the 12 years following cutting.
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the associated spruce understorey. Formerly, white spruce in the understories had developed to commercial size through natural succession under the protection of the hardwoods. Brace articulated a widespread concern: "The need for protection of spruce as a component of boreal mixedwoods goes beyond concern for the future commercial softwood timber supply. Concerns also include fisheries and wildlife habitat, aesthetics and recreation, a general dissatisfaction with clearcutting in mixedwoods and a strong interest in mixedwood perpetuation, as expressed recently in 41 public meetings on forestry development in northern
Alberta...".
503:, Colorado; the ratios of seeds to 5-year-old seedlings were determined as 32:1, 76:1, and 72:1 on north aspect bladed-shaded, bladed-unshaded, and undisturbed-shaded seedbeds, respectively. Clearcut openings of 1.2 to 2.0 hectares (3.0 to 4.9 acres) adjacent to an adequate seed source, and not more than 6 tree-heights wide, could be expected to secure acceptable regeneration (4,900, 5-year-old trees per hectare), whereas on undisturbed-unshaded north aspects, and on all seedbed treatments tested on south aspects, seed to seedling ratios were so high that the restocking of any clearcut opening would be questionable.
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methods have been used, dry and wet. Dry seed may be rubbed gently through a sieve that has a mesh through which only seed without wings can pass. Large quantities of seed can be processed in dewinging machines, which use cylinders of heavy wire mesh and rapidly revolving stiff brushes within to remove the wings. In the wet process, seed with wings attached are spread out 10 cm to 15 cm deep on a tight floor and slightly moistened throughout; light leather flails are used to free seed from the wings. B. Wang described a unique wet dewinging procedure in 1973 using a
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larger diameters, crowns, and branches, but (at 30 years) basal area and total volume/ha were greatest in the closest espacement (Table 6.38). In more recent trials in the Prince George Region of
British Columbia (Table 6.39) and in Manitoba, planting density of white spruce had no effect on growth after up to 16 growing seasons, even at spacings as low as 1.2 m. The slowness of juvenile growth and of crown closure delay the response to intra-competition. Initially, close spacing might even provide a positive nurse effect to offset any negative response to competition.
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essentially free of competition from surrounding vegetation that might impede growth. The FTG concept was introduced with the advent of the Forest
Management Agreement program in Ontario in 1980 and became applicable to all management units in 1986. Policy, procedures, and methodologies readily applicable by forest unit managers to assess the effectiveness of regeneration programs were still under development during the Class Environmental Assessment hearings.
1712:"Uneven-aged and even-aged methods differ in the scale and intensity of disturbance. Uneven-aged methods maintain a mix of tree sizes or ages within a habitat patch by periodically harvesting individual or small groups of trees, Even-aged methods harvest most or all of the overstory and create a fairly uniform habitat patch dominated by trees of the same age". Even-aged management systems have been the prime methods to use when studying the effects on birds.
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more trees are planted than are needed to achieve desired stocking rates, and the chance to establish other plantations is proportionately diminished. Ingress (natural regeneration) on a site is difficult to predict and often becomes surprisingly evident only some years after planting has been carried out. Early stand development after harvesting or other disturbance undoubtedly varies greatly among sites, each of which has its own peculiar characteristics.
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746:, which is the percentage of seeds that germinate during a period of time, ending when germination is practically complete. During extraction and processing, white spruce seeds gradually lost moisture, and total germination increased. Mittal et al. (1987) reported that white spruce seed from Algonquin Park, Ontario, obtained the maximum rate (94% in 6 days) and 99% total germination in 21 days after 14-week pre-chilling. The pre-treatment of 1%
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regeneration of spruce and fir in Maine. Fitted to helicopter, the Thru-Valve boom emits herbicide spray droplets 1000 μm to 2000 μm in diameter at very low pressure. Swaths 1.2 m wide and leave strips 2.4 m wide were obtained with "knife-edge" precision when the herbicide was applied by helicopter flying at a height of 21 m at a speed of 40–48 km/h. It seems likely that no other method could be as cost-effective.
1354:.. In addition, the general public's distaste for even-aged silviculture, particularly clearcutting, is likely to result in a greater role for uneven-aged management on public lands as well. Across Europe, and in parts of North America, even-aged, production-orientated and intensively managed plantations are beginning to be regarded in the same way as old industrial complexes: something to abolish or convert to something else.
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recommended for white spruce. However, temperature optima are not necessarily the same at different ages and sizes. In 1984, R. Tinus investigated the effects of combinations of day and night temperature on height, caliper, and dry weight of 4 seed sources of
Engelmann spruce. The 4 seed sources appeared to have very similar temperature requirements, with night optima about the same of slightly lower than daylight optima.
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reduced by 28% to 36%. The increases correlated well with the amounts of slash (both total and ≥7 cm diameter) consumed. The change in pH depends on the severity of the burn and the amount consumed; the increase can be as much as two units, a hundred-fold change. Deficiencies of copper and iron in the foliage of white spruce on burned clearcuts in central
British Columbia might be attributable to elevated pH levels.
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originated in
Germany and deployed successfully by A. Alarik in 1925 and others in Sweden. On south and west exposures, direct insolation and heat reflected from tree trunks often result in temperatures lethal to young seedlings, as well as desiccation of the surface soil, which inhibits germination. The sun is less injurious on eastern exposures because of the lower temperature in the early morning, related to higher
1990:) in 13 microsite planting positions: berm, hinge, and trench; in north, south, east, and west aspects, as well as in untreated locations between the furrows. Tenth-year stem volumes of trees on south, east, and west-facing microsites were significantly greater than those of trees on north-facing and untreated microsites. However, planting spot selection was seen to be more important overall than trench orientation.
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stage, one kind of cleaning is done which is known as precommercial thinning. Generally, one or two times precommercial thinning is done to facilitate the growth of the tree The yield of merchantable wood can be greatly increased and the rotation shortened by precommercial thinning. Mechanical and chemical methods have been applied, but their costliness has militated against their ready adoption.
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become established at which point they may be removed. It may not always be economically viable or biologically desirable to re-enter the stand to remove the remaining seed trees. Seed-tree cuts can also be viewed as a clearcut with natural regeneration and can also have all of the problems associated with clearcutting. This method is most suited for light-seeded species and those not prone to
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cold, humid storage (5 °C, 75% to 95% relative humidity) of the cones prior to extraction seemingly eliminated dormancy by overcoming the need to stratify. Periods of cold, damp weather during the period of cone storage might provide natural cold (stratification) treatment. Once dormancy was removed in cone storage, subsequent kiln-drying and seed storage did not reactivate dormancy.
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somewhere with a particular forester, and have been described in the scientific literature), and broad generalizations can be made, these are merely rules of thumb rather than strict blueprints on how techniques might be applied. This misunderstanding has meant that many older English textbooks did not capture the true complexity of silviculture as practiced where it originated in
966:. Spacing is a thinning (of natural regeneration), in which all trees other than those selected for retention at fixed intervals are cut. The term juvenile spacing is used when most or all of the cut trees are unmerchantable. Spacing can be used to obtain any of a wide range of forest management objectives, but it is especially undertaken to reduce density and control
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number of trees/ha on the horizontal axis: a stand can either have many little trees or a few big ones. The self-thinning line shows the largest number of trees of a given size/ha that can be carried at any given time. However, Willcocks and Bell (1995) caution against using such diagrams unless specific knowledge of the stand trajectory is known.
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disturbance to the forest floor within the cut strips could be expected to increase the amount of natural regeneration. Trees were cut to a diameter limit in the cut strips, but large trees in the leave strips often proved too much of a temptation and were cut too, thus removing those trees that would otherwise have been the major source of seed.
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based on canopy development, and Daniels (1976), Wagner (1982), and Weiner (1984) with proximity-based models. Studies generally considered tree response to competition in terms of absolute height or basal area, but Zedaker (1982) and Brand (1986) sought to quantify crop tree size and environmental influences by using relative growth measures.
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Mounds reached mean soil temperatures of 10 °C at 10 cm depth five days after planting, but the control did not reach that temperature until fifty-eight days after planting. During the first growing season, mounds had three times as many days with a mean soil temperature greater than 10 °C than did the control microsites.
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least 800 trees per acre (1077/ha) should be planted where 85% survival may be expected, and at least 1200/ac (2970/ha) if only half of them can be expected to live. This translates into recommended spacings of 5 by 5 to 8 by 8 feet (1.5 m by 1.5 m to 2.4 m by 2.4 m) for plantings of conifers, including white spruce in the Lake States.
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Wind can also take part in natural pruning which can break branches. Artificial pruning is where people are paid to come and cut the branches. Or it can be natural, where trees are planted close enough that the effect is to cause self-pruning of low branches as energy is put into growing up for light reasons and not branchiness.
1652:. In the Chippewa National Forest (Lake States), seed-spot sowing of 10 seeds each of white spruce and white pine under 40-year aspen after different degrees of cutting on gave second-season results clearly indicating the need to remove or disturb the forest floor to obtain germination of seeded white spruce and white pine.
1791:, the latter is apt to respond to release more quickly than the former, whereas spruce does respond. If the ratio of fir to spruce is large, however, the greater responsiveness to release of fir may subject the spruce to competition severe enough to negate much of the effect of release treatment. Even temporary relief from
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investigate stand development in relation to spacing at Petawawa, Ontario, regular rows were planted at average spacings of from 4 × 4 to 7 × 7 feet (1.22 m × 1.22 m to 2.13 m × 2.13 m). Spacings up to 10 × 10 feet (3.05 m × 3.03 m) were subsequently included in the study. Yield tables based on 50 years of data showed:
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highest production, and proving the practicability of the check method. In 1920, he published this study giving a theoretical basis of management of forests under the check method, describing the procedures to be applied in practice (which he partly developed and simplified), and evaluating the results.
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Draper et al.'s (1985) mounds received five times the amount of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) summed over all sampled microsites throughout the first growing season; the control treatment consistently received about 14% of daily background PAR, while mounds received over 70%. By November,
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The age of advance growth is difficult to estimate from its size, as white that appears to be two- to three-year-old may well be more than twenty years old. However, age does not seem to determine the ability of advance growth of spruce to respond to release, and trees older than 100 years have shown
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Avoidance of damage to the understorey will always be a desideratum. Sauder's (1990) paper on mixedwood harvesting describes studies designed to evaluate methods of reducing non-trivial damage to understorey residuals that would compromise their chance of becoming a future crop tree. Sauder concluded
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success: the drying out of the forest floor before the roots of germinants reach underlying moisture reserves; and, particularly under hardwoods, the smothering of small seedlings by snow-pressed leaf litter and lesser vegetation. Kittredge and Gervorkiantz (1929) determined that removal of the aspen
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species regeneration is desired. It is typical for older and diseased trees to be removed, thus thinning the stand and allowing for younger, healthy trees to grow. Single-tree selection can be very difficult to implement in dense or sensitive stands and residual stand damage can occur. This method is
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in the second-growth forest than in the original forest; Hearnden et al. (1996) calculated that the spruce cover type had declined from 18% to only 4% of the total forested area in Ontario. Mixedwood occupies a greater proportion of Ontario's second-growth forest (41%) than in the original (36%), but
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is an alternative name for the same process. Pruning can be done to all trees, or more cost effectively to a limited number of trees. There are two types of pruning: natural or self-pruning and artificial pruning. Most cases of self-pruning happen when branches do not receive enough sunlight and die.
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and micro-meteorology of the stand, lowering the inter-tree competition for water. The removal of any tree from a stand has repercussions on the remaining trees both above-ground and below. Silvicultural thinning is a powerful tool that can be used to influence stand development, stand stability, and
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In the Lake States, plantations have been made with the spacing between trees varying from 3 by 3 to 10 by 10 feet (0.9 m by 0.9 m to 3.0 m by 3.0 m). Kittredge recommended that no fewer than 600 established trees per acre (1483/ha) be present during the early life of a plantation. To insure this, at
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Haddon and Winston (1982) found a reduction in viability of stratified seeds after 2 years of storage and suggested that stress might have been caused by stratification, e.g., by changes in seed biochemistry, reduced embryo vigor, seed aging or actual damage to the embryo. They further questioned the
1959:
The mounds warmed up quickest, and at soil depths of 0.5 cm and 10 cm averaged 10 and 7 °C higher, respectively, than in the control. On sunny days, daytime surface temperature maxima on the mound and organic mat reached 25 °C to 60 °C, depending on soil wetness and shading.
1955:
Site preparation treatments that create raised planting spots have commonly improved outplant performance on sites subject to low soil temperature and excess soil moisture. Mounding can certainly have a big influence on soil temperature. Draper et al. (1985), for instance, documented this as well as
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hazard on harvested sites. Forest managers interested in the application of prescribed burning for hazard reduction and silviculture, were shown a method for quantifying the slash load by Kiil (1968). In west-central Alberta, he felled, measured, and weighed 60 white spruce, graphed (a) slash weight
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areas. Results showed that, in general, prescribed burning did not reduce organic layers satisfactorily, nor did it increase soil temperature, on the sites tested. Increases in seedling establishment, survival, and growth on the burned sites were probably the result of slight reductions in the depth
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has been obtained. The shelterwood system is most commonly applied as a two-cut uniform shelterwood, first an initial regeneration (seed) cut, the second a final harvest cut. In stands less than 100 years old, a light preparatory cut can be useful. A series of intermediate cuts at intervals of 10–20
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In general terms, the shelterwood system is a series of partial cuts that removes the trees of an existing stand over several years and eventually culminates in a final cut that creates a new even-aged stand. It is an even-aged regeneration method that removes trees in a series of three harvests: 1)
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Cone shelters (Cerkon™) usually produced greater survival than unsheltered seeding on scarified seedspots in trials of direct seeding techniques in interior Alaska, and funnel shelters (Cerbel™) usually produced greater survival than unsheltered seeding on non-scarified seedspots. Both shelter types
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An even-aged regeneration method that retains widely spaced residual trees in order to provide uniform seed dispersal across a harvested area. In the seed-tree method, 2-12 seed trees per acre (5-30/ha) are left standing in order to regenerate the forest. They will be retained until regeneration has
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forests, Haddock (1961) noted that Wright's (1959) quotation of spruce yields in the British Isles of 220 cubic feet per acre (15.4 m/ha) per year and in Germany of 175 cubic feet per acre (12.25 m/ha) per year was misleading, at least if it was meant to imply that such yields might be approached in
901:
For all practical purposes, the total volume produced by a stand on a given site is constant and optimum for a wide range of density or stocking. It can be decreased, but not increased, by altering the amount of growing stock to levels outside this range. Initial density affects stand development in
897:
How many trees per unit area (spacing) that should be planted is not an easily answered question. Establishment density targets or regeneration standards have commonly been based on traditional practice, with the implicit aim of getting the stand quickly to the free-to-grow stage. Money is wasted if
688:
When seed is first separated from cones it is mixed with foreign matter, often 2 to 5 times the volume of the seed. The more or less firmly attached membranous wings on the seed must be detached before it is cleaned of foreign matter. The testa must not incur damage during the dewinging process. Two
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responded similarly. After two growing seasons, long day plants of all 4 species in Florida were well balanced, with good development of both roots and shoots, equaling or exceeding the minimum standards for 2+1 and 2+2 outplanting stock of Lake States species. Their survival when lifted in February
1867:
forests of the Alberta foothills are often characterized by deep accumulations of organic matter on the soil surface and cold soil temperatures, both of which make reforestation difficult and result in a general deterioration in site productivity; Endean and Johnstone (1974) describe experiments to
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Harvesting cutblocks where only a portion of the trees are to be removed is very different from clearcutting. First, trails must be located to provide access for the felling and skidding/forwarding equipment. These trails must be carefully located to ensure that the trees remaining meet the desired
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culture, albeit miniature. The Hakmet seed shelter, for instance, is a semi-transparent plastic cone 8 cm high, with openings of 7 cm diameter in the 7.5 cm diameter base and 17 mm diameter in the 24 mm diameter top. This miniature greenhouse increases air humidity, reduces
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for aesthetic or environmental reasons outweighs other management considerations. Selection logging has been suggested as being of greater utility than shelterwood systems in regenerating old-growth Engelmann Spruce Sub-alpine Fir (ESSF) stands in southern British Columbia. In most areas, selection
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Biolley's pioneering work formed the basis upon which most Swiss forest management practices were later developed, and his ideas have been generally accepted. Today, with the trend of intensifying forest management and productivity in most countries, the ideas and application of careful, continuous
791:
Cold stratification is the term applied to the storing of seeds in (and, strictly, in layers with) a moist medium, often peat or sand, with a view to maintaining viability and overcoming dormancy. Cold stratification is the term applied to storage at near-freezing temperatures, even if no medium is
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is a complex phenomenon and is not always consistent within species. Cold stratification of white spruce seed to break dormancy has been specified as a requirement, but Heit (1961) and Hellum (1968) regarded stratification as unnecessary. Cone handling and storage conditions affect dormancy in that
284:
These names give the impression is that these are neatly defined systems, but in practice there are variations within these harvesting methods in accordance with to local ecology and site conditions. While location of an archetypal form of harvesting technique can be identified (they all originated
1941:
According to J. Charton, scarification intensity can effect first year seedling mortality and growth. Scarification should be properly applied to various site conditions to ensure that it works in a positive manner for planted seedlings. Since both fireweed and bluejoint grass were shown as soil
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Nitrogen will be lost from the site by burning, though concentrations in remaining forest floor were found by Macadam (1987) to have increased in two of six plots, the others showing decreases. Nutrient losses may be outweighed, at least in the short term, by improved soil microclimate through the
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Changes in soil chemical properties associated with burning include significantly increased pH, which Macadam (1987) in the Sub-boreal Spruce Zone of central British Columbia found persisting more than a year after the burn. Average fuel consumption was 20 to 24 t/ha and the forest floor depth was
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mixedwoods in four of Rowe's (1972) regional Forest Sections straddling Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, roughly from Peace River AB to Brandon MB. In the 1980s, with harvesting using conventional equipment and procedures, a dramatic increase in the demand for aspen posed a serious problem for
1680:
The dearth of seed and a deficiency of receptive seedbeds were recognized as major reasons for the lack of success of clearcut harvesting. One remedy attempted in British Columbia and Alberta has been alternate strip cutting. The greater seed source from uncut trees between the cut strips, and the
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Seed shelters and spring sowing significantly improved stocking compared with bare spot seeding, but sheltering did not significantly improve growth. Stocking of bare seedspots was extremely low, possibly due to smothering of seedlings by abundant broadleaf and herbaceous litter, particularly that
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for determining increment and yield. The method was based on the fact that through careful, selective harvesting, the productivity of the residual stand can be improved, because timber is removed as a cultural operation. In this method, the increment of stands is accurately determined periodically
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in young stands and prevent stagnation, and to shorten the rotation, i.e., to speed the production of trees of a given size. Volume growth of individual trees and the merchantable growth of stands are increased. The primary rationale for spacing is that thinning is the projected decline in maximum
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treatment, given it is performed correctly and without contamination of waters of the state. The fact that herbicide treatment does not always produce positive results should not obscure the demonstrated potential of herbicides for significantly promoting plantation establishment. Factors that can
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according established status to a plantation. For example, a vigorous white spruce with a strong, multi-budded leading shoot and its crown fully exposed to light on 3 sides would not qualify as free-growing in the current British Columbia Code but would hardly warrant description as unestablished.
1922:
According to J. Hall (1970), in Ontario at least, the most widely used site preparation technique was post-harvest mechanical scarification by equipment front-mounted on a bulldozer (blade, rake, V-plow, or teeth), or dragged behind a tractor (Imsett or S.F.I. scarifier, or rolling chopper). Drag
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of that site by the chosen method. Site preparation may be designed to achieve, singly or in any combination: improved access, by reducing or rearranging slash, and amelioration of adverse forest floor, soil, vegetation, or other biotic factors. Site preparation is undertaken to ameliorate one or
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On the basis of tests of three logging systems in Alberta, Brace (1990) affirmed that significant amounts of understorey can be retained using any of those systems provided that sufficient effort is directed towards protection. Potential benefits would include increased short-term softwood timber
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From operational or economic standpoints, however, there are disadvantages to the shelterwood system: harvesting costs are higher; trees left for deferred cutting may be damaged during the regeneration cut or related extraction operations; the increased risk of blowdown threatens the seed source;
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Silvicultural regeneration methods combine both the harvest of the timber on the stand and re-establishment of the forest. The proper practice of sustainable forestry should mitigate the potential negative impacts, but all harvest methods will have some impacts on the land and residual stand. The
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L.), an associated plant species. Cone collection earlier than one week before seed maturity would reduce seed germination and viability during storage. Four stages of maturation were determined by monitoring carbohydrates, polyols, organic acids, respiration, and metabolic activity. White spruce
729:
of a seedlot. The accuracy of predicting percentage germination was within +/- 5 for most seedlots. White spruce seed can be tested for viability by an indirect method, such as the fluorescein diacetate (FDA) test or ‘Ultra-sound'; or by the direct growth method of ‘germination'. Samples of white
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The fundamental genetic consideration in artificial regeneration is that seed and planting stock must be adapted to the planting environment. Most commonly, the method of managing seed and stock deployment is through a system of defined seed zones, within which seed and stock can be moved without
1993:
In a Minnesota study, the N–S strips accumulated more snow, but the snow melted faster than on E–W strips in the first year after felling. Snow-melt was faster on strips near the centre of the strip-felled area than on border strips adjoining the intact stand. The strips, 50 feet (15.24 m) wide,
1667:
Spot seeding requires less seed than broadcast seeding and tends to achieve more uniform spacing, albeit sometimes with clumping. The devices used in Ontario for manual spot seeding are the "oil can" seeder, seeding sticks, and shakers. The oil can is a container fitted with a long spout through
1507:
has usually failed. However, Gardner (1980) after trials in Yukon, which included broadcast seeding of white spruce seed at 2.24 kg/ha that secured 66.5% stocking in the Scarified Spring Broadcast treatment three years after seeding, concluded that the technique held "considerable promise".
1475:
Henri Biolley (1858–1939) was the first to apply Gurnaud's inspired ideas to practical forestry. From 1890 on, he managed the forests of his Swiss district according to these principles, devoting himself for almost 50 years to the study of increment and a treatment of stands directed towards the
1460:
However, irregular stands of this type are definitely more difficult to manage—new methods and techniques had to be sought particularly for the establishment of inventories, as well as increment control and yield regulation. In Germany, for instance, since the beginning of the nineteenth century
1302:
Conventional clearcut harvesting is relatively simple: all trees on a cutblock are felled and bunched with bunches aligned to the skidding direction, and a skidder then drags the bunches to the closest log deck. Feller-buncher operators concentrate on the width of the felled swath, the number of
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will in most cases eventually reduce stocking to more silviculturally desirable levels. But by the time some trees reach merchantable size, others will be overmature and defective, and others will still be unmerchantable. To reduce this unbalance and to obtain more economic returns, in the early
1000:
Comparable data are generated by espacement trials, in which trees are planted at a range of densities. Spacings of 1.25 m, 1.50 m, 1.75 m, 2.00 m, 2.50 m, and 3.00 m on 4 site classes were used in the 1922 trial at Petawawa, Ontario. In the first of 34 old field white spruce plantations used to
905:
Beyond the establishment stage, the relationship of average tree size and stand density is very important. Various density-management diagrams conceptualizing the density-driven stand dynamics have been developed. Smith and Brand's (1988) diagram has mean tree volume on the vertical axis and the
879:
The study of competition dynamics requires both a measure of the competition level and a measure of crop response. Various competition indices have been developed, e.g., by Bella (1971) and Hegyi (1974) based on stem diameter, by Arney (1972), Ek and Monserud (1974), and Howard and Newton (1984)
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competition as to whether or not a plantation is established, minimum specifications of number, health, height, and competition have been specified in British Columbia. However, minimum specifications are still subjectively set and may need to be fine-tuned in order to avoid unwarranted delay in
800:
Seed maturity cannot be predicted accurately from cone flotation, cone moisture content, cone specific gravity; but the province of B.C. found embryo occupying 90% + of the corrosion cavity and megagametophyte being firm and whitish in colour are the best predictors for white spruce in B.C., and
551:
A prepared seedbed remains receptive for a relatively short period, seldom as long as 5 years, sometimes as short as 3 years. Seedbed receptivity on moist, fertile sites decreases with particular rapidity, and especially on such sites, seedbed preparation should be scheduled to take advantage of
69:
Generally, silviculture is the science and art of growing and cultivating forest , based on a knowledge of silvics .The study of the life-history and general characteristics of forest trees and stands, with particular reference to local/regional factors. The focus of silviculture is the control,
3287:
Zasada, J.C.; Foote, M.J.; Deneke, F.J.; Parkerson, R.H. 1978. Case history of an excellent white spruce cone and seed crop in interior Alaska: cone and seed production, germination and seedling survival. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific NW For. Range Exp. Sta., Portland OR, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-65. 53
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A harvesting and regeneration method which is a relatively new silvicultural system that retains forest structural elements (stumps, logs, snags, trees, understory species and undisturbed layers of forest floor) for at least one rotation in order to preserve environmental values associated with
1019:
The oldest interior spruce espacement trial in British Columbia was established in 1959 near Houston in the Prince Rupert Forest Region. Spacings of 1.2 m, 2.7 m, 3.7 m, and 4.9 m were used, and trees were measured 6, 12, 16, 26, and 30 years after planting. At wide espacements, trees developed
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of 20 hours were applied in Florida. Other seedlings were grown under extended daylength in Wisconsin and with natural daylength in both areas. After two growing seasons, white spruce under long days in Florida were about the same as those in Wisconsin, but twice as tall as plants under natural
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Marked increases in exchangeable calcium also correlated with the amount of slash at least 7 cm in diameter consumed. Phosphorus availability also increased, both in the forest floor and in the 0 cm to 15 cm mineral soil layer, and the increase was still evident, albeit somewhat
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environmental conditions (i.e. sunlight, temperature, and moisture) that influence tree seedling growth. This method can also find a middle ground with the light ambiance by having less light accessible to competitors while still being able to provide enough light for tree regeneration. Hence,
518:
in northern Europe led to the adoption of various forms of reproduction cuttings that provided partial shade or protection to seedlings from hot sun and wind. The main objective of echeloned strips or border-cuttings with northeast exposure was to protect regeneration from overheating, and was
1918:
Up to 1970, no "sophisticated" site preparation equipment had become operational in Ontario, but the need for more efficacious and versatile equipment was increasingly recognized. By this time, improvements were being made to equipment originally developed by field staff, and field testing of
1909:
Wang et al. (2000) determined field performance of white and black spruces eight and nine years after outplanting on boreal mixedwood sites following site preparation (Donaren disc trenching versus no trenching) in two plantation types (open versus sheltered) in southeastern Manitoba. Donaren
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is described briefly here to illustrate the degree of sophistication applied by some European foresters to the management of their forests. Development of management techniques that allowed for stand development to be monitored and guided into sustainable paths were in part a response to past
1209:
is defined as "loosening the top soil of open areas, or breaking up the forest floor, in preparation for regenerating by direct seeding or natural seedfall", but the term is often misapplied to practices that include scalping, screefing, and blading, which pare off low and surface vegetation,
855:
The diversity of boreal and sub-boreal broadleaf-conifer mixed tree species stands, commonly referred to as the "mixedwoods", largely preclude the utility of generalizations and call for the development of management practices incorporating the greater inherent complexity of broadleaf-conifer
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and spruce in the final cut. Information about the understorey component is critical to spruce management planning. The ability of then current harvesting technology and crews employed to provide adequate protection for white spruce understories was questioned by Brace and Bella. Specialized
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Methods for spacing may be: manual, using various tools, including power saws, brush saws, and clippers; mechanical, using choppersand mulchers; chemical; or combinations of several methods. One treatment has had notable success in spacing massively overstocked (<100 000 stems/ha) natural
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Optimum conditions for seedling growth have been determined for the production of containerized planting stock. Alternating day/night temperatures have been found more suitable than a constant temperature; at 400 lumens/m light regime, a 28 °C/20 °C day/night temperatures have been
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is emphasized by the U.S. Forest Service. Acceptable planting spots are defined as microsites on the north and east sides of down logs, stumps, or slash, and lying in the shadow cast by such material. Where the objectives of management specify more uniform spacing, or higher densities, than
1213:
Thus, it is not surprising that literature can be used to support the view that the growth of seedlings on scarified sites is much superior to that of growth on similar sites that have not been scarified, while other evidence supports the contrary view that scarification can reduce growth.
830:
Plantations may be considered successful when outplant performance satisfies certain criteria. The term "free growing" is applied in some jurisdictions. Ontario's "Free-to-Grow" (FTG) equivalent relates to a forest stand that meets a minimum stocking standard and height requirement, and is
888:
Tending is the term applied to pre-harvest silvicultural treatment of forest crop trees at any stage after initial planting or seeding. The treatment can be of the crop itself (e.g., spacing, pruning, thinning, and improvement cutting) or of competing vegetation (e.g., weeding, cleaning).
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Encouraged by Russian success in using ultrasonic waves to improve the germinative energy and percentage germination of seeds of agricultural crops, Timonin (1966) demonstrated benefits to white spruce germination after exposure of seeds to 1, 2, or 4 minutes of ultrasound generated by an
1204:
Growth performance is certainly influenced by site conditions and thus by the kind and degree of site preparation in relation to the nature of the site. It is important to avoid the assumption that site preparation of a particular designation will have a particular silvicultural outcome.
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Even a broadcast slash fire in a clearcut does not give a uniform burn over the whole area. Tarrant (1954), for instance, found only 4% of a 140-ha slash burn had burned severely, 47% had burned lightly, and 49% was unburned. Burning after windrowing obviously accentuates the subsequent
1416:
The group selection method is an uneven-aged regeneration method that can be used when mid-tolerant species regeneration is desired. The group selection method can still result in residual stand damage in dense stands, however directional falling can minimize the damage. Additionally,
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trees in a bunch, and the alignment of the bunch. Providing a perimeter boundary is felled during daylight, night-shift operations can continue without the danger of trespassing beyond the block. Productivity of equipment is maximized because units can work independently of one another.
997:, while white spruce dbh was less than half that of the pines. Crown width showed a gradual increase with spacing for all 3 conifers. Results to date were suggesting optimum spacings between 1.8 m and 2.4 m for both pines; white spruce was not recommended for planting on such sites.
3486:
Simard, S. 1966. 1996. Mixtures of paper birch and conifers: An ecological balancing act. pp. 15-22 In: P.G. Comeau & K.D. Thomas (eds.) Silviculture of temperate boreal broadleaf-conifer mixtures. BC Ministry of Forests, Research Branch, Victoria, BC. Land Management Handbook
1068:
Previous studies have demonstrated that repeated thinnings over the course of a forest rotation increase carbon stores relative to stands that are clear-cut on short rotations and that the carbon benefits differ according to thinning method (e.g., thinning from above versus below).
852:. Vegetation management directs more of the site's resources into usable forest products, rather than just eliminating all competing plants. Ideally, site preparation ameliorates competition to levels that relieve the outplant of constraints severe enough to cause prolonged check.
1613:
damage from bark beetles is likely to increase; regeneration may be damaged during the final cut and related extraction operations; the difficulty of any site preparation would be increased; and incidental damage to regeneration might be caused by any site preparation operations.
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Bell, F.W. 1991. Critical silvics of conifer crop species and selected competitive vegetation in northwestern Ontario. For. Can., Sault Ste. Marie, Ont./Ont. Min. Nat. Resour., Northwestern Ont. For. Tech. Devel. Unit, Thunder Bay ON, COFRDA Rep. 3310/ NWOFTDU Tech. Rep. 19. 177
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Burning site preparation has enhanced spruce seedling growth, but it must be supposed that burning could be detrimental if the nutrient capital is significantly depleted. An obvious factor greatly influencing regeneration is competition from other vegetation. In a pure stand of
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shelterwood methods are most often chosen for site types characterized by extreme conditions, in order to create a new tree generation within a reasonable time period. These conditions are valid foremost on level ground sites which are either dry and poor or moist and fertile.
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In France, on the other hand, efforts were made to apply another kind of forest management, one that aimed to bring all parts of the forest to a state of highest productive capacity in perpetuity. In 1878, the French forester A. Gurnaud (1825–1898) published a description of a
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More or less uneven-aged, mixed forests of preponderantly native species, on the other hand, treated along natural lines, have proved to be healthier and more resistant to all kinds of external dangers; and in the long run such stands are more productive and easier to protect.
1923:
type units designed and constructed by Ontario's Department of Lands and Forests used anchor chain or tractor pads separately or in combination, or were finned steel drums or barrels of various sizes and used in sets alone or combined with tractor pad or anchor chain units.
1968:
for only three hours, i.e., one-quarter of the daily light period, whereas mounds received light above the compensation point for eleven hours, i.e., 86% of the same daily period. Assuming that incident light in the 100-600 μE/m/s intensity range is the most important for
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Spot and row seeders use less seed that does broadcast ground or aerial seeding but may induce clumping. Row and spot seeding confer greater ability to control seed placement than does broadcast seeding. Also, only a small percentage of the total area needs to be treated.
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Scarification, for instance, not only covers a wide range of operations that scarify, but also any given way of scarifying can have significantly different results depending on site conditions at the time of treatment. In point of fact, the term is commonly misapplied.
1569:) was observed in the area about one week after sowing was completed in mid-June. Damage averaged 68% with cones and 50% with funnels on an upland area, and 26% with funnels on a floodplain area. Damage by ravens was only 0.13% on unburned but otherwise similar areas.
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equipment and training, perhaps with financial incentives, may be needed to develop procedures that would confer the degree of protection needed for the system to be feasible. Effective understorey management planning requires more than improved mixedwood inventory.
1294:
practice of sustainable forestry limits the impacts such that the values of the forest are maintained in perpetuity. Silvicultural prescriptions are specific solutions to a specific set of circumstances and management objectives. Following are some common methods:
1772:, i.e., the use of suppressed understorey trees, can reduce reforestation costs, shorten rotations, avoid denuding the site of trees, and also reduce adverse impacts on aesthetic, wildlife, and watershed values. To be of value, advance growth must have acceptable
1405:
had produced surviving seedlings, at a seed:seedling ratio of 7.1:1. With Engelmann spruce, Smith and Clark (1960) obtained average seventh year seed:seedling ratios of 21:1 on scarified seedbeds on dry sites, 38:1 on moist sites, and 111:1 on litter seedbeds.
1050:. It also provides an opportunity to capture mortality and cull the commercially less desirable, usually smaller and malformed, trees. Unlike regeneration treatments, thinnings are not intended to establish a new tree crop or create permanent canopy openings.
1684:
An unfortunate consequence of strip thinning was the build-up of spruce beetle populations. Shaded slash from the initial cut, together with an increase in the number of windthrown trees in the leave strips, provided conditions ideally suited to the beetle.
674:
produce seed of the highest quality, then, in order of decreasing seed quality produced, seed production areas and seed collection areas follow, with controlled general collections and uncontrolled general collections producing the least characterized seed.
4711:
Ballard, T.M. 1985. Spruce nutrition problems in the central interior and their relationship with site preparation. Proc. Interior spruce seedling performance: state of the art Symposium. Northern Silviculture Committee Workshop, Feb. 1985, Prince George
132:). There are other systems as well. These varied silvicultural systems include several harvesting methods, which are often wrongly said to be a silvicultural systems, but may also be called rejuvenating or regenerating method depending on the purpose.
4034:
Murray, M. (Ed.), The Yield Advantages of Artificial Regeneration at High Latitudes. Proc. 6th Internat. Workshop on Forest Regeneration. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific Northwest For. Range Exp. Sta., Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-194. 60 p. (Cited in Coates et al.
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567:. A charred surface may get too hot for good germination and may delay germination until fall, with subsequent overwinter mortality of unhardened seedlings. Piling and burning of logging slash, however, can leave suitable exposures of mineral soil.
353:. In whichever case, the performance of regeneration depends on its growth potential and the degree to which its environment allows the potential to be expressed. Seed, of course, is needed for all regeneration modes, both for natural or artificial
4260:
Glew, D.R. 1963. The results of stand treatment in the white spruce–alpine fir type of the northern interior of British Columbia. B.C. Dep. Lands For. Water Resour., B.C. For. Serv., Victoria BC, For. Manage. Note 1. 27 p. (Cited in Coates et al.
1985:
or other considerations, but where the orientation can be chosen, it can make a significant difference. A disk-trenching experiment in the Sub-boreal Spruce Zone in interior British Columbia investigated the effect on growth of young outplants
4168:
Prochnau, A.E. 1963. Direct seeding experiments with white spruce, alpine fir, Douglas fir and lodgepole pine in the central interior of British Columbia. B.C. Min. For. Lands, Victoria BC, MOFL No. 37, Res Note. 24 p. (Cited in Coates et al.
1873:
of the organic layer, minor increases in soil temperature, and marked improvements in the efficiency of the planting crews. Results also suggested that the process of site deterioration has not been reversed by the burning treatments applied.
1564:
White spruce seed was sown in Alaska on a burned site in summer 1984, and protected by white plastic cones on small spots scarified by hand, or by white funnels placed directly into the residual ash and organic material. A group of six ravens
547:
seedlings from the 5% stand component of that species. The maximum density of spruce regeneration, determined 4 rods (20 m) inside from the edge of the stand on a north 20°E exposure, was 600,000/ha, with almost 100,000 balsam fir seedlings.
1856:
diminished, 21 months after burning. However, in another study in the same Sub-boreal Spruce Zone found that although it increased immediately after the burn, phosphorus availability had dropped to below pre-burn levels within nine months.
1697:
stands, on the basis of the success of natural spruce in regenerating under stands of such stands: "By planting, spacing can be controlled enabling easier protection of the spruce during stand entry for harvesting of the aspen overstorey".
3357:
Santon, J. 1970. Effect of stratification on germination of freshly harvested seed of several spruce and pine species in eastern Canada. Can. Dep. Fish. For., Can. For. Serv., Petawawa For. Exp. Sta., Chalk River ON, Inf. Rep. PS-X-17. 22
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MacKey, Brendan G.; McKenney, Daniel W.; Yang, Yin-Qian; McMahon, June P.; Hutchinson, Michael F. (1 March 1996). "Site regions revisited: a climatic analysis of Hills' site regions for the province of Ontario using a parametric method".
642:
and outplanted in Wisconsin equalled that of 2+2 Wisconsin-grown transplants. Artificial extension of the photoperiod in the northern Lake States greatly increased height increment of white and black spruces in the second growing season.
3476:
Buse, L.J.; Baker, W.D. 1991. Determining necessity and priority for tending in young spruce plantations in northwestern Ontario. Ont. Min. Nat. Resour., Northwestern Ont. For. Technol. Devel. Unit, Thunder Bay ON, Tech. Note TN-08. 4
1964:
fall frosts had reduced shading, eliminating the differential. Quite apart from its effect on temperature, incident radiation is also important photosynthetically. The average control microsite was exposed to levels of light above the
847:
Competition arises when individual organisms are sufficiently close together to incur growth constraint through mutual modification of the local environment. Plants may compete for light, moisture and nutrients, but seldom for space
4579:
McCaughey, W.W.; Schmidt, W.C. 1982. Understory tree release following harvest cutting in spruce–fir forests of the Intermountain West. USDA, For. Serv., Intermountain For. Range Exp. Sta., Res. Pap. INT-285. Cited in Coates et al.
1946:
should be considered. Reforestation managers should balance response to scarification in wet areas to achieve the proper balance between planted seedling survival and growth and achieving the desired level of natural regeneration.
1937:
According to J. Charton and A. Peterson, motormanual scarification is best suited for small restoration projects (less than 25,000 trees) or in ecologically sensitive areas such as riparian zones or areas that are prone to erosion.
4774:
Kiil, A.D. 1968. Weight of the fuel complex in 70-year-old lodgepole pine stands of different densities. Department of Forestry and Rural Development, Forest Research Laboratory, Calgary, Alberta. Departmental Publication 1228. 13
1461:
under the influence of G.L. Hartig (1764–1837), yield regulation has been effected almost exclusively by allotment or formula methods based on the conception of the uniform normal forest with a regular succession of cutting areas.
4592:
Johnstone, W.D. 1978. Growth of fir and spruce advance growth and logging residuals following logging in west-central Alberta. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Northern For. Res. Centre, Edmonton AB, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-203. 16
1942:
moisture moderators, reduced scarification intensity may be beneficial to planted seedlings in the wetter areas found on the Kenai Peninsula. However, other factors such as encouraging natural regeneration to promote pre-beetle
4655:
Baskerville, G.L. 1961. Response of young fir and spruce to release from shrub competition. Can. Dep. Northern Affairs and National Resources, For. Branch, Ottawa ON, For. Res. Div., Tech. Note 98. 14 p. (Cited in Coates et al.
1077:
In the early development of forest stand, density of trees remain high and there is competition among trees for nutrients. When natural regeneration or artificial seeding has resulted in dense, overstocked young stands, natural
4665:
McKinnon, L.M.; Mitchell, A.K.; Vyse, A. 2002. The effects of soil temperature and site preparation on subalpine and boreal tree species: a bibliography. Nat. Resour., Can., Can. For. Serv., Victoria BC, Inf. Rep. BC-X-394. 29
3978:
Waldron, R.M. 1966. Factors affecting natural white spruce regeneration on prepared seedbeds at the Riding Mountain Forest Experimental Area, Manitoba. Can. Dep. For. Rural Devel., For. Branch, Ottawa ON, Deptl. Publ. 1169. 41
1843:
Prescribed burning for preparing sites for direct seeding was tried on a few occasions in Ontario, but none of the burns was hot enough to produce a seedbed that was adequate without supplementary mechanical site preparation.
530:
In 1993, Henry Baldwin, after noting that summer temperatures in North America are often higher than those in places where border-cuttings have been found useful, reported the results of a survey of regeneration in a stand of
924:
A strategy for enhancing natural forests' economic value is to increase their concentration of economically important, indigenous tree species by planting seeds or seedlings for future harvest, which can be accomplished with
3580:
The Use of Herbicides in Forest Vegetation Management. Co-ordinated Research on Alternative Forestry Treatments and Systems (CRAFTS). Univ. Oregon, Dep. For. Sci., Portland OR. (Cited by Morris and MacDonald 1991, orig. not
2993:
1380:, and certain pines naturally sprout from stumps and can be managed through coppicing. Coppicing is generally used to produce fuelwood, pulpwood, and other products dependent on small trees. A close relative of coppicing is
461:
are more receptive than the undisturbed forest floor, and are generally moister and more readily rewetted than the organic forest floor. However, exposed mineral soil, much more so than organic-surfaced soil, is subject to
4611:
Ball, W.J.; Kolabinski, V.S. 1979. An aerial reconnaissance of softwood regeneration on mixedwood sites in Saskatchewan. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Northern For. Res. Centre, Edmonton AB, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-216. 14
4755:
Endean, F.; Johnstone, W.D. 1974. Prescribed fire and regeneration on clearcut spruce–fir sites in the foothills of Alberta. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv., Northern For. Res. Centre, Edmonton AB, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-126. 33
3809:
Ker, M.F. 1981. Early response of balsam fir to spacing in northwestern New Brunswick. Environment Canada, Canadian Forestry Service, Maritimes Forestry Centre, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Information Report M-X-129, 36
1015:
A smaller espacement trial, begun in 1951 near Thunder Bay, Ontario, included white spruce at spacings of 1.8 m, 2.7 m, and 3.6 m. At the closest spacing, mortality had begun at 37 years, but not at the wider spacings.
806:
seeds require a 6-week post-harvest ripening period in the cones to obtain maximum germinability, however, based on cumulative degree-days, seed from the same trees and stand showed 2-week cone storage was sufficient.
4863:
Draper, D.; Binder, W.; Fahlman, R.; Spittlehouse, D. 1985. Post-planting ecophysiology of Interior spruce. Interior Spruce Seedling Performance: State of the Art. Northern Silvic. Committee, Prince George BC. 18 p.
659:
Artificial regeneration has been a more common method involving planting because it is more dependable than natural regeneration. Planting can involve using seedlings (from a nursery), (un)rooted cuttings, or seeds.
4796:
Wang, G.G.; Siemens, A.; Keenan, V.; Philippot, D. 2000. Survival and growth of black and white spruce seedlings in relation to stock type, site preparation and plantation type in southeastern Manitoba. For. Chron.
4532:
Sauder, E.A.; Sinclair, A.W.J. 1989. Harvesting in the mixedwood forest. Paper included in White spruce understories, Canada–Alberta Agreement, Projects 1480, 1488, 20204. For. Can., Northern For. Centre, Edmonton
1536:
logging favours regeneration of fir more than the more light-demanding spruce. In some areas, selection logging can be expected to favour spruce over less tolerant hardwood species (Zasada 1972) or lodgepole pine.
3603:
Zedaker, S.M. 1982. Growth and development of young Douglas-fir in relation to intra- and inter-specific competition. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis OR, Ph.D. thesis. (Cited by Morris and MacDonald 1991, orig. not
4645:
Stettler, R.F. 1958. Development of a residual stand of interior spruce–alpine fir during the first twenty-eight years following cutting to a 12-inch diameter limit. For. Serv., Victoria BC, Res. Note 34. 15 p.
437:
stemwood provides the most favorable seedbed for germination and survival. Seedlings growing on such sites are less likely to be buried by accumulated snowpack and leaf litter, and less likely to be subject to
3855:
Bella, I.E.; De Franceschi, J.P. 1980. Spacing effects 15 years after planting three conifers in Manitoba. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Northern For. Res. Centre, Edmonton AB, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-223. 10
3799:
Haavisto, V.F.; Smith, C.R.; Mason, C. (Eds.). Space to grow: spacing and thinning in northern Ontario. Proc. sympos., June 1990, Sault Ste. Marie ON, For. Can., Ont. Region/Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. Joint Rep.
3785:
Haavisto, V.F.; Smith, C.R.; Mason, C. (Eds.). Space to grow: spacing and thinning in northern Ontario. Proc. sympos., June 1990, Sault Ste. Marie ON, For. Can., Ont. Region/Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. Joint Rep.
3771:
Haavisto, V.F., Smith, C.R.; Mason, C. (Eds.). Space to grow: spacing and thinning in northern Ontario. Proc. Sympos., June 1990, Sault Ste. Marie ON, For. Can., Ont. Region/Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. Joint Rep.
3757:
Haavisto, V.F.; Smith, C.R.; Mason, C. (Eds.). Space to grow: spacing and thinning in northern Ontario. Proc. sympos., June 1990, Sault Ste. Marie ON, For. Can., Ont. Region/Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. Joint Rep.
1830:
a) Reduction of logging slash, plant competition, and humus prior to direct seeding, planting, scarifying or in anticipation of natural seeding in partially cut stands or in connection with seed-tree systems.
1321:
regeneration. It involves the complete removal of the forest stand at one time. Clearcutting can be biologically appropriate with species that typically regenerate from stand replacing fires or other major
1147:, i.e., a change from one species (or set of species) to another. Such change can be effected intentionally by various silvicultural means, or incidentally by default e.g., when high-grading has removed the
4284:
Lähde, F. and Tuohisaari, O. 1976. An ecological study on the effects of shelters on germination and germling development of Scotch pine, Norway spruce and Siberian larch. Comm. Inst. For. Reprint 88.1. 35
4238:
Lavender, D.P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C.M.; Montgomery, G.; Vyse, A.; Willis, R.A.; Winston, D. (Eds.). Regenerating British Columbia's Forests. Univ. B.C. Press, Vancouver BC. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).
3991:
Butt, G.; Bancroft, B.; Folk, R. 1989. Ingress of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir in southern interior ESSF. For. Can./B.C. Min. For., Victoria BC, Project 3.61, unpub. rep. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994)
1664:
forest floor increased germination percentage after the second season in seed spots of both white pine and white spruce, in four plots, from 2.5% to 5%, from 8% to 22%, from 1% to 9.5%, and from 0% to 15%.
1176:
Region of Canada. Haddock thought that Wright's suggestion of 20 to 40 (average 30) cubic feet per acre (1.4 m/ha to 2.8 m/ha (average 2.1 m/ha) per year was more reasonable, but still somewhat optimistic.
399:. For seeds of many species, light is also necessary, and facilitates the germination of seeds in other species, but spruces are not exacting in their light requirements, and will germinate without light.
4558:
Brace, L. 1990. A test of three logging systems in Alberta. Paper included in White spruce understories, Canada–Alberta Agreement, Projects 1480, 1488, 20204. For. Can., Northern For. Centre, Edmonton AB.
4250:
Alexander, R.R. 1987. Ecology, silviculture, and management of the Engelmann spruce–subalpine fir type in the central and southern Rocky Mountains. USDA, For. Serv., Washington DC, Agric. Handb. 659. 144
3380:
Hocking, D. 1972. Effects of stratification of Alberta white spruce and lodgepole pine seeds on emergence in operational seedbeds. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv., Ottawa ON, Bi-mo. Res. Notes 28(4):26–27.
4312:
Dyck, J.R. 1994. Converting aspen stands to white spruce–aspen mixedwoods by planting and seeding, Manitoba: Manitoba forestry demonstration areas. Can./Manitoba Partnership in For., unumbered rep. 28 p.
1361:
temperatures. Kubin and Kemppainen (1991), for instance, measured temperatures in northern Finland from 1974 through 1985 in three clear-felled areas and in three neighbouring forest stands dominated by
562:
is not recommended as a method of preparing sites for natural regeneration, as it rarely exposes enough mineral soil to be sufficiently receptive, and the charred organic surfaces are a poor seedbed for
4635:
Smith, R.B.; Wass, E.F. 1979. Tree growth on and adjacent to contour skid roads in the subalpine zone, southeastern British Columbia. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Victoria BC, Report BC-R-2. 26
4625:
Schmidt, W.C. (Compiler). Proc. Future Forests of the Mountain West: A Stand Culture Symp., Sept./Oct. 1986, Missoula MT. USDA, For. Serv., Intermount. Res. Sta., Ogden UT, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-243. 402
3846:
Pollack, J.C.; Johnstone, W.; Coates, K.D.; LePage, P. 1992. The influence of initial espacement on the growth of a 32-year-old white spruce plantation. B.C. Min. For., Victoria BC, Res. Note 111. 16 p.
4523:
Sauder, E.A. 1990. Mixedwood harvesting. section B In White spruce understories, Canada–Alberta Agreement, Projects 1480, 1488, 20204. For. Can., Northern For. Centre, Edmonton AB, various pagination.
902:
that close spacing leads to full site utilization more quickly than wider spacing. Economic operability can be advanced by wide spacing even if total production is less than in closely spaced stands.
1736:
Naturally regenerated trees in an understorey prior to harvesting constitute a classic case of good news and bad news. Understorey white spruce is of particular importance in mixedwoods dominated by
4882:
Clausen, J.C.; Mace, A.C., Jr. 1972. Accumulation and snowmelt on north–south versus east–west oriented clearcut strips. Univ. Minnesota, Coll. For., St. Paul MN, Minn. For. Res. Notes No. 34. 4 p.
1005:
Except for merchantable volumes at age 20 and site classes 50 and 60, closer spacings gave greater standing volumes at all ages than did wider spacings, the relative difference decreasing with age.
3828:
Stiell, W.M.; Berry, A.B. 1973. Development of unthinned white spruce plantations to age 50 at Petawawa Forest Experiment Station. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Ottawa ON, Publ. 1317. 18 p.
1724:
pulpwood plantations (mainly of white spruce) in Ontario and Quebec up to 32 years old found that the bulk of the mortality occurred within the first four years of planting, unfavourable site and
863:
Many promising plantations have failed through lack of tending. Young crop trees are often ill-equipped to fight it out with competition resurgent following initial site preparation and planting.
3960:
Wagner, R.G.; Colombo, S.J. (Eds.). Regenerating the Canadian Forest: Principles and Practice for Ontario. Fitzhenry & Whiteside, Markham ON in co-operation with Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. 650 p.
1906:
Site preparation on some sites might be done simply to facilitate access by planters, or to improve access and increase the number or distribution of microsites suitable for planting or seeding.
993:) was established at Moodie, Manitoba, on flat, sandy, nutritionally poor soils with a fresh moisture regime. Twenty years after planting, red pine had the largest average dbh, 15% greater than
430:; and a stable root system. Shade is very important to the survival of young seedlings. In the longer term, there must be an adequate supply of essential nutrients and an absence of smothering.
4178:
Smith, J.H.G.; Clark, M.B. 1960. Growth and survival of Engelmann spruce and alpine fir on seed spots at Bolean Lake, B.V. 1954–59. For. Chron. 36(1):46–49, 51. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).
1334:). Alternatively, clearcutting can change the dominating species on a stand with the introduction of non-native and invasive species as was shown at the Blodgett Forest Research Station near
3445:
Ontario Class Environmental Assessment for Timber Management. 1989. Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. Witness Statements, Evidence Panels I to XVII. Compiled 1989.02,22, Sections separately paginated.
1180:
The principal way forest resource managers influence growth and yield is to manipulate the mixture of species and number (density) and distribution (stocking) of individuals that form the
4684:
Macadam, A.M. 1987. Effects of broadcast slash burning on fuels and soil chemical properties in the sub-boreal spruce zone of central British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 17(12):1577–1584.
3671:
Archibald, D.J.; Bowling, C. 1995. Jack pine density management diagram for boreal Ontario. Ont. Min. Nat. Resour., Northeast Science & Technology, Tech. Note TN-005 NWST TN-31. 20 p.
4360:
Baldwin, V.C. 1977. Regeneration following shelterwood cutting in a New Brunswick softwood stand. Can. Dep. Fish. & Environ., Can. For. Serv., Fredericton NB, Inf. Rep. M-X-76. 23 p.
1808:
more constraints that would otherwise be likely to thwart the objectives of management. A valuable bibliography on the effects of soil temperature and site preparation on subalpine and
2817:
Zasada, J. C. (1985). "Production, dispersal and germination, and first-year seedling survival of white spruce and birch in the Rosie Creek burn". In Juday, Glenn; Dyrness, C. (eds.).
652:
is important in artificial regeneration. Good provenance takes into account suitable tree genetics and a good environmental fit for planted / seeded trees in a forest stand. The wrong
4873:
Burton, P.; Bedford, L.; Goldstein, M.; Osberg, M. 2000. Effect of disk trench orientation and planting spot position on the ten-year performance of lodgepole pine. New For. 20:23–44.
1449:
experience, particularly in Central European countries, of the negative effects of pure, uniform stands with species often unsuited to the site, which greatly increased the risk of
510:), temperature, moisture, and seed enemies. Moisture and temperature are the most influential, and both are affected by exposure. The difficulty of securing natural regeneration of
4212:
Kittredge, J. Jr.; Gevorkiantz, S. R. 1929. Forest possibilities of aspen lands in the Lake States. Minnesota Agricultural Exp. Sta., Minneapolis, Minnesota, Technical Bulletin 60.
1342:
decomposition, expose soil to erosion, impact visual appeal of a landscape and remove essential wildlife habitat. It is particularly useful in regeneration of tree species such as
1285:, whose first leaves do not shade the base of the stem at the soil surface. Surface temperatures in sandy soils on occasion reach lethal temperatures of 50 °C to 60 °C.
801:
Quebec can forecast seed maturity some weeks in advance by monitoring seed development in relation to heat-sums and the phenological progression of the inflorescence of fireweed (
4567:
Stewart, J.D.; Landhäusser, S.M.; Stadt, K.J.; Lieffers, V.J. 2001. Predicting natural regeneration of white spruce in boreal mixedwood understories. For. Chron. 77(6):1006–1013.
3239:
Mittal, R.K.; Wang, B.S.P. 1987. Fungi associated with seeds of eastern white pine and white spruce during cone processing and seed extraction. Can. J. For. Res. 19(9):1026–1034.
1281:
A factor of some importance in solar radiation–reproduction relationships is excess heating of the soil surface by radiation. This is especially important for seedlings, such as
3536:
Arney, J.D. 1972. Computer simulation of Douglas-fir tree and stand growth. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis OR, Ph.D. thesis. (Cited by Morris and MacDonald 1991, orig. not seen.)
2840:
Zasada, J. (1986). "Natural Regeneration of Trees and Tall Shrubs on Forest Sites in Interior Alaska". In Cleve, K.; Chapin, F.; Flanagan, P.; Viereck, L.; Dyrness, C. (eds.).
3339:
Hellum, A.K. 1968. A case against cold stratification of white spruce seed prior to nursery seeding. Can. Dep. For. and Rural Devel., For. Branch, Ottawa ON, Publ. 1243. 12 p.
1472:
with the object of gradually converting the forest, through selective management and continuous experimentation, to a condition of equilibrium at maximum productive capacity.
4437:
Northern Mixedwood ‘89: Proceedings of a symposium held at Fort St. John, B.C., Sept. 1989. A. Shortreid (Ed.), For. Can., Pacific For. Centre, Victoria BC, FRDA Report 164.
3269:
Wang, B.S.P.; Pitel, J.A. (Eds.). Proc. Internat. Sympos. Forest Tree Seed Storage, Sept. 1980, Chalk River ON. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).
5656:
1480:
treatment of stands with the aid of the volume check method are meeting with ever-growing interest. In Britain and Ireland, for example, there is increased application of
1826:
Prescribed burning is carried out primarily for slash hazard reduction and to improve site conditions for regeneration; all or some of the following benefits may accrue:
1439:
in Switzerland, in which the number and size of trees harvested were determined by reference to data collected from every tree in every stand measured every seven years.
3649:
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1989. Operational guidelines for tree improvement in Ontario. Ont. Min. Nat. Resour., Toronto ON, 9 sections separately paginated.
4275:
Zasada, J.C. 1972. Guidelines for obtaining natural regeneration of white spruce in Alaska. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific Northwest For. Range Exp. Sta., Portland OR. 16 p.
473:
The range of microsites occurring on the forest floor can be broadened, and their frequency and distribution influenced by site preparation. Each microsite has its own
4021:
Herring, L.J.; McMinn, R.G. 1980. Natural and advanced regeneration of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir compared 21 years after site treatment. For. Chron. 56:55–57.
1881:
Slash weight (the oven-dry weight of the entire crown and that portion of the stem < 4 inches in diameter) and size distribution are major factors influencing the
1823:
Broadcast burning is commonly used to prepare clearcut sites for planting, e.g., in central British Columbia, and in the temperate region of North America generally.
418:
For survival in the short and medium terms, a germinant needs: a continuing supply of moisture; freedom from lethal temperature; enough light to generate sufficient
4369:
Alexander, R.R. 1973. Partial cutting in old-growth spruce-fir. USDA For. Serv., Rocky Mountain and Range Exp. Sta., Fort Collins, CO, Research Paper RM-100. 16 p.
1926:
J. Hall's (1970) report on the state of site preparation in Ontario noted that blades and rakes were found to be well suited to post-cut scarification in tolerant
3454:
British Columbia. Ministry of Forests. 1995. Forest practices code of British Columbia: Silvicultural systems guidebook. BC MoF, BC Ministry of Environment, 44 p.
3389:
Winston, D.A.; Haddon, B.D. 1981. Effects of early cone collection and artificial ripening on white spruce and red pine germination. Can. J. For. Res. 11:817–826.
1034:
Thinning is an operation that artificially reduces the number of trees growing in a stand with the aim of hastening the development of the remainder. The goal of
3878:
Shortreid, A. (Ed.), Proc. Northern Mixedwood ‘89: a symposium at Fort St. John, B.C., Sept. 1989. For. Can., Pacific For. Centre, Victoria BC, FRDA Report 164.
304:. The misapplication of this philosophy to those tropical forests has been problematic. There is also an alternative silvicultural tradition which developed in
1453:
and biotic diseases. Increased mortality and decreased increment generated widespread concern, especially after reinforcement by other environmental stresses.
539:
that had been isolated by clearcutting on all sides, so furnishing an opportunity for observing regeneration on different exposures in this old-field stand at
4746:
Little, S.N.; Klock, G.O. 1985. The influence of residue removal and prescribed fire on distribution of forest nutrients. USDA, For. Serv., Res. Pap. PNW-333.
4030:
McMinn, R.G. 1986. Comparative productivity of seedbed, natural and planted regeneration following various site treatments in white spruce clearcuts. p. 31–33
5427:
4303:
Putman, W.E.; Zasada, J.C. 1985. Raven damage to plastic seeding shelters in interior Alaska. North. J. Appl. For. 2(2):41–43. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).
4141:
Kubin, E.; Kemppainen, L. 1991. Effect of clearcutting of boreal spruce forest on air and soil temperature conditions. Acta Forestalia Fennica No. 225. 42 p.
926:
919:
4514:
White spruce understories. Canada–Alberta Agreement, Projects 1480, 1488, 20204. For. Can., Northern For. Centre, Edmonton AB. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994)
4998:
4602:
Alexander, R.R. 1958. Silvical characteristics of Engelmann spruce. USDA, For. Serv., Rocky Mountain For. Range Exp. Sta., Fort Collins CO, Paper 31. 20 p.
4465:
Jeffrey D. Brawn, Scott K. Robinson and Frank R. Thompson III Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 32, (2001), pp. 251-276. Web. 4 October 2013.
4196:
Helliwell, R., and E. R. Wilson. (2012). Continuous cover forestry in Britain: challenges and opportunities..Quarterly Journal of Forestry 106(3): 214-224
4000:
Youngblood, A.P.; Zasada, J.C. 1991. White spruce artificial regeneration options on river floodplains in interior Alaska. Can. J. For. Res. 21(4):423–433.
637:
Wisconsin photoperiods. Under natural days in Florida, with the short local photoperiod, white spruce was severely dwarfed and had a low rate of survival.
947:: Release of select saplings from competition by overtopping trees of a comparable age. The treatment favors trees of a desired species and stem quality.
4411:
Butt, G. 1988. Backlog forest land rehabilitation in the SBS and BWBS zones in the northern interior of British Columbia. Can./B.C. FRDA Rep. 023. 125 p.
3819:
Bella, I.E. 1986. Spacing effects 20 years after planting three conifers in Manitoba. Can., Can. For. Serv., Edmonton AB, For. Manage. Note No. 39. 11 p.
2512:
Sutton, R.F. 1991. Soil properties and root development in forest trees: a review. For. Can., Ont. Region, Sault Ste. Marie ON, Inf. Rep. O-X-413. 42 p.
941:: A process of getting rid of saplings' or seedlings' competition by mowing, application of herbicide, or other method of removal from the surroundings.
4197:
3505:
Lieffers, V.J.; Pinno, B.; Stadt, K.J. 2002. Light dynamics and free-to-grow standards in aspen-dominated mixedwood forests. For. Chron. 78(1):137–145.
1677:
quality criteria and stocking density. Second, the equipment must not damage the residual stand. The further desiderata are outlined by Sauder (1995).
4721:
Tarrant, R.F. 1954. Effect of slash burning on soil pH. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific Northwest For. and Range Exp. Sta., Portland OR, Res. Note 102. 5 p.
3896:
Day, M.W. 1967. Pre-commercial thinning in conifers with silvicides. Michigan State Univ., Agric. Exp. Sta., East Lansing MI, Quarterly Bull 50:59–62.
1561:
are manufactured by AB Cerbo in Trollhättan, Sweden. Both are made of light-degradable, white, opaque plastic, and are 8 cm high when installed.
730:
spruce seed inspected in 1928 varied in viability from 50% to 100%, but averaged 93%. A 1915 inspection reported 97% viability for white spruce seed.
4012:
Day, M.W.; Rudolph, V.J. 1970. Development of a white spruce plantation. Michigan State Univ., Agric. Exp. Sta., East Lansing MI, Res. Pap. 111. 4 p.
3613:
Brand, D.G.; Kehoe, P.; Connors, M. 1986. Coniferous afforestation leads to soil acidification in central Ontario. Can. J. For. Res. 16(6):1389–1391.
5025:
3251:
Timonin, M.I. 1966. Effect of ultra-sound on the germination of white spruce and jack pine. Can. J. Bot. 44:113–115. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).
1553:
growth than those offered by unprotected conditions. The shelter is designed to break down after a few years of exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
1384:. Three systems of coppice woodland management are generally recognized: simple coppice, coppice with standards, and the coppice selection system.
5422:
4477:. Andrew P. Jobes, Erica Nol and Dennis R. Voigt The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 68, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp. 51-60. Web. 4 October 2013.
3310:
Simpson, J.D.; Wang, B.S.P.; Daigle, B.I. 2004. Long-term storage of various Canadian hardwoods and conifers. Seed Sci. & Technol. 32:561–572.
1839:
d) Reduction or elimination of slash, grass, or brush fuels from strategic areas around forested land to reduce the chances of damage by wildfire.
4150:
Smith, D.M., B.C. Larson, M.J. Kelty, P.M.S. Ashton (1997) The Practice of Silviculture: Applied Forest Ecology, John Wiley & Sons, p. 340-46
3969:
Hearnden, K.W.; Millson, S.V.; Wilson, W.C. 1996. Ontario Independent Forest Audit Committee. Ont. Min. Nat. Resour., Sault Ste. Marie ON. 117 p.
3496:
Green, D.S. 2004. Describing condition-specific determinants of competition in boreal and sub-boreal mixedwood stands. For. Chron. 80(6):736–742.
3410:
Mercier, S. 1991. Maturation et indices de maturité des semences d'épinette blanche. Quebec Min. For., Quebec QC, Memoire Rech. For. 103. 62 p.
495:
is an important component of microclimate, especially in relation to temperature and moisture regimes. Germination and seedling establishment of
364:
The process of natural regeneration involves the renewal of forests by means of self-sown seeds, root suckers, or coppicing. In natural forests,
317:
After harvesting comes regeneration, which may be split into natural and artificial (see below), and tending, which includes release treatments,
5003:
3837:
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1989. Forest management research area Thunder Bay spacing trial. OMNR, Toronto ON, Queen's Printer. 9 p.
2821:. Miscellaneous Publications. Vol. 85–2. Fairbanks, Alaska: University of Alaska, Fairbanks Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station.
1803:
Site preparation is any of various treatments applied to a site in order to ready it for seeding or planting. The purpose is to facilitate the
403:
seed germinated at 35 °F (1.7 °C) and 40 °F (4.4 °C) after continuous stratification for one year or longer and developed
4187:
Biolley, H. 1920. L'aménagement des forêts par la méthode expérimentale et spécialement la méthode du contrôle. Paris, Attinger frères. 90 p.
3956:
Burgess, D.; Larocque, G.R.; Brand, D.G. 2001. Forest growth and future yields: the importance of today's regeneration practices. P. 603–624
3684:
Ek. A.R..; Shifley, S.R..; Burk, T.E. (Eds.). Forest Growth Modelling and Prediction. Vol. 2. Proc. IUFRO Conf., August 1987, Minneapolis MN.
1780:
rapid rates of growth after release. Nor is there a clear relationship between the size of advance growth and its growth rate when released.
860:
components in boreal mixedwood stands, and further noted that adequate sampling using current approaches would be operationally prohibitive.
762:
with a power consumption of 280 VA and power impact of 1.35 amperes. However, no seeds germinated after 6 minutes of exposure to ultrasound.
4381:. Frank R. Thompson, III and Richard M. DeGraaf Wildlife Society Bulletin, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Summer, 2001), pp. 483-494. Web. 4 October 2013.
971:
allowable cut. And since wood will be concentrated on fewer, larger, and more uniform stems, operating and milling costs will be minimized.
5466:
3278:
Wang, B.S.P. 1974a. Testing and treatment of Canadian white spruce seed to overcome dormancy. Assoc. Official Seed Analysts Proc. 64:72–79.
1094:, as a silvicultural practice, refers to the removal of the lower branches of the young trees (also giving the shape to the tree) so clear
4294:
Putman, W.E.; Zasada, J.C. 1986. Direct seeding techniques to regenerate white spruce in interior Alaska. Can. J. For. Res. 16(3):660–664.
1214:
Detrimental results can be expected from scarification that impoverishes the rooting zone or exacerbates edaphic or climatic constraints.
82:
is common in silviculture, while forestry can include natural/conserved land without stand-level management and treatments being applied.
4737:
Papers presented at the Fire Management Symposium, April 1987, Prince George BC, Central Interior Fire Protection Committee, Smithers BC.
1898:
obtainable from an existing distribution of shade-providing material, redistribution or importing of such material has been undertaken.
1795:
competition has increased height growth rates of white spruce in northwestern New Brunswick, enabling the spruce to overtop the shrubs.
5135:
3545:
Ek, A.R.; Monserud, R.A. 1974. Trials with program FOREST: Growth and reproduction simulation of mixed species forest stands. p. 56–73
4621:
McCaughey, W.W.; Ferguson, D.E. 1988. Response of advance regeneration to release in the Inland Mountain West: a summary. p. 255–266
4114:
Christopher E. Moorman and David C. Guynn Jr. Ecological Applications, Vol. 11, No. 6 (Dec., 2001), pp. 1680-1691. Web. 4 Oct. 2013.
4486:
Stiell, W.M. 1958. Pulpwood plantations in Ontario and Quebec. Can. Pulp Pap. Assoc., Woodlands Section, Index No. 1770 (F-2). 42 p.
4446:
Kohm, K. A, and Franklin, J. F., Creating a forestry for the 21st century: the science of ecosystem management. Island Press. 1997,
4053:
Reifsnyder, W.E.; Lull, H.W. 1965. Radiant Energy in Relation to Forests. USDA, For. Serv. Washington DC, Tech. Bull. 1344. 111 p.
3708:
Toumey, J.W.; Korstian, C.F. 1954. Seeding and Planting in the Practice of Forestry., 3rd ed. Wiley & Son, New York NY. 520 p.
3558:
Howard, K.M.; Newton, M. 1984. Overtopping by successional coast range vegetation slows Douglas-fir seedlings. J. For. 82:178–180.
620:
With a view to reducing the time needed to produce planting stock, experiments were carried out with white spruce and three other
3567:
Daniels, R.F. 1976. Simple competition indices and their correlation with annual loblolly pine tree growth. For. Sci. 22:454–456.
2959:
2059:
1833:
b) Reduction or elimination of unwanted forest cover prior to planting or seeding, or prior to preliminary scarification thereto.
962:
Over-crowded regeneration tends to stagnate. The problem is aggravated in species that have little self-pruning ability, such as
95:
2358:
Natural Regeneration of Engelmann Spruce After Clearcutting in the Central Rocky Mountains in Relation to Environmental Factors
1392:, some of the highest quality trees are retained for multiple rotations in order to obtain larger trees for different purposes.
5046:
4733:
Taylor, S.W.; Feller, M.C. 1987. Initial effects of slashburning on the nutrient status of Sub-boreal Spruce Zone ecosystems.
4549:
White spruce understories, Canada–Alberta Agreement, Projects 1480, 1488, 20204. For. Can., Northern For. Centre, Edmonton AB.
834:
In British Columbia, the Forest Practices Code (1995) governs performance criteria. To minimize the subjectivity of assessing
4451:
4221:
Gardner, A.C. 1980. Regeneration problems and options for white spruce on river floodplains in the Yukon Territory. p. 19–24
3046:
3018:
2849:
2248:
2223:
2178:
5437:
5037:
4342:. Alain Paquette, André Bouchard and Alain Cogliastro Ecological Applications, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Aug., 2006), pp. 1575-1589
1815:
Site preparation is the work that is done before a forest area is regenerated. Some types of site preparation are burning.
3265:
Haddon, B.D.; Winston, D.A. 1982. Germination after two years storage of artificially ripened white spruce seed. p. 75–80
1604:
Shelterwood systems involve two, three, or exceptionally more partial cuttings. A final cut is made once adequate natural
4702:
Holt, L. 1955. White spruce seedbeds as related to natural regeneration. Pulp Paper Res. Instit. Can., Montreal QC. 28 p.
3398:
Kolotelo, D. 1997. Anatomy and morphology of conifer tree seed. Forest Nursery Technical Series 1.1 B.C. Min. for., 70 p.
1210:
together with most off its roots to expose a weed-free surface, generally in preparation for sowing or planting thereon.
3419:
Caron, G.E.; Wang, B.S.P.; Schooley, H.O. 1990. Effect of tree spacing, cone storage, and prechilling on germination of
1008:
Merchantable volume as a proportion of total volume increases with age, and is greater at wider than at closer spacings.
866:
Perhaps the most direct evaluation of the effect of competition on plantation establishment is provided by an effective
5128:
5086:
2797:"The effect of various seedbed treatments on the germination and survival of white spruce and lodgepole pine seedlings"
2560:
Baldwin, Henry Ives (1 April 1933). "The Density of Spruce and Fir Reproduction Related to the Direction of Exposure".
1776:
and distribution, have potential for growth following release, and not be vulnerable to excessive damage from logging.
1450:
628:, 125 vs. 265 days in central Wisconsin and northern Florida, respectively. As the species studied are adapted to long
5360:
5340:
4988:
4974:
4960:
4946:
4932:
4918:
4904:
2998:. Research Paper RM. Fort Collins, Colorado: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
2531:. Research Paper RM. Fort Collins, Colorado: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
5054:
506:
At least seven variable factors may influence seed germination: seed characteristics, light, oxygen, soil reaction (
442:. Advantages conferred by those microsites include: more light, higher temperatures in the rooting zone, and better
5114:
725:, including white spruce, estimates the proportion of live seed (viability) in a seedlot, and hence the percentage
718:
4765:
Kiil, A.D. 1965. Weight and size distribution of slash of white spruce and lodgepole pine. For. Chron. 41:432–437.
3203:
Noland, T.L.; Mohammed, G.H.; Seymour, N. 2001. Testing tree seed viability with FDA: what does it tell you? p. 23
3037:
Joyce, D.; Nitschke, P.; Mosseler, A. (2001). "Genetic resource management". In Wagner, R.G.; Colombo, S. (eds.).
5432:
4044:
Roussel, L. 1948. Couvert et photométrie. Bull. Soc. Forest Franche-Comté 25:313–326. For. Abs. 10:458–459, 1949.
3301:
and related practices – metric edition. Ont. Min. Nat. Resour., Div. For. For. Manage. Branch, Toronto ON. 179 p.
3207:
Proc. Working together for our common future. LUSTR Co-op. Ann. Gen. Meet. & Workshop, Feb. 2001, Timmins ON.
1577:
1531:
Selection systems are appropriate where uneven stand structure is desired, particularly where the need to retain
663:
Whichever method is chosen it can be assisted by tending techniques also known as intermediate stand treatments.
3753:
Lloyd, G.D. 1991. Juvenile spacing in rgw sub-boreal spruce biogeoclimatic region of British Columbia. p. 20–26
3549:
Fries, J. (Ed.). Growth Models for Tree and Stand Simulation. R. Coll. For., Dep. For. Yield Res., Res. Note 30.
3527:
Fries, J. (Ed.). Growth Models for Tree and Stand Simulation. R. Coll. For., Dep. For. Yield Res., Res. Note 30.
2680:
Noble, Daniel L; Ronco, Frank; Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station (Fort Collins, Colo.) (1978).
2202:
1421:
can select across the range of diameter classes in the stand and maintain a mosaic of age and diameter classes.
6017:
2941:
1868:
test prescribed burning as a means of seedbed preparation and site amelioration on representative clear-felled
1351:
372:, however, are able to regenerate by the means of emergence of shoots from stumps (coppice) and broken stems.
5505:
2109:
1752:
New stands need to be established to provide for future supply of commercial white spruce from 150,000 ha of
17:
4498:
Rowe, J.S 1972. Forest regions of Canada. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Ottawa ON, Publ. 1300. 172 p.
3658:
Drew, J.T.; Flewelling, J.W. 1979. Stand density management: an alternative approach and its application to
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density affects future stand growth. OMNR, Northeast Science & Technology, NEST Tech. Note TN-008. 16 p.
3463:
Milthorpe, F.L. 1961. The nature and analysis of competition between plants of different species. p. 330–355
333:, and tending) may happen at the same time within a stand, depending on the goal for that particular stand.
2955:
1636:
Spot seeding was found to be the most economical and reliable of the direct seeding methods for converting
1617:
407:
less than 6 cm (2.4 in) long in the cold room. When exposed to light, those germinants developed
2679:
1544:
The use of shelters to improve germination and survival in spot seedings seeks to capture the benefits of
422:
to support respiration and growth, but not enough to generate lethal stress in the seedling; freedom from
5315:
5121:
5022:
4847:
Scarification Intensity, Its Effect on First Year Survival and Growth of Machine Planted Spruce Seedlings
2933:
2286:. Agriculture Handbook No. 450. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.
1314:
4693:
Kiil, A.D.; Chrosciewicz, Z. 1970. Prescribed fire – its place in reforestation. For. Chron. 46:448–451.
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Mechanisms in Biological Competition. Sympos. Soc. Exp. Biol. 15, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K.
2865:
Zasada, John; Norum, Rodney (1 March 1986). "Prescribed Burning White Spruce Slash in Interior Alaska".
1973:, the mounds received over four times the total daily light energy that reached the control microsites.
1357:
Clearcutting will impact many site factors important in their effect on regeneration, including air and
1061:
Tending and thinning regimes and wind and snow damage are intimately related when considering intensive
6143:
5829:
5471:
5107:
5023:
Silvics of North America Volumes 1 and 2 (USDA Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654, December 1990)
3348:
van den Driessche, R. 1969. Forest nursery handbook. B.C. For. Serv., Victoria BC, Res. Notes 48. 44 p.
2064:
500:
419:
2705:
Radvanyi, Andrew (1970). "Small Mammals and Regeneration of White Spruce Forests in Western Alberta".
1659:, including white spruce, has had occasional success, but several constraining factors commonly limit
5792:
5612:
5481:
5142:
2995:
Optimum Temperatures for Growth of Southern Rocky Mountain Engelmann Spruce and Douglas-Fir Seedlings
2645:
Eis, S.; Inkster, J. (1 December 1972). "White Spruce Cone Production and Prediction of Cone Crops".
1532:
1481:
1410:
1401:
Prochnau (1963), four years after sowing, found that 14% of viable white spruce seed sown on mineral
241:
1549:
soil desiccation, and raises air and soil temperatures to levels more favourable to germination and
5931:
5617:
5225:
5190:
3367:
Wang, B.S.P. 1987. The beneficial effects of stratification on germination of tree seeds. p. 56–75
2263:
Huss J. (2004) Afforestation | Stand establishment, treatment and promotion – European experience;
1557:
from aspen and red raspberry, and exacerbated by strong competition from graminoids and raspberry.
656:
can lead to failed regeneration, or poor trees that are prone to pathogens and undesired outcomes.
596:
5567:
3929:
Haddock, P.G. 1961. Silvicultural views on the Canadian spruce forests. For. Chron. 37(4):376–389.
1720:
A survey in 1955–56 to determine survival, development, and the reasons for success or failure of
5760:
5651:
5547:
5542:
2683:
Seedfall and Establishment of Engelmann Spruce and Subalpine Fir in Clearcut Openings in Colorado
2500:
General Technical Report, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service
2114:
1433:
Classical European silviculture achieved impressive results with systems such as Henri Biolley's
478:
3436:
seed germination associated with the year of cone collection. Can. J. For. Res. 23(7):1306–1313.
3115:"Genetic structure and patterns of genetic variation among populations in eastern white spruce (
5537:
5532:
5412:
5400:
5079:
4784:
Ronco, F. 1975. Diagnosis: sunburned trees. J. For. 73(1):31–35. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).
3680:
Smith, N.J.; Brand, D.G. 1988. Compatible growth models and stand density diagrams. p. 636–643
1804:
1605:
1335:
1192:
forest in North America already differs greatly from its pre-exploitation state. There is less
330:
119:
99:
4379:
Conservation Approaches for Woody, Early Successional Communities in the Eastern United States
6045:
6031:
5702:
3947:
Davis, L.S.; Johnson, K.N. 1987. Forest Management, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. 790 p.
3640:
Smith, D.M. 1962. The Practice of Silviculture, 7th ed. Wiley & Sons, New York NY. 378 p.
1931:
1323:
540:
75:
63:
5639:
4112:
Effects of Group-Selection Opening Size on Breeding Bird Habitat Use in a Bottomland Forest.
5921:
5661:
5602:
5572:
5442:
5230:
2528:
Seed: Seedling Ratios of Engelmann Spruce After Clearcutting in the Central Rocky Mountains
1123:
423:
3219:
The Testing of Coniferous Tree Seeds at the School of Forestry, Yale University, 1906-1926
2218:. McGraw-Hill series in forest resources (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. p. 20.
1623:
The single-tree selection method is an uneven-aged regeneration method most suitable when
1377:
953:: A treatment that releases tree seedling or saplings by removing older overtopping trees.
553:
8:
6122:
5493:
5310:
5278:
4420:
Dyer, E.D.A.; Taylor, D.W. 1968. Attractiveness of logs containing female spruce beetles
3874:
Navratil, S.; Branter, K.; and Zasada, J. 1991. Regeneration in the mixedwoods. p. 32–48
3795:
MacKay, T. 1991. Reducing stem density with herbicides: what are the options?. p. 99–103
3319:
Heit, C.E. 1961. Laboratory determination and recommended testing methods for 16 spruce (
2762:
2171:
Terminology of Forest Science, Technology Practice and Products: English-Language Version
2039:
1943:
1773:
1584:
1185:
1039:
944:
747:
172:
79:
4062:
2361:. Research Paper RM. Fort Collins, Colorado: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service.
1376:
A regeneration method which depends on the sprouting of cut trees. Most hardwoods, the
33:
is the practice of controlling the growth, composition/structure, as well as quality of
6073:
5592:
5587:
5417:
5380:
5335:
5288:
5195:
5185:
4475:
Effects of Selection Cutting on Bird Communities in Contiguous Eastern Hardwood Forests
4390:
Robertson, W.M. 1927. Cutting for reproduction in spruce stands. For. Chron. 3(3):7–10.
4073:
2730:
2585:
2544:
Forest Tree Seed of the North Temperate Regions With Special Reference to North America
2405:
2298:
1965:
1702:
1159:. In general, such sites as these are the most likely to be considered for conversion.
950:
649:
492:
396:
2796:
2623:
2168:
380:
Any seed, self-sown or artificially applied, requires a seedbed suitable for securing
6112:
5873:
5395:
5375:
5365:
5350:
5255:
5072:
4984:
4970:
4956:
4942:
4928:
4914:
4900:
4447:
3905:
3767:
Hermelin, J. 1991. Spacing in eastern Canada: the New Brunswick experience. p. 27–29
3628:
3514:
Bella, I.E. 1971. A new competition model for individual trees. For. Sci. 17:364–372.
3222:
3166:
3138:
3114:
3095:
3042:
3014:
2882:
2845:
2822:
2777:
2722:
2687:
2662:
2577:
2447:
2397:
2362:
2281:
2244:
2219:
2184:
2174:
2144:
2099:
2074:
2054:
1890:
1860:
reduced thickness of forest floor where low soil temperatures are a limiting factor.
1641:
755:
496:
297:
293:
256:
194:
5016:
3726:
2686:. Research Paper RM. Fort Collins, Colo.: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service.
470:. The forces generated in soil by frost or drought are quite enough to break roots.
6148:
5988:
5973:
5735:
5692:
5527:
5385:
5370:
5345:
4822:
4510:
Brace, L.; Bella, I. 1988. Understanding the understorey: dilemma and opportunity.
3130:
3087:
2951:
2874:
2714:
2654:
2569:
2389:
2313:
1181:
1011:
Current annual volume increment culminates sooner at closer than at wider spacings.
982:
and white spruce in the Green River watershed, New Brunswick, averaged 156.9 m/ha.
301:
3576:
Wagner, R.G. 1982. A method for assessing severity of weeds in young plantations.
1668:
which a predetermined number of seeds are released with each flick of the seeder.
1038:
is to control the amount and distribution of available growing space. By altering
5998:
5856:
5841:
5697:
5644:
5627:
5330:
5298:
5268:
5220:
5205:
5180:
5058:
5041:
5029:
4845:
4074:
RESIDUAL DAMAGE IN A CONIFER STAND THINNED WITH A CTL SYSTEM, University of Idaho
3298:
3185:
2526:
2492:
2268:
2044:
1894:
1624:
1339:
1152:
559:
482:
447:
5034:
3190:. IUFRO International Symposium on Seed Processing. Vol. 1. Bergen, Norway.
6059:
5983:
5978:
5911:
5819:
5807:
5772:
5730:
5678:
5673:
5597:
5515:
5407:
5250:
5240:
2910:
2334:
1987:
1976:
1970:
1327:
1029:
979:
325:
and intermediate treatments. It is conceivable that any of these three phases (
4340:
Survival and Growth of Under-Planted Trees: A Meta-Analysis across Four Biomes
2761:
Coates, K. D.; Haeussler, S.; Lindeburgh, S.; Pojar, R.; Stock, A. J. (1994).
2472:
Phelps, V. H. (1940). "Spruce regeneration in Canada: the Prairie Provinces".
2241:
Ecophysiology of Northern Spruce Species: The Performance of Planted Seedlings
697:
seed can be removed by dampening the seed slightly before it is run through a
454:, approximately 90% of spruce seedlings were germinating from this substrate.
369:
6137:
6087:
6068:
5993:
5953:
5906:
5745:
5717:
5582:
5520:
5459:
5454:
5263:
5215:
3170:
3142:
3099:
3009:
Tappeiner, John C.; Maguire, Douglas Alan; Harrington, Timothy Brian (2007).
2886:
2781:
2726:
2666:
2581:
2401:
2366:
2203:
http://www.stift-schlaegl.at/prodon.asp?peco=&Seite=373&Lg=1&Cy=1
2188:
2148:
2089:
1103:
815:
759:
706:
638:
629:
576:
511:
486:
463:
358:
342:
160:
3327:
Assoc. Off. Seed Anal. 51st Annu. Meet. Proc. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).
2826:
2448:"Factors influencing white spruce reproduction in Manitoba and Saskatchewan"
6101:
5936:
5632:
5622:
5607:
5577:
5476:
5390:
5355:
5320:
5235:
5210:
5166:
4545:
Brace, L. 1989. Protecting understorey white spruce when harvesting aspen.
3523:
Hegyi, F. 1974. A simulation model for managing jack pine stands. p. 74–90
3226:
2691:
2238:
2079:
2024:
2015:
1318:
1307:
1115:
963:
938:
702:
690:
671:
536:
474:
412:
400:
286:
91:
3781:
Nicks. B.D. 1991. A company perspective on spacing and thinning. p. 62–67
3371:
Proc. Nurserymen's Meeting, Dryden ON, June 15–19, 1987. OMNR, Toronto ON.
2878:
2681:
2356:
1503:
In the aspen type of the Great Lakes region, direct sowing of the seed of
1126:
has led to many forestry companies reconsidering their pruning practices.
5968:
5948:
5941:
5901:
5868:
5449:
5200:
5051:
3938:
Wright, T.G. 1959. The Canadian spruce forest. For. Chron. 35(4):291–297.
3659:
2975:"Prescription for the aerial environment of a plastic greenhouse nursery"
2173:. F. C. Ford-Robertson. Washington, D.C.: Society of American Foresters.
2084:
1660:
1484:
principles to create permanently irregular structures in many woodlands.
1363:
1343:
1219:
1143:
refers to a change from one silvicultural system to another and includes
1107:
780:
726:
694:
693:, used at the Petawawa tree seed processing facility. Wings of white and
408:
392:
388:
381:
341:
Regeneration is basic to the continuation of forested, as well as to the
1572:
In seeding trials in Manitoba between 1960 and 1966 aimed at converting
1098:-free wood can subsequently grow over the branch stubs. Clear knot-free
624:
species from Wisconsin seed in the longer, frost-free growing season in
585:
5963:
5958:
5684:
5305:
4925:
Alternative Silvicultural Systems to Clear Cutting in Britain: A Review
4402:
Scott, J.D. 1970. Direct seeding in Ontario. For. Chron. 46(6):453–457.
4098:
Sauder, E.A. 1996. Techniques to maintain a windfirm understory. p. 31
2734:
2589:
2409:
2318:
2069:
1982:
1592:
1545:
1381:
978:
Twenty years after spacing to 2.5 × 2.5 m, 30-year-old mixed stands of
544:
532:
515:
443:
70:
establishment and management of forest stands. The distinction between
2339:
Direct Seeding Symposium. Timmins, Ontario. September 11, 12, 13, 1973
1994:
alternating with uncut strips 16 feet (4.88 m) wide, were felled in a
5846:
5824:
5725:
5667:
5283:
5149:
4225:
Murray, M.; Van Veldhuizen, R.M. (Eds.). Forest Regeneration at High,
3039:
Regenerating the Canadian Forest: Principles and Practice for Ontario
2603:
Alarik, A. (1925). "Moderna huggningsformer tillämpade pâ Finspång".
2104:
2094:
2029:
1721:
1656:
1520:
1512:
1504:
1488:
1370:
1148:
1062:
1043:
994:
990:
867:
857:
835:
722:
698:
633:
621:
481:
and net incident radiation, rather than the standard measurements of
434:
184:
58:
3134:
3091:
2718:
2658:
2573:
2393:
1102:
has a higher value. Pruning has been extensively carried out in the
62:. Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment(s) of
5926:
5896:
5891:
5851:
5797:
5787:
5707:
5095:
4969:, 8th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 527 pp.
4823:"Motormanual Scarification: A Tool for Forest Restoration (Alaska)"
4811:
Hall, J. 1970. Site preparation in Ontario. For. Chron. 46:445–447.
2049:
1981:
With linear site preparation, orientation is sometimes dictated by
1927:
1882:
1741:
1628:
also disturbs the canopy layer the least out of all other methods.
1550:
1418:
1197:
1079:
1035:
986:
967:
771:
653:
520:
451:
427:
350:
349:("natural regeneration"), by artificially sown seed, or by planted
322:
310:
71:
4433:
DeLong, C. 1991. Dynamics of boreal mixedwood ecosystems. p.30–31
1836:
c) Reduction of humus on cold, moist sites to favour regeneration.
1222:, for instance, Roussel (1948) found the following relationships:
292:
This silviculture was culturally predicated on wood production in
5916:
5812:
5782:
5777:
5765:
5755:
5740:
5293:
2844:. Ecological Studies. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 44–73.
2763:"Ecology and silviculture of interior spruce in British Columbia"
2239:
Grossnickle, Steven C.; National Research Council Canada (2000).
1725:
1095:
1091:
1054:
625:
467:
458:
404:
365:
326:
318:
207:
123:
109:
6096:
4979:
Smith, D. M., B. C. Larson, M. J. Kelty, P. M. S. Ashton. 1997.
4463:
The Role of Disturbance in the Ecology and Conservation of Birds
3920:
9th edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997. Print.
3066:. Ontario Department of Lands and Forests, Division of Research.
2909:
Anon. 1961. Northern conifer planting stock produced under long
2299:"Low temperature germination of some eastern Canadian tree seed"
2009:
1693:
DeLong et al. (1991) suggested underplanting 30- to 40-year-old
345:
of treeless land. Regeneration can take place through self-sown
5750:
5488:
5325:
5273:
5172:
2169:
International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (1971).
2034:
1784:
1645:
1282:
1193:
1168:
1119:
1099:
564:
499:
were much better on north than on south aspect seedbeds in the
368:
rely almost entirely on regeneration through seed. Most of the
354:
38:
34:
4927:. Forestry Commission Bulletin 115. HMSO. London. 93 pp.
4913:. Forestry Commission Bulletin 62. HMSO. London. 232 pp.
2760:
1167:
In discussing yields that might be expected from the Canadian
6082:
5802:
4983:, 9th edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 560 pp.
4234:
Weetman, G.; Vyse, A. 1990. Natural regeneration. p. 118–130
3906:
The Dictionary of Forestry, The Society of American Foresters
3729:
IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change And Forestry
3432:
Caron, G.E.; Wang, B.S.P.; Schooley, H.O. 1993. Variation in
3187:
Collecting, processing and storing tree seed for research use
1809:
1792:
1753:
1737:
1694:
1637:
1576:
stands to spruce–aspen mixedwoods, 1961 scarification in the
1573:
1189:
1173:
1156:
1111:
1047:
439:
305:
3041:. Markham, ON: Fitzhenry & Whiteside. pp. 141–154.
2819:
Early Results of the Rosie Creek Fire Research Project, 1984
2380:
Baldwin, Henry I. (1 July 1927). "A Humus Study in Norway".
1977:
Orientation of linear site preparation, e.g., disk-trenching
1201:
its component of white spruce is certainly much diminished.
738:
The results of a germination test are commonly expressed as
477:. Microclimates near the ground are better characterized by
5861:
5836:
5510:
5064:
3694:
Kittredge, J (1929). "Forest planting in the Lake States".
1649:
1609:
years has been recommended for intensively managed stands.
1442:
While not designed to be applied to boreal mixedwoods, the
1402:
1358:
701:
for the last time. Any moistened seed must be dried before
543:. The regeneration included a surprisingly large number of
346:
3008:
1956:
the effect it had on root growth of outplants (Table 30).
1812:
tree species has been prepared by McKinnon et al. (2002).
1046:
can influence the growth, quality, and health of residual
308:
and thus created a different biocultural landscape called
5002:
Reid, R. (2002) 'The Principles and Practice of Pruning'
4941:. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. New York. 633 pp.
3916:
Smith, D.M., B.C. Larson, M.J. Kelty, and P.M.S. Ashton.
3076:
2341:. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Forestry Services. pp. 55–66.
1788:
524:
135:
The high forest system is further subdivided in German:
74:
and silviculture is that silviculture is applied at the
2201:
Invented by Reiniger at The Schlägl Monastery, Austria
507:
3342:
3217:
Toumey, James William; Stevens, Clark Leavitt (1928).
3064:
The Classification and Evaluation of Site for Forestry
1580:
remained receptive to natural seeding for many years.
1224:
391:, a seed requires suitable conditions of temperature,
56:('growing'). The study of forests and woods is termed
3918:
The Practice of Silviculture: Applied Forest Ecology.
3297:
Armson, K.A.; Sadreika, V. 1979. Forest tree nursery
3036:
2979:
USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NC (USA)
195:
The Femel selection cutting (group selection cutting)
66:
are used to conserve and improve their productivity.
27:
Practice of controlling forests for timber production
4981:
The Practice of Silviculture: Applied Forest Ecology
4951:
Savill, P., Evans, J., Auclair, D., Falck, J. 1997.
4424:(ColeopteraL Scolytidae). Can. Entomol 100: 769-776.
3590:
Weiner, J. 1984. Neighbourhood interference amongst
2940:. In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.).
2005:
825:
4899:, 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. 521 pp.
4321:
3 Brose, Patrick H. 2008; 3 Brose, Patrick H. 2008;
3740:Daniel, Theodore, John Helms, and Frederick Baker.
3113:Li, P; Beaulieu, J; Bousquet, J (1 February 1997).
1155:, which then becomes exclusively self-perpetuating
4895:Daniel, T. W., J. A. Helms, and F. S. Baker 1979.
4575:
4573:
3112:
783:occurred in the samples that were not stratified.
721:biochemical viability test for several species of
3696:U.S.D.A., for. Serv., Washington DC, Agric. Bull.
2490:
1889:The need to provide shade for young outplants of
1267:Bramble, herbs, fairly vigorous spruce seedlings
1058:the characteristics of the harvestable products.
6135:
4955:. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 297 pp.
4680:
4678:
4676:
4674:
4672:
3163:Seeding and Planting in the Practice of Forestry
3011:Silviculture and Ecology of Western U.S. Forests
2931:
779:quality of the 2-year-old seed even though high
4820:
4615:
4570:
2296:
1288:
446:development. According to a 1940 survey in the
3623:
3621:
3619:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3161:Toumey, James W; Korstian, Clarence F (1954).
3160:
2493:"Silvical characteristics of Engelmann spruce"
2273:
2269:https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-145160-7/00224-6
1275:Herbs, brambles very dense, vigorous, no moss
5080:
4705:
4669:
4354:
3923:
3744:. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. Print.
3627:Willcocks, A. and Bell, W. 1995. How initial
3216:
2962:(USDA) – via Southern Research Station.
2290:
2139:Hawley, Ralph C; Smith, David Martyn (1954).
1919:equipment from other sources was increasing.
1065:plantations designed for maximum production.
985:A spacing study of 3 conifers (white spruce,
98:has defined silvicultural systems broadly as
4102:FERIC West, Vancouver BC, Work Program 1996.
4008:
4006:
3840:
2972:
2966:
2373:
1876:
1764:
1494:
1466:
1443:
1434:
1425:
269:
260:
245:
229:
220:
211:
198:
176:
164:
149:
140:
127:
113:
103:
4629:
4172:
3789:
3616:
3254:
3070:
2864:
2506:
2138:
51:
45:
5087:
5073:
4605:
4541:
4539:
4506:
4504:
3674:
3634:
2932:Nienstaedt, Hans; Zasada, John C. (1990).
2644:
2491:Alexander, R. R.; Shepperd, W. D. (1984).
2425:Meddelelser Fra Det Norske Skogforsøkvesen
2283:Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States
2279:
820:
615:
4494:
4492:
4398:
4396:
4246:
4244:
4063:Oregon State University Extension Service
4003:
3987:
3985:
3890:
3693:
3687:
2524:
2354:
2317:
1338:. Additionally, clearcutting can prolong
1072:
206:Strip selection cutting (strip-and-group
4859:
4857:
4850:. Alaska Pacific University. p. 58.
4807:
4805:
4803:
4792:
4790:
4588:
4586:
4517:
4271:
4269:
4267:
4208:
4206:
4204:
4094:
4092:
4090:
3727:'Fact Sheet 4.12. Forest Regeneration',
3247:
3245:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3032:
3030:
2973:Pollard, D. F. W.; Logan, K. T. (1976).
2794:
2704:
2555:
2553:
2520:
2518:
2335:"Germination and seedling establishment"
1616:
809:
683:
85:
4939:Silviculture, Concepts and Applications
4843:
4729:
4727:
4552:
4536:
4501:
4384:
4330:4 Holgén, Per 2000; 4 Holgén, Per 2000;
3406:
3404:
3335:
3333:
2960:United States Department of Agriculture
2927:
2925:
2923:
2804:Forest Research Dvisiion Technical Note
2756:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2624:"Stem lesions caused by excessive heat"
2621:
2559:
2541:
2441:
2439:
2379:
2216:Silviculture: Concepts and Applications
2132:
2060:History of the forest in Central Europe
1539:
375:
78:, while forestry is a broader concept.
37:to meet values and needs, specifically
14:
6136:
5047:Silviculture data in Canada since 1990
4778:
4639:
4596:
4526:
4489:
4480:
4393:
4363:
4241:
4162:
4135:
3982:
3972:
3607:
3480:
3448:
3199:
3197:
3055:
2842:Forest Ecosystems in the Alaskan Taiga
2839:
2816:
2602:
2471:
2332:
2213:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2158:
1783:Where advance growth consists of both
1599:
1424:
1297:
913:
874:
786:
733:
5068:
4876:
4867:
4854:
4821:Charton, Jason; Peterson, Al (2000).
4800:
4787:
4768:
4759:
4740:
4715:
4696:
4649:
4583:
4561:
4405:
4306:
4297:
4288:
4264:
4254:
4228:
4215:
4201:
4087:
4047:
4038:
4015:
3963:
3950:
3849:
3813:
3702:
3508:
3490:
3470:
3361:
3313:
3304:
3272:
3242:
3177:
3149:
3061:
3027:
2991:
2917:1960 Rep., Lake States For. Exp. Sta.
2550:
2535:
2515:
2484:
2465:
2350:
2348:
1701:
1251:Moss carpet with a few fir seedlings
932:
570:
4911:Silviculture of Broadleaved Woodland
4749:
4724:
4687:
4659:
4427:
4414:
4278:
4181:
4024:
3994:
3941:
3932:
3868:
3831:
3822:
3761:
3665:
3652:
3552:
3530:
3499:
3457:
3426:
3413:
3401:
3392:
3383:
3374:
3330:
3291:
3233:
3210:
3183:
2985:
2920:
2903:
2893:
2867:Northern Journal of Applied Forestry
2858:
2833:
2810:
2741:
2615:
2596:
2455:Canadian Forest Service Publications
2445:
2436:
2422:
2416:
2232:
1526:
580:
357:and for raising planting stock in a
6012:
3803:
3775:
3747:
3643:
3597:
3584:
3570:
3561:
3517:
3439:
3351:
3281:
3194:
3123:Canadian Journal of Forest Research
3080:Canadian Journal of Forest Research
2788:
2698:
2673:
2647:Canadian Journal of Forest Research
2638:
2546:. Waltham MA: Chronica Botanica Co.
2155:
1930:stands for natural regeneration of
1798:
1162:
1134:
24:
3662:plantations. For. Sci. 25:518–532.
3539:
3106:
2433:Reviewed in J. For. 32:1024, 1934.
2345:
2326:
2297:MacArthur, JD; Fraser, JW (1963).
1728:being the main causes of failure.
1409:
1317:that can employ either natural or
25:
6160:
5361:Global Forest Information Service
5009:
4953:Plantation Silviculture in Europe
3594:individuals. J. Ecol. 72:183–195.
3221:. Vol. 21. Yale University.
3013:. Oregon State University Press.
2143:(6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
1731:
1396:
826:Plantation establishment criteria
712:
670:Seed quality varies with source.
228:Mixed-form regeneration methods (
6117:
6108:
6107:
6095:
6081:
6067:
6053:
6039:
6025:
6011:
5035:Blodgett Forest Research Station
4837:
4814:
4468:
4456:
4440:
4372:
4345:
4333:
4324:
4315:
4190:
4153:
4144:
4126:
4117:
4105:
4078:
4067:
4056:
3910:
3899:
3881:
3859:
3423:seed. For. Chron. 66(4):388–392.
2628:Journal of Agricultural Research
2008:
1688:
1671:
1118:technology in the production of
1053:Thinning greatly influences the
795:
765:
584:
6118:
4993:Reid, R. (2006) 'Management of
4888:
3734:
3720:
3711:
3002:
2265:Encyclopedia of forest sciences
1631:
1578:Duck Mountain Provincial Forest
1306:
433:In undisturbed forest, decayed
336:
2257:
2207:
2195:
1709:structurally complex forests.
1583:
1114:; however, the development of
842:
44:The name comes from the Latin
13:
1:
5052:Silvicultural Terms in Canada
3165:. New York: Wiley & Son.
2525:Alexander, Robert R. (1983).
2121:
2110:Sustainable forest management
1998:stand, aged 90 to 100 years.
1913:
1315:even-aged regeneration method
5094:
4967:The Practice of Silviculture
4123:9 Schulte, Benedict J. 1998;
2956:United States Forest Service
2542:Baldwin, Henry Ives (1942).
2141:The Practice of Silviculture
1715:
1511:
1487:
1369:
1289:Common methods of harvesting
268:Target diameter harvesting (
7:
4132:12 Gamborg, Christian 2003;
3887:7 D'Amato, Anthony W. 2011;
2001:
1950:
1023:
892:
719:fluorescein diacetate (FDA)
415:with continued elongation.
219:Shelterwood wedge cutting (
10:
6165:
5472:Growth and yield modelling
4897:Principles of Silviculture
3742:Principles of Silviculture
2280:Schopmeyer, C. S. (1974).
2065:Hardwood timber production
1818:
1086:
957:
917:
883:
574:
501:Fraser Experimental Forest
6046:Earth sciences portal
6032:Climate change portal
6007:
5884:
5716:
5613:Great Green Wall (Africa)
5558:
5249:
5159:
5102:
2355:Alexander, R. R. (1984).
2214:Nyland, Ralph D. (2002).
1901:
1877:Ameliorative intervention
1770:Advance growth management
1765:Advance growth management
1495:Row and broadcast seeding
1482:continuous cover forestry
1388:In Compound coppicing or
1259:Herbaceous plants appear
750:increased germinability.
242:Continuous cover forestry
5618:Great Green Wall (China)
5191:Close to nature forestry
2948:Silvics of North America
2795:Ackerman, R. F. (1957).
2423:Mork, Elias (1933). "".
2337:. In Cayford, J. (ed.).
2126:
1390:coppicing with standards
678:
118:) and compound coppice,
5652:Million Tree Initiative
4844:Charton, Jason (2001).
3184:Wang, Ben S.P. (1973).
3062:Hills, G Angus (1952).
2115:World Forestry Congress
1533:continuous cover forest
821:Forest tree plantations
803:Epilobium angustifolium
616:Artificial regeneration
479:vapour pressure deficit
6074:Environment portal
5506:Sustainable management
5401:Trillion Tree Campaign
4827:Ecological Restoration
4084:8 Bauhus, Jürgen 2009;
3323:) species. p. 165–171
2622:Hartley, Carl (1918).
2333:Arnott, J. T. (1974).
2267:; Elsevier; pp. 14–27
2243:. NRC Research Press.
1467:
1444:
1435:
1426:
1336:Georgetown, California
1234:Vegetation Description
1073:Precommercial thinning
744:germination percentage
593:This section is empty.
300:and did not deal with
270:
261:
246:
230:
221:
212:
199:
177:
165:
150:
141:
128:
120:short rotation coppice
114:
110:coppice with standards
104:
96:German-speaking Europe
52:
46:
5999:Wood process engineer
5703:Urban forest inequity
2992:Tinus, R. W. (1984).
1618:Single-tree selection
1348:Pseudotsuga menziesii
810:Forest tree nurseries
684:Dewinging, extraction
575:Further information:
541:Dummer, New Hampshire
466:and shrinkage during
253:Uneven-aged forestry
191:Uneven-aged forestry
86:Silvicultural systems
5662:Shifting cultivation
5603:Forest fragmentation
5573:Carbon sequestration
5443:Woodland Carbon Code
5408:Forest certification
5316:Even-aged management
5231:Sustainable forestry
4937:Nyland, R. D. 1996.
4422:Dendroctontus obesus
3865:6 Savill, P.S. 2004;
2913:in Florida. p. 9–13
2446:Rowe, J. S. (1955).
1944:species compositions
1540:Shelter spot seeding
740:germinative capacity
489:, and wind pattern.
376:Seedbed requirements
5467:Formally designated
5311:Ecological thinning
5221:Plantation forestry
5129:Research institutes
4965:Smith, D. M. 1986.
4351:4 Holgén, Per 2000;
4159:10 Harmer, R. 2004;
2879:10.1093/njaf/3.1.16
2040:Ecological thinning
1774:species composition
1600:Shelterwood systems
1468:méthode du contrôle
1445:méthode du contrôle
1436:méthode du contrôle
1427:Méthode du contrôle
1298:Clearcut harvesting
1186:Species composition
927:enrichment planting
920:Enrichment planting
914:Enrichment planting
875:Competition indices
787:Cold stratification
748:sodium hypochlorite
734:Germinative testing
173:Shelterwood cutting
157:Even-aged forestry
80:Adaptive management
6060:Ecology portal
5593:Forest degradation
5588:Ecosystem services
5196:Community forestry
5057:2015-05-07 at the
5040:2013-11-05 at the
5028:2011-07-08 at the
5019:on the Ritchiewiki
4995:Acacia melanoxylon
2474:Forestry Chronicle
2319:10.5558/tfc39478-4
2306:Forestry Chronicle
1966:compensation point
1703:Variable retention
1145:species conversion
951:Liberation cutting
933:Release treatments
571:Season of planting
411:and were normally
271:Zielstärkennutzung
148:Age class forest (
92:origin of forestry
6144:Forest management
6131:
6130:
6088:Plants portal
5874:green woodworking
4452:978-1-55963-399-4
3717:5 Keefe, K. 2012;
3629:forest plantation
3048:978-1-55041-378-6
3020:978-0-87071-187-9
2851:978-1-4612-9353-8
2250:978-0-660-17959-9
2225:978-0-07-366190-2
2180:978-0-939970-16-2
2100:Selection cutting
2075:Natural landscape
2055:Forest management
1527:Selection systems
1279:
1278:
1229:Percent cover (%)
613:
612:
560:Broadcast burning
426:, tramplers, and
302:tropical forestry
151:Altersklassenwald
16:(Redirected from
6156:
6121:
6120:
6111:
6110:
6102:Trees portal
6100:
6099:
6086:
6085:
6072:
6071:
6058:
6057:
6056:
6044:
6043:
6042:
6030:
6029:
6028:
6015:
6014:
5736:Forest gardening
5693:Timber recycling
5640:Invasive species
5528:Tree measurement
5089:
5082:
5075:
5066:
5065:
4997:in Plantations'
4909:Evans, J. 1984.
4883:
4880:
4874:
4871:
4865:
4861:
4852:
4851:
4841:
4835:
4834:
4818:
4812:
4809:
4798:
4794:
4785:
4782:
4776:
4772:
4766:
4763:
4757:
4753:
4747:
4744:
4738:
4731:
4722:
4719:
4713:
4709:
4703:
4700:
4694:
4691:
4685:
4682:
4667:
4663:
4657:
4653:
4647:
4643:
4637:
4633:
4627:
4619:
4613:
4609:
4603:
4600:
4594:
4590:
4581:
4577:
4568:
4565:
4559:
4556:
4550:
4543:
4534:
4530:
4524:
4521:
4515:
4508:
4499:
4496:
4487:
4484:
4478:
4472:
4466:
4460:
4454:
4444:
4438:
4431:
4425:
4418:
4412:
4409:
4403:
4400:
4391:
4388:
4382:
4376:
4370:
4367:
4361:
4358:
4352:
4349:
4343:
4337:
4331:
4328:
4322:
4319:
4313:
4310:
4304:
4301:
4295:
4292:
4286:
4282:
4276:
4273:
4262:
4258:
4252:
4248:
4239:
4232:
4226:
4219:
4213:
4210:
4199:
4194:
4188:
4185:
4179:
4176:
4170:
4166:
4160:
4157:
4151:
4148:
4142:
4139:
4133:
4130:
4124:
4121:
4115:
4109:
4103:
4096:
4085:
4082:
4076:
4071:
4065:
4060:
4054:
4051:
4045:
4042:
4036:
4028:
4022:
4019:
4013:
4010:
4001:
3998:
3992:
3989:
3980:
3976:
3970:
3967:
3961:
3954:
3948:
3945:
3939:
3936:
3930:
3927:
3921:
3914:
3908:
3903:
3897:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3879:
3872:
3866:
3863:
3857:
3853:
3847:
3844:
3838:
3835:
3829:
3826:
3820:
3817:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3793:
3787:
3779:
3773:
3765:
3759:
3751:
3745:
3738:
3732:
3724:
3718:
3715:
3709:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3691:
3685:
3678:
3672:
3669:
3663:
3656:
3650:
3647:
3641:
3638:
3632:
3625:
3614:
3611:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3588:
3582:
3574:
3568:
3565:
3559:
3556:
3550:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3528:
3521:
3515:
3512:
3506:
3503:
3497:
3494:
3488:
3484:
3478:
3474:
3468:
3461:
3455:
3452:
3446:
3443:
3437:
3430:
3424:
3417:
3411:
3408:
3399:
3396:
3390:
3387:
3381:
3378:
3372:
3365:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3340:
3337:
3328:
3317:
3311:
3308:
3302:
3295:
3289:
3285:
3279:
3276:
3270:
3263:
3252:
3249:
3240:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3214:
3208:
3201:
3192:
3191:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3158:
3147:
3146:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3059:
3053:
3052:
3034:
3025:
3024:
3006:
3000:
2999:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2952:Washington, D.C.
2929:
2918:
2907:
2901:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2801:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2767:
2758:
2739:
2738:
2713:(6): 1102–1105.
2702:
2696:
2695:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2557:
2548:
2547:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2522:
2513:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2497:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2452:
2443:
2434:
2432:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2352:
2343:
2342:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2303:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2277:
2271:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2211:
2205:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2166:
2153:
2152:
2136:
2018:
2013:
2012:
1891:Engelmann spruce
1799:Site preparation
1655:Spot seeding of
1470:
1451:soil degradation
1447:
1438:
1429:
1352:shade intolerant
1225:
1163:Growth and yield
1141:stand conversion
1135:Stand Conversion
608:
605:
595:You can help by
588:
581:
523:and presence of
497:Engelmann spruce
273:
264:
257:Selection forest
249:
233:
224:
222:Schirmkeilschlag
215:
202:
185:Seed-tree method
180:
168:
153:
144:
131:
117:
107:
55:
49:
21:
6164:
6163:
6159:
6158:
6157:
6155:
6154:
6153:
6134:
6133:
6132:
6127:
6094:
6080:
6066:
6054:
6052:
6040:
6038:
6026:
6024:
6003:
5880:
5857:spruce-pine-fir
5830:Christmas trees
5712:
5628:Illegal logging
5560:
5554:
5269:Controlled burn
5254:
5245:
5226:Social forestry
5206:Energy forestry
5186:Bamboo forestry
5181:Analog forestry
5155:
5098:
5093:
5063:
5059:Wayback Machine
5042:Wayback Machine
5030:Wayback Machine
5012:
5007:
4923:Hart, C. 1995.
4891:
4886:
4881:
4877:
4872:
4868:
4862:
4855:
4842:
4838:
4819:
4815:
4810:
4801:
4795:
4788:
4783:
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4773:
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3808:
3804:
3794:
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3780:
3776:
3766:
3762:
3752:
3748:
3739:
3735:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3703:
3692:
3688:
3679:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3657:
3653:
3648:
3644:
3639:
3635:
3626:
3617:
3612:
3608:
3602:
3598:
3589:
3585:
3575:
3571:
3566:
3562:
3557:
3553:
3544:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3495:
3491:
3485:
3481:
3475:
3471:
3462:
3458:
3453:
3449:
3444:
3440:
3431:
3427:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3366:
3362:
3356:
3352:
3347:
3343:
3338:
3331:
3318:
3314:
3309:
3305:
3299:soil management
3296:
3292:
3286:
3282:
3277:
3273:
3264:
3255:
3250:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3215:
3211:
3202:
3195:
3182:
3178:
3159:
3150:
3135:10.1139/x96-159
3111:
3107:
3092:10.1139/x26-038
3075:
3071:
3060:
3056:
3049:
3035:
3028:
3021:
3007:
3003:
2990:
2986:
2971:
2967:
2950:. Vol. 1.
2930:
2921:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2894:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2838:
2834:
2815:
2811:
2799:
2793:
2789:
2765:
2759:
2742:
2719:10.2307/1933641
2703:
2699:
2678:
2674:
2659:10.1139/x72-070
2643:
2639:
2620:
2616:
2601:
2597:
2574:10.2307/1932882
2558:
2551:
2540:
2536:
2523:
2516:
2511:
2507:
2495:
2489:
2485:
2470:
2466:
2450:
2444:
2437:
2421:
2417:
2394:10.2307/1929342
2378:
2374:
2353:
2346:
2331:
2327:
2301:
2295:
2291:
2278:
2274:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2212:
2208:
2200:
2196:
2181:
2167:
2156:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2045:Forest dynamics
2014:
2007:
2004:
1979:
1953:
1916:
1904:
1895:Rocky Mountains
1879:
1852:heterogeneity.
1821:
1801:
1767:
1734:
1718:
1706:
1691:
1674:
1657:coniferous seed
1634:
1621:
1602:
1588:
1542:
1529:
1516:
1497:
1492:
1431:
1414:
1411:Group selection
1399:
1374:
1311:
1300:
1291:
1188:of much of the
1165:
1153:mixedwood stand
1151:content from a
1137:
1106:plantations of
1089:
1075:
1026:
960:
935:
922:
916:
895:
886:
877:
845:
828:
823:
812:
798:
789:
768:
736:
715:
686:
681:
650:Tree provenance
618:
609:
603:
600:
579:
573:
554:good seed years
535:plus scattered
483:air temperature
448:Porcupine Hills
378:
339:
298:boreal climates
88:
50:('forest') and
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6162:
6152:
6151:
6146:
6129:
6128:
6126:
6125:
6115:
6105:
6091:
6077:
6063:
6049:
6035:
6021:
6008:
6005:
6004:
6002:
6001:
5996:
5991:
5989:Timber cruiser
5986:
5984:Shingle weaver
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5945:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5899:
5894:
5888:
5886:
5882:
5881:
5879:
5878:
5877:
5876:
5866:
5865:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5834:
5833:
5832:
5822:
5820:Rail transport
5817:
5816:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5763:
5761:pulp and paper
5758:
5753:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5731:Forest farming
5728:
5722:
5720:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5689:
5688:
5681:
5679:slash-and-char
5676:
5674:slash-and-burn
5671:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5648:
5647:
5637:
5636:
5635:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5598:Forest dieback
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5564:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5553:
5552:
5551:
5550:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5525:
5524:
5523:
5518:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5497:
5496:
5486:
5485:
5484:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5463:
5462:
5457:
5447:
5446:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5405:
5404:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5302:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5271:
5266:
5260:
5258:
5247:
5246:
5244:
5243:
5241:Urban forestry
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5177:
5176:
5163:
5161:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5153:
5146:
5139:
5132:
5125:
5118:
5111:
5103:
5100:
5099:
5092:
5091:
5084:
5077:
5069:
5062:
5061:
5049:
5044:
5032:
5020:
5013:
5011:
5010:External links
5008:
5006:
5005:
5000:
4991:
4977:
4963:
4949:
4935:
4921:
4907:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4884:
4875:
4866:
4853:
4836:
4813:
4799:
4797:76(5):775–782.
4786:
4777:
4767:
4758:
4748:
4739:
4723:
4714:
4704:
4695:
4686:
4668:
4658:
4648:
4638:
4628:
4614:
4604:
4595:
4582:
4569:
4560:
4551:
4535:
4525:
4516:
4500:
4488:
4479:
4467:
4455:
4439:
4426:
4413:
4404:
4392:
4383:
4371:
4362:
4353:
4344:
4332:
4323:
4314:
4305:
4296:
4287:
4277:
4263:
4253:
4240:
4227:
4214:
4200:
4189:
4180:
4171:
4161:
4152:
4143:
4134:
4125:
4116:
4104:
4086:
4077:
4066:
4055:
4046:
4037:
4023:
4014:
4002:
3993:
3981:
3971:
3962:
3949:
3940:
3931:
3922:
3909:
3898:
3889:
3880:
3867:
3858:
3848:
3839:
3830:
3821:
3812:
3802:
3788:
3774:
3760:
3746:
3733:
3719:
3710:
3701:
3686:
3673:
3664:
3651:
3642:
3633:
3615:
3606:
3596:
3583:
3569:
3560:
3551:
3538:
3529:
3516:
3507:
3498:
3489:
3479:
3469:
3456:
3447:
3438:
3425:
3412:
3400:
3391:
3382:
3373:
3360:
3350:
3341:
3329:
3312:
3303:
3290:
3280:
3271:
3253:
3241:
3232:
3209:
3193:
3176:
3148:
3129:(2): 189–198.
3105:
3086:(3): 333–354.
3069:
3054:
3047:
3026:
3019:
3001:
2984:
2965:
2919:
2902:
2892:
2857:
2850:
2832:
2809:
2787:
2740:
2697:
2672:
2653:(4): 460–466.
2637:
2634:(13): 595–604.
2614:
2607:(in Swedish).
2595:
2568:(2): 152–156.
2549:
2534:
2514:
2505:
2483:
2464:
2435:
2415:
2388:(3): 380–383.
2372:
2344:
2325:
2312:(4): 478–479.
2289:
2272:
2256:
2249:
2231:
2224:
2206:
2194:
2179:
2154:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2003:
2000:
1996:Pinus resinosa
1988:lodgepole pine
1978:
1975:
1971:photosynthesis
1952:
1949:
1915:
1912:
1903:
1900:
1878:
1875:
1841:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1820:
1817:
1800:
1797:
1766:
1763:
1733:
1732:Advance growth
1730:
1717:
1714:
1705:
1700:
1690:
1687:
1673:
1670:
1633:
1630:
1625:shade tolerant
1620:
1615:
1601:
1598:
1587:
1582:
1541:
1538:
1528:
1525:
1515:
1510:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1430:
1423:
1413:
1408:
1398:
1397:Direct seeding
1395:
1394:
1393:
1373:
1368:
1332:Pinus contorta
1328:Lodgepole Pine
1310:
1305:
1299:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1277:
1276:
1273:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1260:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1243:No vegetation
1241:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1184:of the stand.
1164:
1161:
1136:
1133:
1088:
1085:
1074:
1071:
1025:
1022:
1013:
1012:
1009:
1006:
959:
956:
955:
954:
948:
942:
934:
931:
918:Main article:
915:
912:
894:
891:
885:
882:
876:
873:
844:
841:
827:
824:
822:
819:
811:
808:
797:
794:
788:
785:
767:
764:
735:
732:
714:
713:Seed viability
711:
685:
682:
680:
677:
617:
614:
611:
610:
591:
589:
572:
569:
377:
374:
338:
335:
282:
281:
280:
279:
278:
277:
276:
275:
266:
239:
238:
237:
236:
235:
226:
217:
204:
189:
188:
187:
182:
170:
87:
84:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6161:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6141:
6139:
6124:
6116:
6114:
6106:
6104:
6103:
6098:
6092:
6090:
6089:
6084:
6078:
6076:
6075:
6070:
6064:
6062:
6061:
6050:
6048:
6047:
6036:
6034:
6033:
6022:
6020:
6019:
6010:
6009:
6006:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5979:Rubber tapper
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5924:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5907:Choker setter
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5893:
5890:
5889:
5887:
5883:
5875:
5872:
5871:
5870:
5867:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5839:
5838:
5835:
5831:
5828:
5827:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5775:
5774:
5771:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5748:
5747:
5746:Manufacturing
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5723:
5721:
5719:
5715:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5687:
5686:
5682:
5680:
5677:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5669:
5665:
5664:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5646:
5643:
5642:
5641:
5638:
5634:
5631:
5630:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5583:Deforestation
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5563:
5559:Environmental
5557:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5530:
5529:
5526:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5513:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5495:
5492:
5491:
5490:
5487:
5483:
5480:
5479:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5461:
5460:reforestation
5458:
5456:
5455:afforestation
5453:
5452:
5451:
5448:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5410:
5409:
5406:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5328:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5264:Arboriculture
5262:
5261:
5259:
5257:
5252:
5248:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5216:Permaforestry
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5175:
5174:
5170:
5169:
5168:
5165:
5164:
5162:
5158:
5152:
5151:
5147:
5145:
5144:
5140:
5138:
5137:
5133:
5131:
5130:
5126:
5124:
5123:
5119:
5117:
5116:
5112:
5110:
5109:
5105:
5104:
5101:
5097:
5090:
5085:
5083:
5078:
5076:
5071:
5070:
5067:
5060:
5056:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5039:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5027:
5024:
5021:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4992:
4990:
4989:0-471-10941-X
4986:
4982:
4978:
4976:
4975:0-471-80020-1
4972:
4968:
4964:
4962:
4961:0-19-854909-1
4958:
4954:
4950:
4948:
4947:0-07-056999-1
4944:
4940:
4936:
4934:
4933:0-11-710334-9
4930:
4926:
4922:
4920:
4919:0-11-710154-0
4916:
4912:
4908:
4906:
4905:0-07-015297-7
4902:
4898:
4894:
4893:
4879:
4870:
4860:
4858:
4849:
4848:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4817:
4808:
4806:
4804:
4793:
4791:
4781:
4771:
4762:
4752:
4743:
4736:
4730:
4728:
4718:
4708:
4699:
4690:
4681:
4679:
4677:
4675:
4673:
4662:
4652:
4642:
4632:
4624:
4618:
4608:
4599:
4589:
4587:
4576:
4574:
4564:
4555:
4548:
4542:
4540:
4529:
4520:
4513:
4507:
4505:
4495:
4493:
4483:
4476:
4471:
4464:
4459:
4453:
4449:
4443:
4436:
4430:
4423:
4417:
4408:
4399:
4397:
4387:
4380:
4375:
4366:
4357:
4348:
4341:
4336:
4327:
4318:
4309:
4300:
4291:
4281:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4257:
4247:
4245:
4237:
4231:
4224:
4218:
4209:
4207:
4205:
4198:
4193:
4184:
4175:
4165:
4156:
4147:
4138:
4129:
4120:
4113:
4108:
4101:
4095:
4093:
4091:
4081:
4075:
4070:
4064:
4059:
4050:
4041:
4033:
4027:
4018:
4009:
4007:
3997:
3988:
3986:
3975:
3966:
3959:
3953:
3944:
3935:
3926:
3919:
3913:
3907:
3902:
3893:
3884:
3877:
3871:
3862:
3852:
3843:
3834:
3825:
3816:
3806:
3798:
3792:
3784:
3778:
3770:
3764:
3756:
3750:
3743:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3723:
3714:
3705:
3698:(1497): 87 p.
3697:
3690:
3683:
3677:
3668:
3661:
3655:
3646:
3637:
3630:
3624:
3622:
3620:
3610:
3600:
3593:
3587:
3579:
3573:
3564:
3555:
3548:
3542:
3533:
3526:
3520:
3511:
3502:
3493:
3483:
3473:
3466:
3460:
3451:
3442:
3435:
3429:
3422:
3416:
3407:
3405:
3395:
3386:
3377:
3370:
3364:
3354:
3345:
3336:
3334:
3326:
3322:
3316:
3307:
3300:
3294:
3284:
3275:
3268:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3248:
3246:
3236:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3213:
3206:
3200:
3198:
3189:
3188:
3180:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3157:
3155:
3153:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3118:
3109:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3073:
3065:
3058:
3050:
3044:
3040:
3033:
3031:
3022:
3016:
3012:
3005:
2997:
2996:
2988:
2980:
2976:
2969:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2937:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2916:
2912:
2906:
2896:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2861:
2853:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2805:
2798:
2791:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2684:
2676:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2618:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2554:
2545:
2538:
2530:
2529:
2521:
2519:
2509:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2442:
2440:
2430:
2426:
2419:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2376:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2359:
2351:
2349:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2300:
2293:
2285:
2284:
2276:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2252:
2246:
2242:
2235:
2227:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2176:
2172:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2131:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2090:Populiculture
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2006:
1999:
1997:
1991:
1989:
1984:
1974:
1972:
1967:
1961:
1957:
1948:
1945:
1939:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1884:
1874:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1827:
1824:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1806:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1762:
1758:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1710:
1704:
1699:
1696:
1689:Underplanting
1686:
1682:
1678:
1672:Strip cutting
1669:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1629:
1626:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1597:
1594:
1586:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1568:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1552:
1547:
1537:
1534:
1524:
1522:
1514:
1509:
1506:
1501:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1428:
1422:
1420:
1412:
1407:
1404:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1378:coast redwood
1372:
1367:
1365:
1364:Norway spruce
1360:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1304:
1295:
1286:
1284:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1220:Norway spruce
1215:
1211:
1208:
1207:Scarification
1202:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1175:
1174:Boreal Forest
1170:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1084:
1081:
1070:
1066:
1064:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1040:stand density
1037:
1032:
1031:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1003:
1002:
998:
996:
992:
988:
983:
981:
976:
972:
969:
965:
952:
949:
946:
943:
940:
937:
936:
930:
928:
921:
911:
907:
903:
899:
890:
881:
872:
869:
864:
861:
859:
853:
851:
840:
837:
832:
818:
817:
816:Plant nursery
807:
804:
796:Seed ripeness
793:
784:
782:
776:
773:
766:Seed dormancy
763:
761:
760:disintegrator
757:
751:
749:
745:
741:
731:
728:
724:
720:
710:
708:
704:
700:
696:
695:Norway spruce
692:
676:
673:
672:Seed orchards
668:
664:
661:
657:
655:
651:
647:
643:
640:
635:
631:
627:
623:
607:
604:February 2018
598:
594:
590:
587:
583:
582:
578:
577:Tree planting
568:
566:
561:
557:
555:
549:
546:
542:
538:
534:
528:
526:
522:
517:
513:
512:Norway spruce
509:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
488:
487:precipitation
484:
480:
476:
471:
469:
465:
464:frost heaving
460:
457:Mineral soil
455:
453:
449:
445:
441:
436:
431:
429:
425:
421:
420:photosynthate
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
373:
371:
367:
362:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
343:afforestation
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
315:
313:
312:
307:
303:
299:
295:
290:
288:
272:
267:
263:
258:
255:
254:
252:
251:
248:
243:
240:
232:
227:
223:
218:
214:
209:
205:
201:
196:
193:
192:
190:
186:
183:
179:
174:
171:
167:
162:
161:Clear cutting
159:
158:
156:
155:
152:
147:
146:
143:
139:High forest (
138:
137:
136:
133:
130:
125:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
97:
93:
83:
81:
77:
73:
67:
65:
64:forest stands
61:
60:
54:
48:
42:
40:
36:
32:
19:
18:Silvicultural
6093:
6079:
6065:
6051:
6037:
6023:
6016:
5994:Tree planter
5974:Resin tapper
5954:Truck driver
5949:River driver
5698:Tree hugging
5683:
5666:
5633:timber mafia
5623:High grading
5608:Ghost forest
5578:Clearcutting
5501:Silviculture
5500:
5477:Horticulture
5321:Fire ecology
5236:Urban forest
5211:Mycoforestry
5171:
5167:Agroforestry
5148:
5141:
5134:
5127:
5120:
5115:Forest areas
5113:
5106:
5017:Silviculture
4994:
4980:
4966:
4952:
4938:
4924:
4910:
4896:
4889:Bibliography
4878:
4869:
4846:
4839:
4830:
4826:
4816:
4780:
4770:
4761:
4751:
4742:
4734:
4717:
4707:
4698:
4689:
4661:
4651:
4641:
4631:
4622:
4617:
4607:
4598:
4563:
4554:
4546:
4528:
4519:
4511:
4482:
4474:
4470:
4462:
4458:
4442:
4434:
4429:
4421:
4416:
4407:
4386:
4378:
4374:
4365:
4356:
4347:
4339:
4335:
4326:
4317:
4308:
4299:
4290:
4280:
4256:
4235:
4230:
4222:
4217:
4192:
4183:
4174:
4164:
4155:
4146:
4137:
4128:
4119:
4111:
4107:
4099:
4080:
4069:
4058:
4049:
4040:
4031:
4026:
4017:
3996:
3974:
3965:
3957:
3952:
3943:
3934:
3925:
3917:
3912:
3901:
3892:
3883:
3875:
3870:
3861:
3851:
3842:
3833:
3824:
3815:
3805:
3796:
3791:
3782:
3777:
3768:
3763:
3754:
3749:
3741:
3736:
3728:
3722:
3713:
3704:
3695:
3689:
3681:
3676:
3667:
3654:
3645:
3636:
3609:
3599:
3592:Pinus rigida
3591:
3586:
3577:
3572:
3563:
3554:
3546:
3541:
3532:
3524:
3519:
3510:
3501:
3492:
3482:
3472:
3464:
3459:
3450:
3441:
3434:Picea glauca
3433:
3428:
3421:Picea glauca
3420:
3415:
3394:
3385:
3376:
3368:
3363:
3353:
3344:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3306:
3293:
3283:
3274:
3266:
3235:
3218:
3212:
3204:
3186:
3179:
3162:
3126:
3122:
3117:Picea glauca
3116:
3108:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3063:
3057:
3038:
3010:
3004:
2994:
2987:
2978:
2968:
2947:
2942:
2936:Picea glauca
2935:
2914:
2911:photoperiods
2905:
2895:
2873:(1): 16–18.
2870:
2866:
2860:
2841:
2835:
2818:
2812:
2803:
2790:
2773:
2769:
2710:
2706:
2700:
2682:
2675:
2650:
2646:
2640:
2631:
2627:
2617:
2608:
2604:
2598:
2565:
2561:
2543:
2537:
2527:
2508:
2499:
2486:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2458:
2454:
2428:
2424:
2418:
2385:
2381:
2375:
2357:
2338:
2328:
2309:
2305:
2292:
2282:
2275:
2264:
2259:
2240:
2234:
2215:
2209:
2197:
2170:
2140:
2134:
2080:Permaculture
2025:Agroforestry
2016:Trees portal
1995:
1992:
1980:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1940:
1936:
1932:yellow birch
1925:
1921:
1917:
1908:
1905:
1893:in the high
1888:
1880:
1869:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1825:
1822:
1814:
1805:regeneration
1802:
1782:
1778:
1769:
1768:
1759:
1751:
1747:
1735:
1719:
1711:
1707:
1692:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1666:
1654:
1635:
1632:Spot seeding
1622:
1611:
1606:regeneration
1603:
1589:
1571:
1567:Corvus corax
1566:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1543:
1530:
1517:
1502:
1498:
1478:
1474:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1441:
1432:
1415:
1400:
1389:
1375:
1356:
1347:
1331:
1324:disturbances
1312:
1308:Clearcutting
1301:
1292:
1280:
1233:
1228:
1216:
1212:
1206:
1203:
1179:
1166:
1144:
1140:
1138:
1127:
1116:finger joint
1104:Radiata pine
1090:
1076:
1067:
1060:
1052:
1033:
1027:
1018:
1014:
999:
984:
977:
973:
964:white spruce
961:
923:
908:
904:
900:
896:
887:
878:
865:
862:
854:
849:
846:
833:
829:
813:
802:
799:
790:
777:
769:
752:
743:
739:
737:
723:conifer seed
716:
703:fermentation
699:fanning mill
691:cement mixer
687:
669:
665:
662:
658:
648:
644:
639:Black spruce
630:photoperiods
619:
601:
597:adding to it
592:
558:
550:
537:white spruce
529:
505:
491:
475:microclimate
472:
456:
432:
417:
401:White spruce
387:In order to
386:
379:
363:
340:
337:Regeneration
331:regeneration
316:
309:
291:
287:Mitteleuropa
283:
178:Schirmschlag
134:
89:
68:
57:
43:
41:production.
31:Silviculture
30:
29:
6018:WikiProject
5942:smokejumper
5922:Firefighter
5885:Occupations
5869:Woodworking
5450:Forestation
5381:restoration
5336:informatics
5201:Ecoforestry
3660:Douglas-fir
2770:FRDA Report
2085:Plantations
1883:forest fire
1870:Picea/Abies
1865:Picea/Abies
1661:germination
1642:paper birch
1585:Shelterwood
1350:) which is
1344:Douglas-fir
1108:New Zealand
843:Competition
781:germination
758:ultrasonic
727:germination
632:, extended
444:mycorrhizal
413:phototropic
409:chlorophyll
382:germination
370:broadleaves
262:Plenterwald
231:Mischformen
200:Femelschlag
100:high forest
76:stand-level
6138:Categories
5964:Lumberjack
5959:Log scaler
5842:engineered
5793:non-timber
5766:sawmilling
5718:Industries
5685:svedjebruk
5396:transition
5376:protection
5366:old-growth
5351:governance
5306:Dendrology
5256:management
5122:Ministries
2611:: 211–243.
2122:References
2070:Live crown
1983:topography
1914:Mechanical
1593:understory
1546:greenhouse
1382:pollarding
1326:, such as
1319:artificial
1149:coniferous
980:balsam fir
634:daylengths
622:coniferous
545:balsam fir
533:red spruce
516:Scots pine
435:windfallen
327:harvesting
213:Saumschlag
166:Kahlschlag
129:Niederwald
115:Mittelwald
5912:Ecologist
5825:Tree farm
5726:Coppicing
5668:chitemene
5568:Acid rain
5516:allometry
5438:SmartWood
5386:secondary
5371:pathology
5346:inventory
5284:driftwood
5150:Arbor Day
4833:(2): 131.
3171:860730575
3143:0045-5067
3100:0045-5067
2887:0742-6348
2782:0835-0752
2727:0012-9658
2667:0045-5067
2582:1939-9170
2502:(RM-114).
2402:1939-9170
2367:711671143
2189:223725063
2149:976898179
2105:Silvology
2095:Seed tree
2030:Coppicing
1742:hardwoods
1716:Mortality
1521:windthrow
1513:Seed-tree
1489:Patch cut
1419:foresters
1371:Coppicing
1198:hardwoods
1196:and more
1139:The term
1124:mouldings
1044:foresters
995:jack pine
991:jack pine
868:herbicide
836:deciduous
709:sets in.
428:pathogens
389:germinate
351:seedlings
294:temperate
247:Dauerwald
210:system) (
59:silvology
6113:Category
5927:handcrew
5897:Arborist
5892:Forester
5852:mahogany
5798:palm oil
5788:charcoal
5773:Products
5708:Wildfire
5521:breeding
5482:GM trees
5331:dynamics
5143:Journals
5136:Colleges
5096:Forestry
5055:Archived
5038:Archived
5026:Archived
4864:(mimeo).
2958:(USFS),
2943:Conifers
2827:15124930
2480:: 30–37.
2050:Forestry
2002:See also
1951:Mounding
1928:hardwood
1551:seedling
1505:conifers
1240:Below 1
1128:Brashing
1080:thinning
1036:thinning
1030:Thinning
1024:Thinning
987:red pine
968:stocking
945:Cleaning
893:Planting
772:dormancy
707:moulding
654:genotype
521:humidity
459:seedbeds
452:Manitoba
440:flooding
424:browsers
405:radicles
397:aeration
393:moisture
366:conifers
323:thinning
311:satoyama
142:Hochwald
105:Hochwald
72:forestry
6149:Logging
6123:Outline
5937:lookout
5932:hotshot
5813:tanbark
5783:biomass
5778:biochar
5756:plywood
5741:Logging
5645:wilding
5294:log jam
5251:Ecology
3227:3398562
2735:1933641
2707:Ecology
2692:6068388
2590:1932882
2562:Ecology
2410:1929342
2382:Ecology
1819:Burning
1726:climate
1722:conifer
1272:>25
1092:Pruning
1087:Pruning
1063:conifer
1055:ecology
958:Spacing
939:Weeding
884:Tending
858:conifer
626:Florida
468:drought
359:nursery
319:pruning
208:felling
124:coppice
53:culture
35:forests
5969:Ranger
5917:Feller
5902:Bucker
5808:rubber
5751:lumber
5561:topics
5548:volume
5543:height
5489:i-Tree
5326:Forest
5279:coarse
5274:Debris
5173:dehesa
4987:
4973:
4959:
4945:
4931:
4917:
4903:
4580:1994).
4450:
4261:1994).
4169:1994).
4035:1994).
3604:seen.)
3581:seen).
3225:
3169:
3141:
3098:
3045:
3017:
2885:
2848:
2825:
2780:
2733:
2725:
2690:
2665:
2605:Skogen
2588:
2580:
2408:
2400:
2365:
2247:
2222:
2187:
2177:
2147:
2035:Dehesa
1902:Access
1810:boreal
1785:spruce
1754:boreal
1646:spruce
1283:spruce
1264:10-25
1194:spruce
1190:boreal
1182:canopy
1169:spruce
1120:lumber
1100:lumber
929:(EP).
850:per se
756:M.S.E.
565:spruce
493:Aspect
395:, and
355:sowing
122:, and
47:silvi-
39:timber
5803:rayon
5538:girth
5533:crown
5494:urban
5391:stand
5299:slash
5289:large
5160:Types
5108:Index
4656:1994)
3321:Picea
2806:(63).
2800:(PDF)
2766:(PDF)
2731:JSTOR
2586:JSTOR
2496:(PDF)
2451:(PDF)
2431:(16).
2406:JSTOR
2302:(PDF)
2127:Notes
1793:shrub
1738:aspen
1695:aspen
1638:aspen
1574:aspen
1340:slash
1256:4-10
1157:aspen
1112:Chile
1048:trees
770:Seed
742:or a
679:Seeds
306:Japan
5862:teak
5847:fuel
5837:Wood
5657:REDD
5511:Tree
5428:PEFC
5413:ATFS
4985:ISBN
4971:ISBN
4957:ISBN
4943:ISBN
4929:ISBN
4915:ISBN
4901:ISBN
4448:ISBN
3223:OCLC
3167:OCLC
3139:ISSN
3096:ISSN
3043:ISBN
3015:ISBN
2883:ISSN
2846:ISBN
2823:OCLC
2778:ISSN
2723:ISSN
2688:OCLC
2663:ISSN
2578:ISSN
2398:ISSN
2363:OCLC
2245:ISBN
2220:ISBN
2185:OCLC
2175:ISBN
2145:OCLC
1863:The
1787:and
1650:pine
1648:and
1640:and
1403:soil
1359:soil
1248:1-3
1172:the
1122:and
1110:and
1096:knot
1028:See
989:and
814:See
514:and
347:seed
296:and
90:The
5433:SFI
5423:FSC
5418:CFS
5356:law
5341:IPM
5253:and
4712:BC.
4623:in
4533:AB.
4236:in
3800:15.
3786:15.
3772:15.
3758:15.
3487:36.
3325:in
3131:doi
3088:doi
2875:doi
2774:220
2715:doi
2655:doi
2570:doi
2390:doi
2314:doi
1789:fir
1644:to
1313:An
705:or
599:.
525:dew
450:of
108:),
94:in
6140::
4856:^
4831:18
4829:.
4825:.
4802:^
4789:^
4775:p.
4756:p.
4735:In
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4666:p.
4636:p.
4626:p.
4612:p.
4593:p.
4585:^
4572:^
4547:In
4538:^
4512:In
4503:^
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4395:^
4285:p.
4266:^
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4243:^
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4203:^
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4032:in
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3979:p.
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3810:p.
3797:in
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3769:in
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3682:in
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2977:.
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2946:.
2922:^
2915:in
2900:p.
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2630:.
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2609:12
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2566:14
2564:.
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2498:.
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2476:.
2457:.
2453:.
2438:^
2427:.
2404:.
2396:.
2384:.
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2310:39
2308:.
2304:.
2183:.
2157:^
1523:.
1042:,
717:A
527:.
508:pH
485:,
384:.
361:.
329:,
321:,
314:.
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