245:
migrate away from the women if agriculture was depleting in their given agricultural space. As the men were moving to work outside the home, women began to acclimate to the economic atmosphere and gain more opportunities in the public sphere with all the men working elsewhere. These women soon had various roles in the public and private spheres in
Deerfield. As equal rights became part of the ideological framework in Deerfield, women found themselves voting in school boards, working on municipal water projects and fundraising as men had done before them. Despite the traditional understanding of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century of completely separate public and private spheres, the Deerfield community challenged these "dichotomies of domesticity" and paved the way for equal rights for men and women.
174:, Tocqueville wrote: "In no country has such constant care been taken as in America to trace two clearly distinct lines of action for the two sexes and to make them keep pace one with the other, but in two pathways that are always different." He observed that married women, in particular, were subject to many restrictions, noting that "the independence of woman is irrecoverably lost in the bonds of matrimony", adding that "in the United States the inexorable opinion of the public carefully circumscribes woman within the narrow circle of domestic interests and duties and forbids her to step beyond it." Tocqueville considered the separate spheres of women and men a positive development, arguing:
229:
be so easily applied. This is because the domestic and public spheres are almost always overlapping in some way, regardless of a cultural female subservience or even egalitarianism. Women enter public spaces in order to fulfill duties that fall within their domestic responsibilities. Men must return to the private, or domestic, space eventually to bring home the spoils of labor from the public sphere. In this sense, there are two separate spheres created and enforced by gender ideologies; but they are not dichotomous. They, instead, form an integrated system of life in society, varying only in levels of intensities from culture to culture.
237:(NOW) pushed for equality of women in society and in the workplace by means of changes in family regulation. NOW stressed the importance of focusing on structurally altering the family sphere to create gender equality in the education and workplace spheres. The family sphere acted as a catalyst, because: unless it changed, women would simply lack access to the opportunities already available to men. Franklin also pointed out that the gender inequality among the American population in the 60’s and 70’s was a major contributor to the civil rights statutes of the Second Reconstruction.
221:
women, were seen as having more value and contributing greatly to the society. Adversely, the woman's so-called simpler roles of housework and childrearing were held at a much lesser value. Rosaldo argues a "universal asymmetry" between the sexes that primarily caused these separations to arise. This model mainly focuses on the generational subordination of women in relation to men throughout history and across different cultures, defining the domestic and public spheres in very black and white terms.
20:
309:"Woman has no call to the ballot-box, but she has a sphere of her own, of amazing responsibility and importance. She is the divinely appointed guardian of the home...She should more fully realize that her position as wife and mother and angel of the home, is the holiest, most responsible and queenlike assigned to mortals; and dismiss all ambition for anything higher, as there is nothing else here so high for mortals."
435:, which was a woman's school from 1866 to 1950, insisted that she was "in favor of the co-education of the sexes" and that the education at her school was equal to what was given to young men. In the 21st century, the legacy of the separation of spheres has a lasting impact perpetuating the separation of various academic and professional fields into gendered areas.
280:, stating that "women's entire education should be planned in relation to men. To please men, to be useful to them, to win their love and respect, to raise them as children, to care for them as adults, correct and console them, make their lives sweet and pleasant; these are women's duties in all ages and these are what they should be taught from childhood."
298:
began to challenge the biological determination of human behavior, revealing great similarities between men and women and suggesting that many sex differences were socially constructed. Despite these new insights and social and economic changes such as women's entry into the labor force, the separate
126:
The modern ideology of separate spheres emerged in the wake of the
Industrial Revolution. Prior to the industrialization of the Western world, family members worked side by side and the workplace was located mostly in and around the home. With the shift from home-based to factory production, men left
466:
According to Henke, many parenting books from this era suggested that mothers should take primary responsibility for their children. Yet, some parenting books argued that mothers and fathers should have separate childrearing duties or a completely equal distribution of childrearing responsibilities.
178:
although the women of the United States are confined within the narrow circle of domestic life and their situation is in some respects one of extreme dependence, I have nowhere seen women occupying a loftier position; and if I were asked...to what the singular prosperity and growing strength of that
73:
The patriarchal ideology of separate spheres, based primarily on notions of biologically determined gender roles and/or patriarchal religious doctrine, claims that women should avoid the public sphere – the domain of politics, paid work, commerce and law. Women's "proper sphere", according to
379:
In her paper "Separate
Spheres or Shared Dominions", Cathy Ross suggests that the separate spheres ideology had ambiguous effects on women's lives. She argues that while it "was clear that women were supposed to be subordinate and that home and children were their sphere", the separation of spheres
228:
co-editor Louis
Lamphere breaks down Rosaldo's model and discusses the spheres in different terms. Rather than assume universal asymmetry, Lamphere considers various societies worldwide. Even in some Middle Eastern cultures that place women in extreme positions of subordination, the model could not
426:
Although it created a space for women's academic and professional advancement, the separation of spheres also provided an excuse for keeping women out of fields not specifically marked as female. Thus many talented women scientists were pushed into professorships in home economics rather than in
208:
in the 19th century. "True women" were supposed to be pious, pure, submissive and domestic. Domesticity, in particular, was regarded as a laudable virtue as the home was considered a woman's proper sphere. Unlike
Tocqueville, Welter and other 20th-century historians were critical of the separate
220:
emphasizes the idea that these separate spheres can be explained in terms of a dichotomy, in the sense that these gender-oriented domains are viewed as so totally separate that it only reinforces the ideology of gender separation and inequality. Activities given to men, versus those assigned to
244:
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In this community, there was a clear divide between men and women by means of a "proper allocation" in which females were given the domestic residence or sphere and the men were given the "economically productive agricultural land". Men would
232:
According to Cary
Franklin, the women’s rights movements in the mid-1960s proposed that to achieve true equality between the sexes, it would be necessary for laws to be put in place to move past the simple separate spheres model and address the “interspherical impacts”. In 1966, the
192:(1963) asserted that women were being forced to rely on their husbands and children as the sole sources of their identity by an historically constructed oppressive paradigm, not by any "intrinsic" predisposition. Drawing on Friedan, historian Barbara Welter identified a
350:
supported the separate spheres ideology and opposed women's suffrage as well as other attempts to broaden women's influence in the public sphere. Theological conservatism has been found to have a stable effect on the endorsement of separate spheres ideology. Leading
467:
Henke argues that, even during the height of domestic ideology and the dawn of separate spheres, parenting advice was not monolithic. Furthermore, the lived realities parents and families during this era were more diverse than the ideals of parenting books.
342:
men's groups in late 19th and early 20th century United States responded to the societal changes and shift in gender relations by advocating a return to a strict separation of spheres that would keep women from competing with men in the public sphere.
451:
explores the history of the separate spheres model in the United States. Henke points out that between 1820 and 1860 (a period sometimes called the dawn of separate spheres) three parenting models were common for two-parent, mother/father families:
131:
and the French
Revolution helped spread the ideas of liberty, equality and political rights, but in practice such rights were denied to women, who were seen as belonging to a different social sphere. Feminist writers like
156:
and consequently became a private, separate sphere. As a result, Engels contended, women were excluded from participating directly in the production process and relegated to the subordinate domestic sphere.
274:
and domesticity. Women were considered passive, dependent on men and, due to their reproductive capacity, ill-suited for life outside the domestic realm. Rousseau described women's primary duties in
371:(1763) were two popular evangelical texts which described proper behavior for men and women, arguing that a woman's primary duty was to care for those in her domestic circle and obey her husband.
144:
demanded political equality for women as well as men and provided searing criticisms of the "separate sphere" ideals that confined women exclusively to the domestic sphere. Theorists such as
262:, the notion that women and men are naturally suitable for different social roles due to their biological and genetic makeup. The idea of biological determinism was popular during the
127:
the home to sell their labor for wages while women stayed home to perform unpaid domestic work. The separate spheres ideology reflected and fueled these changes. At the same time,
1758:
Malkmus, Doris (2003). "'My whole ambition has ever been to do something smart': Frances Wood Shimer, Cinderella
Gregory and the 1853 Founding of Shimer College".
444:
123:. Each sphere intermingled in different ways with the other. Debates over the "proper" roles of women and men continued throughout antiquity.
224:
This earlier model, has since been challenged by researchers in the field, claiming the spheres cannot be outlined in such simplistic terms.
411:
as a woman's profession was also closely linked to the ideology of separate spheres, as women came to be regarded as uniquely skilled at
119:). Some have interpreted his views as confining women to the private realm while men were supposed to occupy the public sphere of the
331:, legal prohibitions against women undertaking professions like medicine and law and discouragement from obtaining higher education.
1354:
Marshall, Susan E. (December 1986). "In
Defense of Separate Spheres: Class and Status Politics in the Antisuffrage Movement".
427:
their principal fields. Some women educators resisted this typecasting even while working within the framework of separation.
1814:
1742:
1682:
1646:
1613:
1580:
1501:
1468:
1394:
1341:
1303:
1258:
1222:
1197:
1164:
876:
847:
814:
766:
698:
630:
597:
570:
534:
1046:
1074:
649:(June 1993). "Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women's history".
415:. In coeducational universities in the late 19th century, the separation of spheres contributed to the emergence of
338:
who relied on the notion of inherent sexual differences to argue that women were unfit for political participation.
283:
The popular beliefs about inherent sex differences remained deeply embedded in popular consciousness throughout the
714:
TĂ©treault, Mary Ann (January 2001). "Frontier
Politics: Sex, Gender, and the Deconstruction of the Public Sphere".
897:
Kerber, Linda K. (June 1988). "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History".
327:
Women's confinement to the private sphere was reinforced by cultural and legal arrangements, such as the lack of
234:
380:
enabled women "to reach out to other women in sisterhood, in solidarity, on the common ground of domesticity".
240:
Deborah Rotman, an anthropologist at Notre Dame, analyzed this concept of separate spheres among the people of
1845:
686:
225:
213:
1820:
680:
1674:
1666:
1605:
1597:
1383:"Explaining the suffrage mobilization: balance, neutralization and range in collective action frames"
755:
The 'woman question' and higher education: perspectives on gender and knowledge production in America
448:
364:
160:
Another major commentator on the modern idea of "separate spheres" was the French political thinker
1808:
1493:
1319:
347:
241:
1779:
Separate spheres or common domestic ground: Gender ideology in parenting manuals from 1820 to 1860
1568:
1189:
758:
622:
1486:"Religion and Family Values Reconsidered: Gender Traditionalism among Conservative Protestants"
1410:
Kimmel, Michael S. (September 1987). "Men's responses to feminism at the turn of the century".
497:
276:
259:
1485:
1295:
1242:
1101:
Rotman, Deborah L. (August 2006). "Separate Spheres?: Beyond the Dichotomies of Domesticity".
982:
944:
864:
831:
798:
614:
587:
518:
179:
people ought mainly to be attributed, I should reply,—to the superiority of their women.
74:
the ideology, is the realm of domestic life, focused on childcare, housekeeping and religion.
1782:
1638:
1460:
1450:
1446:
1382:
1325:
1291:
1181:
1150:
963:
940:
750:
554:
267:
188:
161:
78:
1572:
690:
1855:
526:
459:
Parenting duties are separated into fatherly responsibilities and motherly responsibilities
412:
404:
263:
166:
128:
99:
8:
1840:
486:
476:
328:
270:
who argued that women were inherently different from men and should devote themselves to
193:
153:
137:
81:. As an observable phenomenon, however, the existence of separate spheres is much older.
70:
any such separation between spheres and to confine women to the domestic/private sphere.
1715:
1541:
1427:
1279:
1126:
1118:
1017:
922:
914:
731:
423:
as frequently the only high-ranking woman administrator in coeducational institutions.
392:
27:
1738:
1719:
1678:
1642:
1631:
1609:
1576:
1561:
1545:
1497:
1464:
1456:
1431:
1390:
1337:
1333:
1299:
1284:
1254:
1218:
1193:
1160:
1130:
1080:
1070:
1042:
926:
872:
843:
810:
762:
735:
694:
626:
593:
566:
530:
319:
77:
In Europe and North America, the idealization of separate spheres emerged during the
43:
152:
have argued that following the rise of capitalism, the home lost its control of the
1707:
1533:
1419:
1363:
1110:
1009:
906:
723:
658:
396:
217:
145:
133:
1850:
1786:
839:
400:
388:
356:
284:
90:
1324:
Bibliotheca Sacra, pp. 331–43. Also available in DeBerg, Betty A. (1990).
1537:
1423:
1246:
1156:
1036:
727:
646:
432:
428:
416:
352:
335:
295:
94:
55:
47:
1802:
662:
89:
The idea that women should inhabit a separate domestic sphere has appeared in
1834:
1824:
1490:
Religion, families and health: population-based research in the United States
1084:
676:
481:
420:
183:
62:. This observation may be controversial and is often also seen as supporting
59:
339:
291:
271:
205:
1711:
1367:
491:
384:
258:
The separation between female and male spheres was heavily influenced by
201:
19:
1035:
Rosaldo, Michelle Zimbalist; Lamphere, Louise; Bamberger, Joan (1974).
1021:
918:
197:
141:
63:
1633:
Learning Together: A History of Coeducation in American Public Schools
1563:
Learning Together: A History of Coeducation in American Public Schools
1217:. Vol. 2. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. pp. 586, 602–603.
1122:
387:
and to the emergence of gendered educational institutions such as the
1524:
Ross, Cathy (October 2006). "Separate Spheres or Shared Dominions?".
983:"Chapter XII: How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes"
945:"Chapter XII: How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes"
806:
288:
149:
104:
51:
1526:
Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies
1013:
910:
1452:
Ungodly women: gender and the first wave of American fundamentalism
1330:
Ungodly women: gender and the first wave of American fundamentalism
1114:
562:
408:
355:
propagated a view of womanhood which reinforced gendered division.
1698:
Schwartz, Robert Arthur (1997). "How Deans of Women Became Men".
1000:
Welter, Barbara (1966). "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860".
592:. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE/Pine Forge Press. pp. 342–43.
209:
spheres ideology, seeing it as a source of women's denigration.
1671:
Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States
1602:
Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States
1387:
Frames of protest: social movements and the framing perspective
1286:
Beyond separate spheres: intellectual roots of modern feminism
462:
Parenting duties are shared equally among mothers and fathers.
383:
The ideology of separate spheres contributed to resistance to
419:
as a field of advanced study for the woman's sphere, and the
115:
109:
1152:
Gendered citizenship: historical and conceptual explorations
519:"The Gendering of Artistic Labour in Mid-Victorian Britain"
107:
described two separate spheres in Greek society, the home (
30:
shows a couple "on the no" between female and male spheres.
1816:
Gender Ideology & Separate Spheres in the 19th Century
751:"Gender, biology and the incontrovertible logic of choice"
1811:, paintings which deal with the separate spheres ideology
456:
Parenting duties are wholly the responsibility of mothers
1488:. In Ellison, Christopher G.; Hummer, Robert A. (eds.).
1034:
679:(1958). "Chapter II: The Public and the Private Realm".
523:
Representations of gender from prehistory to the present
964:"Chapter X: The young Woman in the Character of a Wife"
334:
Strong support for the separation of spheres came from
172:
How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes
1447:"Conservative Protestantism and the Separate Spheres"
784:
The Household as the Foundation of Aristotle's Polis
1326:
Conservative Protestantism and the Separate Spheres
1823:, an analysis of the separate spheres doctrine in
1630:
1560:
1283:
619:Secular theories on religion: current perspectives
871:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 225–226.
16:Gendered separation of public and private spheres
1832:
1389:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 39.
1065:Brettell, Caroline; Sargent, Carolyn F (2016).
1064:
559:Women and the law: leaders, cases and documents
1637:. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. pp.
1380:
1253:. London: SAGE Publications. pp. 231–32.
1096:
1094:
834:. In Ritzer, George; Ryan, J. Michael (eds.).
589:Questioning gender: a sociological exploration
1385:. In Johnston, Hank; Noakes, John A. (eds.).
1240:
970:. London: Saunders and Otley. pp. 79–80.
892:
890:
888:
838:. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.; Malden, MA:
1483:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1251:Handbook of studies on men and masculinities
617:. In Jensen, Tim; Rothstein, Mikael (eds.).
521:. In Donald, Moira; Hurcombe, Linda (eds.).
361:An Enquiry into the Duties of the Female Sex
1673:. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p.
1628:
1604:. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p.
1558:
1212:
1091:
980:
961:
939:
1737:. New York: RoutledgeFalmer. p. 213.
1381:Hewitt, Lyndi; McCammon, Holly J. (2005).
989:. London: Saunders and Otley. p. 106.
951:. London: Saunders and Otley. p. 101.
885:
786:. Cambridge University Press. p. 309.
548:
546:
1660:
1658:
1278:
1267:
1236:
1234:
801:. In Kowaleski-Wallace, Elizabeth (ed.).
713:
516:
253:
1697:
1629:Tyack, David; Hansot, Elizabeth (1992).
1595:
1559:Tyack, David; Hansot, Elizabeth (1992).
1484:Bartkowski, John P.; Xu, Xiaohe (2010).
1353:
1243:"The Cultural Ideal of Separate Spheres"
1241:Adams, Michele; Coltrane, Scott (2005).
865:"Gender and the Changing Roles of Women"
803:Encyclopedia of feminist literary theory
552:
18:
1757:
1735:The Science Education of American Girls
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1249:; Hearn, Jeff; Connell, Raewyn (eds.).
1060:
1058:
862:
645:
543:
1833:
1732:
1664:
1655:
1444:
1409:
1231:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1100:
999:
896:
716:Alternatives: Global, Local, Political
675:
287:. By the early 20th century, however,
1776:
1179:
836:The concise encyclopedia of sociology
829:
796:
781:
612:
93:for centuries, extending back to the
1523:
1510:
1067:Gender in cross-cultural perspective
1055:
585:
438:
299:spheres ideology did not disappear.
1148:
1137:
869:A Companion to 19th-Century America
757:. Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA:
748:
302:
13:
1215:Encyclopedia of gender and society
14:
1867:
1796:
615:"Making the Gender-Critical Turn"
50:that feature, to some degree, an
1770:
1751:
1726:
1691:
1622:
1589:
1552:
1477:
1438:
1403:
1374:
1347:
1312:
1206:
1173:
1028:
993:
981:Tocqueville, Alexis de (1840).
974:
962:Tocqueville, Alexis de (1840).
955:
933:
899:The Journal of American History
867:. In Barney, William L. (ed.).
856:
823:
790:
235:National Organization for Women
1700:The Review of Higher Education
1321:Article VII. "Woman Suffrage."
1318:Williams, John Milton (1893).
832:"Divisions of household labor"
775:
742:
707:
669:
639:
606:
579:
510:
170:(1840), in a chapter entitled
1:
1669:. In Eisenmann, Linda (ed.).
1600:. In Eisenmann, Linda (ed.).
1041:. Stanford University Press.
504:
314:— Rev. John Milton Williams,
248:
1596:Woyshner, Christine (1998).
553:Kuersten, Ashlyn K. (2003).
7:
1760:Journal of Illinois History
797:Wells, Christopher (2009).
687:University of Chicago Press
555:"Separate Spheres Doctrine"
470:
266:and among such thinkers as
226:Woman, Culture, and Society
214:Woman, Culture, and Society
10:
1872:
1821:Victoria and Albert Museum
1777:Henke, Jacqueline (2013).
1538:10.1177/026537880602300406
1424:10.1177/089124387001003003
1038:Woman, culture and society
863:Edwards, Laura F. (2001).
782:Nagle, D. Brendan (2011).
728:10.1177/030437540102600103
374:
84:
56:domestic or private sphere
1445:DeBerg, Betty A. (1990).
1180:Grana, Sheryl J. (2010).
663:10.1017/S0018246X9300001X
561:. Santa Barbara, Calif.:
449:Arkansas State University
348:Christian fundamentalists
40:domestic–public dichotomy
24:The Sinews of Old England
1809:University of Notre Dame
1665:Walker, Melissa (1998).
1494:Rutgers University Press
1190:Rowman & Littlefield
613:Warne, Randi R. (2000).
369:The Complete Duty of Man
242:Deerfield, Massachusetts
194:"Cult of True Womanhood"
1598:"Women's club movement"
1569:Russell Sage Foundation
1492:. New Brunswick, N.J.:
1159:. p. 80–81.
830:Adams, Michele (2011).
759:Edward Elgar Publishing
623:Museum Tusculanum Press
621:. Copenhagen, Denmark:
517:Barringer, Tim (2000).
60:public or social sphere
1213:O'Brien, Jodi (2009).
1182:"'Nature' and Biology"
941:Tocqueville, Alexis de
749:May, Ann Mari (2008).
651:The Historical Journal
498:The Angel in the House
311:
277:Emile, or On Education
260:biological determinism
254:Biological determinism
181:
64:patriarchal ideologies
31:
1712:10.1353/rhe.1997.0011
1292:Yale University Press
1149:Roy, Anupama (2005).
307:
268:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
189:The Feminine Mystique
176:
162:Alexis de Tocqueville
79:Industrial Revolution
54:separation between a
22:
1733:Tolley, Kim (2003).
1496:. pp. 106–125.
1412:Gender & Society
1103:Current Anthropology
987:Democracy in America
968:Democracy in America
949:Democracy in America
805:. London, New York:
586:Ryle, Robyn (2012).
527:Macmillan Publishers
413:classroom management
405:continuing education
264:Age of Enlightenment
200:prevalent among the
167:Democracy in America
68:create or strengthen
1368:10.1093/sf/65.2.327
1336:. pp. 43–58.
1280:Rosenberg, Rosalind
842:. pp. 156–57.
682:The Human Condition
625:. pp. 249–60.
529:. pp. 154–56.
487:Gender polarization
477:Cult of Domesticity
154:means of production
138:Mary Wollstonecraft
1846:Gender and society
1247:Kimmel, Michael S.
1002:American Quarterly
799:"Separate Spheres"
565:. pp. 16–17.
32:
28:George Elgar Hicks
1744:978-0-415-93472-5
1684:978-0-313-29323-8
1648:978-0-87154-888-7
1615:978-0-313-29323-8
1582:978-0-87154-888-7
1503:978-0-8135-4945-3
1470:978-0-8006-2439-2
1457:Augsburg Fortress
1396:978-0-7425-3806-1
1342:978-0-8006-2439-2
1334:Augsburg Fortress
1305:978-0-300-02695-5
1260:978-0-7619-2369-5
1224:978-1-4129-0916-7
1199:978-0-7425-7002-3
1186:Women and justice
1166:978-81-250-2797-3
878:978-0-631-20985-0
849:978-1-4051-8353-6
816:978-0-415-99802-4
768:978-1-84720-401-1
700:978-0-226-02592-6
632:978-87-7289-572-7
599:978-1-4129-6594-1
572:978-0-87436-878-9
536:978-0-333-64331-0
439:Recent commentary
320:Bibliotheca Sacra
296:social scientists
129:the Enlightenment
44:social phenomenon
1863:
1804:Separate Spheres
1791:
1790:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1667:"Home Economics"
1662:
1653:
1652:
1636:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1566:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1521:
1508:
1507:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1351:
1345:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1289:
1276:
1265:
1264:
1238:
1229:
1228:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1146:
1135:
1134:
1098:
1089:
1088:
1062:
1053:
1052:
1032:
1026:
1025:
997:
991:
990:
978:
972:
971:
959:
953:
952:
937:
931:
930:
894:
883:
882:
860:
854:
853:
827:
821:
820:
794:
788:
787:
779:
773:
772:
746:
740:
739:
711:
705:
704:
673:
667:
666:
643:
637:
636:
610:
604:
603:
583:
577:
576:
550:
541:
540:
514:
445:Jacqueline Henke
443:A 2013 study by
397:higher education
329:women's suffrage
323:
303:Other influences
218:Michelle Rosaldo
146:Friedrich Engels
134:Olympe de Gouges
113:) and the city (
48:modern societies
36:separate spheres
1871:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1831:
1830:
1799:
1794:
1775:
1771:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1731:
1727:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1663:
1656:
1649:
1627:
1623:
1616:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1557:
1553:
1522:
1511:
1504:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1455:. Minneapolis:
1443:
1439:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1379:
1375:
1352:
1348:
1332:. Minneapolis:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1298:, 207, 245–46.
1277:
1268:
1261:
1239:
1232:
1225:
1211:
1207:
1200:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1147:
1138:
1099:
1092:
1077:
1063:
1056:
1049:
1033:
1029:
1014:10.2307/2711179
998:
994:
979:
975:
960:
956:
938:
934:
911:10.2307/1889653
895:
886:
879:
861:
857:
850:
840:Wiley-Blackwell
828:
824:
817:
809:. p. 519.
795:
791:
780:
776:
769:
747:
743:
712:
708:
701:
674:
670:
647:Vickery, Amanda
644:
640:
633:
611:
607:
600:
584:
580:
573:
551:
544:
537:
525:. Basingstoke:
515:
511:
507:
473:
441:
393:women's college
389:female seminary
377:
357:Thomas Gisborne
336:antisuffragists
325:
313:
305:
292:anthropologists
285:Progressive Era
256:
251:
91:Western thought
87:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1869:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1829:
1828:
1812:
1798:
1797:External links
1795:
1793:
1792:
1769:
1750:
1743:
1725:
1706:(4): 419–436.
1690:
1683:
1654:
1647:
1621:
1614:
1588:
1581:
1551:
1532:(4): 228–235.
1509:
1502:
1476:
1469:
1437:
1418:(3): 261–283.
1402:
1395:
1373:
1362:(2): 327–351.
1346:
1311:
1304:
1266:
1259:
1230:
1223:
1205:
1198:
1192:. p. 20.
1172:
1165:
1157:Orient Longman
1136:
1115:10.1086/506286
1109:(4): 666–674.
1090:
1075:
1054:
1048:978-0804708500
1047:
1027:
1008:(2): 151–174.
992:
973:
954:
932:
884:
877:
855:
848:
822:
815:
789:
774:
767:
761:. p. 39.
741:
706:
699:
677:Arendt, Hannah
668:
657:(2): 383–414.
638:
631:
605:
598:
578:
571:
542:
535:
508:
506:
503:
502:
501:
494:
489:
484:
479:
472:
469:
464:
463:
460:
457:
440:
437:
433:Shimer College
429:Frances Shimer
417:home economics
407:. The rise of
376:
373:
316:Woman Suffrage
306:
304:
301:
255:
252:
250:
247:
206:middle classes
196:, an ideal of
95:ancient Greeks
86:
83:
34:Terms such as
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1868:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1766:(3): 212–213.
1765:
1761:
1754:
1746:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1686:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1661:
1659:
1650:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1634:
1625:
1617:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1584:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1505:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1480:
1472:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1448:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1398:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1356:Social Forces
1350:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1322:
1315:
1307:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1290:. New Haven:
1288:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1262:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1235:
1226:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1201:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1168:
1162:
1158:
1155:. New Delhi:
1154:
1153:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1097:
1095:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1076:9780205247288
1072:
1068:
1061:
1059:
1050:
1044:
1040:
1039:
1031:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
996:
988:
984:
977:
969:
965:
958:
950:
946:
942:
936:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
891:
889:
880:
874:
870:
866:
859:
851:
845:
841:
837:
833:
826:
818:
812:
808:
804:
800:
793:
785:
778:
770:
764:
760:
756:
752:
745:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
710:
702:
696:
692:
688:
684:
683:
678:
672:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
642:
634:
628:
624:
620:
616:
609:
601:
595:
591:
590:
582:
574:
568:
564:
560:
556:
549:
547:
538:
532:
528:
524:
520:
513:
509:
500:
499:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
482:Gender binary
480:
478:
475:
474:
468:
461:
458:
455:
454:
453:
450:
446:
436:
434:
431:, founder of
430:
424:
422:
421:dean of women
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
349:
344:
341:
337:
332:
330:
324:
321:
317:
310:
300:
297:
293:
290:
286:
281:
279:
278:
273:
269:
265:
261:
246:
243:
238:
236:
230:
227:
222:
219:
215:
210:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
190:
185:
184:Betty Friedan
180:
175:
173:
169:
168:
163:
158:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
130:
124:
122:
118:
117:
112:
111:
106:
102:
101:
96:
92:
82:
80:
75:
71:
69:
66:that seek to
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
29:
25:
21:
1815:
1803:
1778:
1772:
1763:
1759:
1753:
1734:
1728:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1670:
1632:
1624:
1601:
1591:
1567:. New York:
1562:
1554:
1529:
1525:
1489:
1479:
1451:
1440:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1386:
1376:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1329:
1320:
1314:
1285:
1250:
1214:
1208:
1185:
1175:
1151:
1106:
1102:
1066:
1037:
1030:
1005:
1001:
995:
986:
976:
967:
957:
948:
935:
902:
898:
868:
858:
835:
825:
802:
792:
783:
777:
754:
744:
722:(1): 53–72.
719:
715:
709:
681:
671:
654:
650:
641:
618:
608:
588:
581:
558:
522:
512:
496:
465:
442:
425:
401:woman's club
382:
378:
368:
360:
353:evangelicals
345:
340:Antifeminist
333:
326:
315:
312:
308:
282:
275:
272:reproduction
257:
239:
231:
223:
211:
187:
182:
177:
171:
165:
159:
125:
120:
114:
108:
98:
88:
76:
72:
67:
39:
35:
33:
23:
1856:Dichotomies
1459:. pp.
1294:. pp.
1069:. Pearson.
905:(1): 9–39.
689:. pp.
685:. Chicago:
492:Gender role
385:coeducation
363:(1797) and
346:Similarly,
42:refer to a
1841:Ideologies
1835:Categories
1787:1418490551
1781:(Thesis).
1571:. p.
1188:. Lanham:
505:References
365:Henry Venn
294:and other
249:Influences
198:femininity
142:Lucy Stone
26:(1857) by
1825:Victorian
1720:145115891
1546:152033474
1432:145428652
1131:145576707
1085:951536398
927:162353067
807:Routledge
736:141033858
289:dissident
150:Karl Marx
105:Aristotle
52:empirical
1783:ProQuest
1282:(1982).
943:(1840).
563:ABC-CLIO
471:See also
409:teaching
399:and the
216:(1974),
100:Politics
1827:Britain
1022:2711179
919:1889653
375:Effects
85:History
46:within
1851:Sexism
1785:
1741:
1718:
1681:
1645:
1641:, 68.
1612:
1579:
1544:
1500:
1467:
1430:
1393:
1340:
1302:
1257:
1221:
1196:
1163:
1129:
1123:506286
1121:
1083:
1073:
1045:
1020:
925:
917:
875:
846:
813:
765:
734:
697:
693:, 72.
629:
596:
569:
533:
322:(1893)
58:and a
1716:S2CID
1542:S2CID
1461:43–58
1428:S2CID
1245:. In
1127:S2CID
1119:JSTOR
1018:JSTOR
923:S2CID
915:JSTOR
732:S2CID
447:from
202:upper
164:. In
121:polis
116:polis
110:oikos
97:. In
1739:ISBN
1679:ISBN
1643:ISBN
1610:ISBN
1577:ISBN
1498:ISBN
1465:ISBN
1391:ISBN
1338:ISBN
1300:ISBN
1255:ISBN
1219:ISBN
1194:ISBN
1161:ISBN
1081:OCLC
1071:ISBN
1043:ISBN
873:ISBN
844:ISBN
811:ISBN
763:ISBN
695:ISBN
627:ISBN
594:ISBN
567:ISBN
531:ISBN
391:and
204:and
148:and
140:and
38:and
1708:doi
1675:205
1606:477
1534:doi
1420:doi
1364:doi
1296:114
1111:doi
1010:doi
907:doi
724:doi
659:doi
403:in
395:in
367:'s
359:'s
212:In
186:'s
1837::
1819:,
1807:,
1762:.
1714:.
1704:20
1702:.
1677:.
1657:^
1639:48
1608:.
1575:.
1540:.
1530:23
1528:.
1512:^
1463:.
1449:.
1426:.
1414:.
1360:65
1358:.
1328:.
1269:^
1233:^
1184:.
1139:^
1125:.
1117:.
1107:47
1105:.
1093:^
1079:.
1057:^
1016:.
1006:18
1004:.
985:.
966:.
947:.
921:.
913:.
903:75
901:.
887:^
753:.
730:.
720:26
718:.
691:24
655:36
653:.
557:.
545:^
318:,
136:,
103:,
1789:.
1764:6
1747:.
1722:.
1710::
1687:.
1651:.
1618:.
1585:.
1573:4
1548:.
1536::
1506:.
1473:.
1434:.
1422::
1416:1
1399:.
1370:.
1366::
1344:.
1308:.
1263:.
1227:.
1202:.
1169:.
1133:.
1113::
1087:.
1051:.
1024:.
1012::
929:.
909::
881:.
852:.
819:.
771:.
738:.
726::
703:.
665:.
661::
635:.
602:.
575:.
539:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
