Semitic languages - Knowledge

938: 2557:, not to be confused with the related but distinct language Tigre, is, like Amharic, a northern Ethiopian Semitic language, is spoken as a native language by the overwhelming majority of the population in the Tigre province of Ethiopia and in the highland part of Eritrea (the provinces of Akkele Guzay, Serae and Hamasien, where the capital of the state, Asmara, is situated). Outside of this area Tigrinya is also spoken in the Tambien and Wolqayt historical districts (Ethiopia) and in the administrative districts of Massara and Keren (Eritrea), these being respectively the southern and northern limits of its expansion. The number of speaker of Tigrinya has been estimated at 4 million in 1995; 1.3 million of them live in Eritrea (around 50 percent of the population of the country), in 2008 by an estimated 5 million. 533: 17593:

Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars, and this knowledge was published in Western Europe as early as 1538 (see Postel 1538). Around 1700 Hiob Ludolf, who had written grammars of Geez and Amharic (both Ethiopic Semitic languages) in the seventeenth century, recognized the extension of the Semitic family into East Africa. Thus when von Schlozer named the family in 1781 he was merely recognizing genetic relationships that had been known for centuries. Three Semitic languages (Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew) were long familiar to Europeans both because of their geographic proximity and because the Bible was written in Hebrew and Aramaic.

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Palestinian Melkites were mostly Jewish converts to Christianity, who had a long tradition of using Palestinian Aramaic dialects as literary languages. Closely associated with the Palestinian Melkites were the Melkites of Transjordan, who also used Palestinian Christian Aramaic. Another community of Aramaic-speaking Melkites existed in the vicinity of Antioch and parts of Syria. These Melkites used Classical Syriac as a written language, the common literary language of the overwhelming majority of Christian Arameans.

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concentrated around Antioch and adjacent regions of northern Syria and used Syriac as their literary and liturgical language. The Melkite community also included the Aramaic-speaking Jewish converts to Christianity in Palestine and the Orthodox Christians of Transjordan. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary work (mainly translation) in Palestinian Christian Aramaic, a Western Aramaic dialect, using a script closely resembling the Estrangela cursive of Osrhoene.

164: 1427: 1089: 152: 1285: 17223:. Like it, by taking up only the two extreme members of a whole sisterhood according to their geographical position when in their native seats, it embraces all the intermediate branches under a common band; and, like it, it constitutes a name which is not only at once intelligible, but one which in itself conveys a notion of that affinity between the sister dialects, which it is one of the objects of 9615:(the ancestors of modern Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic). Essentially, the old prefix-conjugated jussive or preterite became a new non-past (or imperfect), while the stative became a new past (or perfect), and the old prefix-conjugated non-past (or imperfect) with gemination was discarded. New suffixes were used to mark different moods in the non-past, e.g. Classical Arabic 15399:"However, in contrast to what went on in northern Syria and Mesopotamia, where Syriac competed well with Greek to remain a great cultural language, Syropalestinian was in a weak position with regard to Greek and, later, to Arabic." quote from the book The Fourth International Conference on the History of Bilād Al-Shām During the Umayyad Period: English section, p.31 8751:, the classical VSO order has given way to SVO. Modern Ethiopian Semitic languages follow a different word order: SOV, possessor–possessed, and adjective–noun; however, the oldest attested Ethiopian Semitic language, Ge'ez, was VSO, possessed–possessor, and noun–adjective. Akkadian was also predominantly SOV. 15307:"…Syriac, the Classical dialect of Aramaic first attested in Edessa, about 200 CE, but which spread through the Christian communities of Mesopotamia and the Levant in the following centuries.", Revival and Awakening American Evangelical Missionaries in Iran and the Origins of Assyrian Nationalism, p.49 2544:

probably fewer than only Arabic, Swahili, Hausa, and Oromo, and is the second most populous Semitic language, after just Arabic. It is the lingua franca and constitutionally recognized national language of Ethiopia, and the national language of instruction of Ethiopian public education in the primary

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The Akkadian form is from Sargonic Akkadian. Among the Semitic languages, there are languages with /i/ as the final vowel (this is the form in Mehri). For a recent discussion concerning the reconstruction of the forms of the dual pronouns, see Bar-Asher, Elitzur. 2009. "Dual Pronouns in Semitics and

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are highly divergent and wonders whether they might not be a primary branch, reflecting an origin of Afroasiatic in or near Ethiopia. At a lower level, there is still no general agreement on where to draw the line between "languages" and "dialects" – an issue particularly relevant in

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The other linguistic group to be recognized in the eighteenth century was the Semitic family. The German scholar Ludwig von Schlozer is often credited with having recognized, and named, the Semitic family in 1781. But the affinity of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic had been recognized for centuries by

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originally used hieroglyphs, until they here and there, either through contact with the Semites, or through their settlement among them, became familiar with their syllabograms or alphabetic script, and partly adopted them. Viewed from this aspect too, with respect to the alphabet used, the name

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The main center of Aramaic-speaking Melkites was Palestine. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary, mainly translation work in the local Western Aramaic dialect, known as "Palestinian Christian Aramaic", using a script closely resembling the cursive Estrangela of Osrhoene.

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actually takes both prefixes and suffixes, with the prefixes primarily indicating person (and sometimes number or gender), while the suffixes (which are completely different from those used in the suffix conjugation) indicate number and gender whenever the prefix does not mark this. The prefix

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Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die

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The term "Semitic" is borrowed from the Bible (Gene. x.21 and xi.10–26). It was first used by the Orientalist A. L. Schlözer in 1781 to designate the languages spoken by the Aramæans, Hebrews, Arabs, and other peoples of the Near East (Moscati et al., 1969, Sect. 1.2). Before Schlözer, these

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in 1976 and with later emendations by John Huehnergard and Rodgers as summarized in Hetzron 1997, is the most widely accepted today. In particular, several Semiticists still argue for the traditional (partially nonlinguistic) view of Arabic as part of South Semitic, and a few (e.g. Alexander

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In contrast to "Nestorians" and "Jacobites", a small group of Syriacs accepted the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. Non-Chalcedonian Syriacs called them "Melkites" (from Aramaic malka "king"), thereby connecting them to the Byzantine Emperor's denomination. Melkite Syriacs were mostly

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consisting typically of triliteral, or three-consonant consonantal roots (two- and four-consonant roots also exist), from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways (e.g., by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels or by adding prefixes, suffixes, or

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Militarev or the German-Egyptian professor Arafa Hussein Mustafa) see Modern South Arabian as a third branch of Semitic alongside East and West Semitic, rather than as a subgroup of South Semitic. However, a new classification groups Old South Arabian as Central Semitic instead.

9623:(subjunctive), vs no suffix (jussive). It is not generally agreed whether the systems of the various Semitic languages are better interpreted in terms of tense, i.e. past vs. non-past, or aspect, i.e. perfect vs. imperfect. A special feature in classical Hebrew is the 8819:. Classical Arabic still has a mandatory dual (i.e. it must be used in all circumstances when referring to two entities), marked on nouns, verbs, adjectives and pronouns. Many contemporary dialects of Arabic still have a dual, as in the name for the nation of Bahrain ( 17555:

The former belief that this arrival of South-Semitic-speakers took place in about the second quarter of the first millennium BC can no longer be accepted in view of linguistic indications that these languages were spoken in the northern Horn at a much earlier

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435:). Words are composed from roots not so much by adding prefixes or suffixes, but rather by filling in the vowels between the root consonants, although prefixes and suffixes are often added as well. For example, in Arabic, the root meaning "write" has the form 964:

also emerged in Canaan (Israel and the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon) during the 14th century BC, incorporating elements of the Mesopotamian East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia with the West Semitic Canaanite languages.

17217:. This term, has the advantage of forming an exact counterpart to the name by which the only other great family of languages with which we are likely to bring the Syro-Arabian into relations of contrast or accordance, is now universally known—the 16043:... معلولا السريان منذ القديم ، والذين ثبتت سريانيتهم بأدلة كثيرة هم وعين التينة وبخعا وجبعدين فحافظوا على لغتهم وكتبهم أكثر من غيرهم . وكان للقوم في تلك الأيام لهجتان ، لهجة عاميّة وهي الباقية الآن في معلولا وجوارها ( جبعدين وبخعا ) ... 8779:, has disappeared everywhere in the many colloquial forms of Semitic languages. Modern Standard Arabic maintains such case distinctions, although they are typically lost in free speech due to colloquial influence. An accusative ending 14764:

This root underwent regressive assimilation. This parallels the non-adjacent assimilation of *ś... > *š...š in proto-Canaanite or proto-North-West-Semitic in the roots *śam?š > *šamš 'sun' and *śur?š > *šurš 'root'. The form

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Successful as second languages far beyond their numbers of contemporary first-language speakers, a few Semitic languages today are the base of the sacred literature of some of the world's major religions, including Islam (Arabic),

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prefix marks the third-person masculine; and (2) identical words are used for second-person masculine and third-person feminine singular. The prefix conjugation is extremely old, with clear analogues in nearly all the families of

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in both. Amharic is the official language of Ethiopia. Tigrinya is a working language in Eritrea. Tigre is spoken by over one million people in the northern and central Eritrean lowlands and parts of eastern Sudan. A number of

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In Tigrinya and Amharic, this root was used widely but is now seen as an archaic form. Ethiopic-derived languages use different roots for things that have to do with writing (and in some cases counting). The primitive root

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Despite the ascendancy of Arabic in the Middle East, other Semitic languages still exist. Biblical Hebrew, long extinct as a colloquial language and in use only in Jewish literary, intellectual, and liturgical activity,

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times, these had all merged with other sounds. This conclusion is mainly based on the shifting representation of words etymologically containing these sounds; in early Aramaic writing, the first five are merged with

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The similarity of the Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages has been accepted by all scholars since medieval times. The languages were familiar to Western European scholars due to historical contact with neighbouring

14720:"In the historically attested Semitic languages, the endings of the singular noun-flexions survive, as is well known, only partially: in Akkadian and Arabic and Ugaritic and, limited to the accusative, in Ethiopic." 16121:

The fact that nearly all Arabic loans in Ma'lula originate from the period before the change from the rural dialect to the city dialect of Damascus shows that the contact between the Aramaeans and the Arabs was

2642:, as sound correspondences among the consonants of the Semitic languages are very straightforward for a family of its time depth. Sound shifts affecting the vowels are more numerous and, at times, less regular. 620:

are purely names of tribes who speak the so-called Oriental languages and live in Southwest Asia. As far as we can trace the history of these very languages back in time, they have always been written with

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In Aramaic and Hebrew, all non-emphatic stops occurring singly after a vowel were softened to fricatives, leading to an alternation that was often later phonemicized as a result of the loss of gemination.

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Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic."

15390:"JACOB BARcLAY, Melkite Orthodox Syro-Byzantine Manuscripts in Syriac and Palestinian Aramaic" quote from the German book Internationale Zeitschriftenschau für Bibelwissenschaft und Grenzgebiete, p. 291 17181:

down to the end of the last century, and which is even now not entirely abandoned, must always have been an unscientific one, inasmuch as the countries in which these languages prevailed are only the

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status, Arabic rapidly became one of the world's main literary languages. Its spread among the masses took much longer, however, as many (although not all) of the native populations outside the

15408:"Some Chalcedonians of Palestine and the Transjordan chose to write in Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA) rather than Syriac." quote from the book A Companion to Byzantine Epistolography, p.68 7007:

spirantization, which occurred after this merger, OAm. t > ṯ and d > ḏ in some positions, so that PS *t,ṯ and *d, ḏ may be realized as either of t, ṯ and d, ḏ respectively.) The sounds

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The Semitic languages share a number of grammatical features, although variation — both between separate languages, and within the languages themselves — has naturally occurred over time.

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script that omits some or all of the vowels, which is feasible for these languages because the consonants are the primary carriers of meaning in the Semitic languages. These include the

16677:"On the Semitic Languages, and their relations with the Indo-European Class. Pt II. On the Connection of Semitic Roots with corresponding forms in the Indo-European Class of Languages" 6893:. In both of these cases, however, the two sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions. 1022:

language, possibly closely related to Aramaic, but no examples of the language remain, as after settling in south eastern Mesopotamia from the Levant during the 9th century BC, the

9581:(i.e. at least 10,000 years old). The table on the right shows examples of the prefix and suffix conjugations in Classical Arabic, which has forms that are close to Proto-Semitic. 8364:

of Semitic languages. The history of vowel changes in the languages makes drawing up a complete table of correspondences impossible, so only the most common reflexes can be given:

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Most of the attested languages have merged a number of the reconstructed original fricatives, though South Arabian retains all fourteen (and has added a fifteenth from *p > f).

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for indicative vs. no prefix for subjunctive in many varieties). In the extreme case of Neo-Aramaic, the verb conjugations have been entirely reworked under Iranian influence.

7079:. It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE. After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low 9549:

take suffixes indicating the person, number and gender of the subject, which bear some resemblance to the pronominal suffixes used to indicate direct objects on verbs ("I saw

17724: 12635:. These are generally grouped further, but there is ongoing debate as to which belong together. The classification based on shared innovations given below, established by 9584:

In Proto-Semitic, as still largely reflected in East Semitic, prefix conjugations are used both for the past and the non-past, with different vocalizations. Cf. Akkadian

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Although early Aramaic (pre-7th century BCE) had only 22 consonants in its alphabet, it apparently distinguished all of the original 29 Proto-Semitic phonemes, including

16723: 8851:"dams" – found most profusely in the languages of Arabia and Ethiopia, may be partly of proto-Semitic origin, and partly elaborated from simpler origins. 16411:

About 3000 B.C. the nomadic Akkadians, a Semitic people from the Arabian Desert, migrated to Mesopotamia and founded the city-state of Akkad in a region north of Sumer.

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Ich kenne das Dorf nicht, doch gehört habe ich davon. Was ist mit Malula?‹ fragte der festgehaltene Derwisch. >Das letzte Dorf der Aramäer< lachte einer der…

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Arabic, Aramaic and Gurage – and the strong mutual influences between Arabic dialects render a genetic subclassification of them particularly difficult.

7035:, written about 200 BCE. This suggests that these sounds, too, were distinguished in Old Aramaic language, but written using the same letters as they later merged with. 17173:

That important family of languages, of which the Arabic is the most cultivated and most widely-extended branch, has long wanted an appropriate common name. The term

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While some believe that *ʔanāku was an innovation in some branches of Semitic utilizing an "intensifying" *-ku, comparison to other Afro-Asiatic 1ps pronouns (e.g.

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Alexis Neme and Sébastien Paumier (2019), Restoring Arabic vowels through omission-tolerant dictionary lookup, Lang Resources & Evaluation, Vol 53, 1–65 pages

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Woodard (2008, p. 219) suggests the presence of an emphatic p in some disparate Semitic languages may indicate that such an emphatic was present in Proto-Semitic.

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for details on the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Semitic used in this article). The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic (PS) was originally based primarily on

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Each Proto-Semitic phoneme was reconstructed to explain a certain regular sound correspondence between various Semitic languages. Note that Latin letter values (

1161:. The previously dominant Aramaic dialects maintained by the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians gradually began to be sidelined, however descendant dialects of 9608:, which was distinguished from the preterite only by the position of stress: the jussive had final stress while the preterite had non-final (retracted) stress. 8795:(compare the same distinction in Classical Arabic). Additionally, Semitic nouns and adjectives had a category of state, the indefinite state being expressed by 17205:

languages, which was soon generally adopted, and which is the most usual one at the present day. In modern times, however, the very appropriate designation

10424:"newspaper" or "parchment". Verbs in other non-Semitic Afroasiatic languages show similar radical patterns, but more usually with biconsonantal roots; e.g. 937: 2631:

Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/), as discussed in

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could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac).

16461: 14251: – an ancient Northwest Semitic people. They had various kingdoms and city-states and were historically organized in tribal structures. 7133:

There is evidence of a rule of assimilation of /j/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position, shared by Hebrew, Phoenician, and Aramaic.

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marks added to the consonants at all times, in contrast with other Semitic languages which indicate vowels based on need or for introductory purposes.

17063: 14294: – appeared in Transjordan between 11th to 2nd centuries BCE. Eventually assimilated into Jewish population during Hasmonean conquest. 12538:

Terms given in brackets are not derived from the respective Proto-Semitic roots, though they may also derive from Proto-Semitic (as does e.g. Arabic

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of the seventh and eighth centuries, Classical Arabic eventually replaced many (but not all) of the indigenous Semitic languages and cultures of the

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at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" (at the conference on the 70th anniversary of

17526: 16108: 15197: 15997: 12024:(also called "chiastic concord" or "reverse agreement"), i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa. 7293:

in north Algeria, Iraq, also in most of the Arabian peninsula and as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world,

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Almarri, Mohamed A.; Haber, Marc; Lootah, Reem A.; Hallast, Pille; Turki, Saeed Al; Martin, Hilary C.; Xue, Yali; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2020).

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These are the basic numeral stems without feminine suffixes. In most older Semitic languages, the forms of the numerals from 3 to 10 exhibit

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Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/).

17636:. Smart, J. R., Shaban Memorial Conference (2nd : 1994 : University of Exeter). Richmond, Surrey, U.K.: Taylor & Francis. 17382:(German title: Untersuchungen zu Satztypen in den epischen Texten von Ugarit). Dissertation. Halle-Wittenberg: Martin-Luther-University. 15496: 14691:, or else and would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited 16980: 12561:

means "meat" in Arabic, but "bread" in Hebrew and "cow" in Ethiopian Semitic; the original meaning was most probably "food". The word

15174: 6223: 1153:. Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, followed later by non-Semitic Muslim 16431: 12600: 979:, gradually replaced the East Semitic and Canaanite languages across much of the Near East, particularly after being adopted as the 637:); and the legends about the invention of the syllabograms and alphabetic script go back to the Semites. In contrast, all so called 16652:"On the Semitic Languages, and their relations with the Indo-European Class. Pt I. On the Nature and Development of Semitic Roots" 7500:

The following table shows the development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic and Maltese through cognate words:

17743: 12927: 8355: 600:) in which he justified the terminology against criticism that Hebrew and Canaanite were the same language despite Canaan being " 17842: 16781: 15772: 16521: 15906: 12986: 12917: 15101: 17665: 17641: 17610: 17470: 17335: 17302: 17246: 16998: 16969: 16876: 16640: 16621: 16548: 16507: 15920: 15835: 15270: 15124:"Early Semitic. A diachronical inquiry into the relationship of Ethiopic to the other so-called South-East Semitic languages" 14955: 12966: 7038:

The earlier pharyngeals can be distinguished in Akkadian from the zero reflexes of *ḥ, *ʕ by e-coloring adjacent *a, e.g. pS

339:(including Hebrew, Phoenician, Moabite, Edomite, and Ammonite, and perhaps Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean), the still spoken 17704: 17671: 17579: 17509: 17341: 17308: 17273: 17037: 16764: 16554: 15243: 16151: 12576:

Of course, there is sometimes no relation between the roots. For example, "knowledge" is represented in Hebrew by the root

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Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday

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is one of the world's largest languages, spoken natively in West Asia and Africa by about 300 million speakers, and as a

2450: 2418: 2262: 1626: 7065:) when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes 17503: 17119:"Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages identifies an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the Near East" 13657: 13214: 12620: 1622: 576:(1781), to designate the languages closely related to Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew. The choice of name was derived from 14683:

According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of

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indicating the non-past/imperfect, are generally attributed to Afroasiatic. Proto-Semitic had an additional form, the

1410:) languages, and replacing Ge'ez as the principal literary language (though Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for 653:" in European literature. In the 19th century, "Semitic" became the conventional name; however, an alternative name, " 429:

are not themselves syllables or words, but instead are isolated sets of consonants (usually three, making a so-called

17737: 17698: 17573: 17536: 17369: 17267: 17099: 17031: 16899: 16831: 16793: 16758: 16602: 16583: 16404: 16290:

Viele Aramäer arbeiten heute in Damaskus, Beirut oder in den Golfstaaten und verbringen nur die Sommermonate im Dorf.

16283: 16243: 16213: 16185: 16145: 16102: 16064: 15703: 15427: 15207: 1402:, Amharic, previously a minor local language, spread throughout much of the country, replacing both Semitic (such as 1032:(classified as South Semitic and therefore distinct from the Central-Semitic Arabic) were spoken in the kingdoms of 18144: 14181: 12941: 4243: 2144: 1807: 1769: 1618: 675: 17: 17357: 16373: 1378:

Meanwhile, the Semitic languages that had arrived from southern Arabia in the 8th century BC were diversifying in

18149: 17830: 13505: 12956: 12946: 12573:) has the meaning of "metropolis" in Amharic, "city" in Arabic and Ancient Hebrew, and "State" in Modern Hebrew. 7087:, the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives 17197:

were brought within the reach of our research, it became palpably incorrect. Under a sense of this impropriety,

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and numerous other ancient and modern languages. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of

18356: 18176: 17860: 14119: 13786: 12742: 12628: 7143: 6822:, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of ש were distinguished graphically in 5750: 2620:

Huehnergard (2003, p.49) presents a minority opinion that an ejective velar fricative existed in Proto-Semitic.

2179: 1748:) is very conservative, and which preserves as contrastive 28 out of the evident 29 consonantal phonemes. with 1665: 1642: 1356: 1311:

tribes settled in conquered areas, it became the main language of not only central Arabia, but also Yemen, the

17616: 16306: 15670: 10416:"story". This root also exists in Arabic and is used to form words with a close meaning to "writing", such as 2664:

In languages exhibiting pharyngealization of emphatics, the original velar emphatic has rather developed to a

1687:, remains, Ethiopia and Eritrea contain a substantial number of Semitic languages; the most widely spoken are 569: 241: 14755:

an Evaluation of the Evidence for their Existence in Biblical Hebrew," Ancient Near Eastern Studies 46: 32–49

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The emphatic interdental fricative is usually spelled *ṯ̣ but is replaced here by *ṱ for better readability.

573: 18386: 18022: 17054: 16979:

Hetzron, Robert; Kaye, Alan S.; Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2018). "Semitic Languages". In Comrie, Bernard (ed.).

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The West Semitic languages significantly reshaped the system. The most substantial changes occurred in the

4098: 2130: 1777: 1756: 1654: 383: 14696: 14692: 14688: 14684: 13854: 13848: 12044:

Due to the Semitic languages' common origin, they share some words and roots. Others differ. For example:

11992: 11981: 11975: 11938: 11927: 11921: 11884: 11873: 11867: 11830: 11819: 11813: 11776: 11764: 11760: 11754: 11717: 11706: 11700: 11663: 11652: 11646: 11609: 11598: 11592: 11549: 11540: 11528: 11524: 11518: 11469: 11457: 11451: 9564: 8291: 8283: 8249: 8243: 8227: 8219: 8179: 8173: 8165: 8125: 8119: 8113: 8107: 8099: 8063: 8055: 8047: 8005: 7998: 7993: 7987: 7979: 7936: 7930: 7924: 7918: 7910: 7876: 7870: 7864: 7856: 7816: 7810: 7804: 7798: 7790: 7767: 7761: 7755: 7749: 7741: 7707: 7701: 7695: 7690: 7684: 7679: 7671: 7629: 7623: 7617: 7609: 7569: 7563: 7557: 7551: 7543: 7256: 7244: 7224: 7212: 7192: 7188: 7181: 7177: 7115: 7111: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7070: 7066: 7054: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6874: 6865: 6856: 6847: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6771: 6750: 6735: 6730: 6704: 6675: 6667: 6628: 6607: 6592: 6587: 6561: 6532: 6524: 6485: 6464: 6449: 6444: 6418: 6389: 6381: 6342: 6281: 6252: 6244: 6205: 6144: 6115: 6107: 6068: 6015: 5994: 5986: 5951: 5930: 5915: 5910: 5884: 5851: 5812: 5791: 5771: 5732: 5699: 5684: 5679: 5651: 5622: 5614: 5567: 5546: 5531: 5526: 5498: 5450: 5398: 5378: 5339: 5306: 5291: 5286: 5256: 5206: 5159: 5126: 5118: 5113: 5049: 5041: 5000: 4967: 4952: 4947: 4919: 4882: 4874: 4835: 4814: 4799: 4794: 4768: 4739: 4700: 4673: 4658: 4653: 4590: 4551: 4518: 4513: 4484: 4476: 4437: 4404: 4399: 4380: 4372: 4320: 4305: 4300: 4274: 4225: 4204: 4189: 4184: 4156: 4127: 4119: 4055: 4047: 4008: 3975: 3960: 3955: 3929: 3892: 3853: 3826: 3811: 3806: 3774: 3745: 3737: 3698: 3677: 3662: 3657: 3631: 3602: 3594: 3589: 3550: 3523: 3508: 3503: 3471: 3442: 3434: 3395: 3368: 3353: 3348: 3316: 3287: 3279: 3240: 3213: 3198: 3193: 3161: 3132: 3124: 3119: 3080: 3053: 3038: 3033: 3001: 2972: 2964: 2632: 18275: 18164: 15633:"A neglected phonetic law: The assimilation of pretonic yod to a following coronal in North-West Semitic" 14664: 14458: 14309: 13912: 12813: 12732: 12714: 12632: 12616: 8720: 8361: 7155: 7107: 5830: 5357: 5020: 2355: 2240: 2193: 1737: 1676:. These languages differ greatly from both the surrounding Arabic dialects and from the languages of the 1570: 1566: 1554: 1529:(Ge'ez). Millions learn these as a second language (or an archaic version of their modern tongues): many 1029: 823: 562: 532: 422: 324:), a sister branch within the Afroasiatic family, related to the Semitic languages but not part of them. 18381: 17846: 16753:. Vol. 13: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 708–719. 13842: 7439: 743: 441:. From this root, words are formed by filling in the vowels and sometimes adding consonants, e.g. كِتاب 18391: 18361: 18351: 18017: 17898: 17091: 16676: 16651: 13690: 13373: 13067: 13062: 12655: 12553:

in Arabic has the meaning of "white" as well as "egg", whereas in Hebrew it only means "egg". The root

12549:

Sometimes, certain roots differ in meaning from one Semitic language to another. For example, the root

6503: 5593: 4569: 4455: 3258: 2436: 2116: 1929: 1913: 1614: 1562: 15169: 18376: 18270: 18103: 17992: 17956: 17936: 17198: 16709: 16423: 15530: 15065: 14267: 14041: 13577: 13567: 13560: 13535: 13027: 13015: 12853: 12808: 12784: 12709: 9612: 8812: 8618: 7397: 7377: 7337: 7306: 7294: 7286: 7153: 7141: 6795: 6644: 6501: 6358: 6221: 6084: 5967: 5828: 5748: 5591: 5585: 5583: 5427: 5355: 5183: 5175: 5090: 5018: 4853: 4851: 4716: 4567: 4453: 4349: 4241: 4096: 4026: 4024: 3869: 3714: 3566: 3411: 3256: 3096: 2941: 2491: 2475: 2448: 2434: 2416: 2385: 2353: 2318: 2316: 2302: 2277: 2260: 2238: 2226: 2224: 2191: 2177: 2156: 2142: 2128: 2114: 2082: 2064: 2048: 2027: 2005: 1981: 1945: 1927: 1911: 1805: 1797: 1775: 1767: 1754: 1578: 1518: 1162: 1103: 961: 855: 593: 16084: 15649: 7313:

is used in northern Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. In addition to other minor allophones.

18371: 18366: 18195: 17970: 17931: 17811: 15949: 15418:

Arman Akopian (11 December 2017). "Other branches of Syriac Christianity: Melkites and Maronites".

14835: 14124: 13380: 12897: 7379: 2805: 2271: 1717: 1633:. Although the majority of Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken today are descended from Eastern varieties, 1558: 1526: 1026:

appear to have rapidly adopted the Akkadian and Aramaic languages of the indigenous Mesopotamians.

16815: 16713: 16233: 2654:) for extinct languages are a question of transcription; the exact pronunciation is not recorded. 18282: 18188: 17720: 17224: 17219: 15912: 13904: 13801: 12726: 9640: 7385: 5185: 3871: 3716: 3413: 2943: 2304: 2066: 2050: 1947: 1721: 1683:

Historically linked to the peninsular homeland of Old South Arabian, of which only one language,

867: 15123: 13340: 431: 18265: 18259: 18228: 18159: 18154: 18037: 18027: 17912: 15644: 14659: 13495: 13463: 13239: 12803: 12764: 12704: 12699: 12612: 10519: 9545:

All Semitic languages show two quite distinct styles of morphology used for conjugating verbs.

8744: 6885:, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: ח 5177: 4718: 2890: 2828: 2749: 1983: 1967: 1835: 1594: 1589:. Classical Syriac is also used liturgically by the primarily Arabic-speaking followers of the 1574: 1327:'s incursion in the 11th century, and Arabic became the native language of many inhabitants of 1146: 930:

language closely related to but distinct from the Canaanite group was spoken in the kingdom of

801: 796:

colonists at approximately the same time. Others assign the arrival of Semitic speakers in the

747: 596:

is credited with popularising the term, particularly via a 1795 article "Semitische Sprachen" (

264: 109: 103: 91: 16959: 16887: 14945: 12889: 1201:, with up to a million fluent speakers. Syriac is a recognized language in Iraq, furthermore, 1141:, first emerged in written form in the 1st to 4th centuries CE in the southern regions of The 746:

is still under discussion. Several locations were proposed as possible sites of a prehistoric

553:, and a comparative analysis of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic was published in Latin in 1538 by 18002: 17997: 17951: 17905: 17883: 17599:

Sánchez, Francisco del Río (2013). Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro; Watson, Wilfred G. E. (eds.).

17388:

An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages: Phonology and Morphology

17234: 17210: 16571: 15108:

Andrew George, "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian", In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.),

14742: 14216: 13700: 13695: 13685: 13592: 13415: 9578: 7488:, respectively, still occur among some older Mizrahi speakers, but for most modern Israelis, 6086: 5969: 2922: 2772: 2493: 2477: 2406: 2387: 1850: 1494: 1041: 992: 816: 763: 658: 181: 74: 13366: 12658:

analysis by Kitchen et al. (2009) considers the Semitic languages to have originated in the

9572:

prefix is used in the singular to mark the second person and third-person feminine, while a

15961: 14567: 14550: 14129: 14091: 14028: 13974: 13608: 13288: 13224: 12951: 12934: 12912: 8657: 8623: 8459: 7339: 7308: 7149: 7137: 3098: 2084: 1879: 1049: 843: 17020:

Hudson, Grover; Kogan, Leonid E. (1997). "Amharic and Argobba". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.).

15240:"The Origin of the Jews: The Quest for Roots in a Rootless Age By Steven Weitzman page 69" 15164: 7318: 7271: 8: 17807: 17201:

was the first, as he says himself (Allg. Bibl. Biblioth. vi. 772), to introduce the name

17168: 16137:

Untersuchungen zum Spracherwerb zweisprachiger Kinder im Aramäerdorf Dschubbadin (Syrien)

14418:

into Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium BC and settled among the indigenous peoples of

14280: 14109: 14080: 13521: 13483: 13356: 13116: 13108: 13054: 12879: 12683: 10524: 9650:, for example, the old mood suffixes were dropped, and new mood prefixes developed (e.g. 9647: 8740: 7357: 7333: 6803: 3568: 3249: 2713: 2102: 2097: 2007: 1907: 1901: 1634: 1586: 1522: 1202: 1107: 988: 984: 819: 540: – possibly the first such representation in Western European literature. 363: 336: 275: 249: 14950:. Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series. University of Nebraska Press. 13037: 12863: 12679:. Evidence for gene movements consistent with this were found in Almarri et al. (2021). 18126: 17449: 17441: 17412: 17143: 17118: 16946: 16938: 16513: 16365: 16357: 15984: 15662: 14263: 13587: 13500: 12021: 8808: 8301: 8237: 7032: 5860: 5218: 2202: 1960: 1855: 1733: 1664:

and Oman, on the southern rim of the Arabian Peninsula, a few tribes continue to speak

1387: 1205:

is one of the most Syriac influenced dialects of Arabic, due to Syriac, the dialect of

1093: 14134: 13979: 13468: 8827:"two"), although it is marked only on nouns. It also occurs in Hebrew in a few nouns ( 7069:

disappeared in the 7th century BCE, and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew

6841:

Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes

1344: 142: 18301: 18183: 17733: 17694: 17661: 17637: 17606: 17569: 17532: 17499: 17480: 17466: 17453: 17416: 17365: 17331: 17298: 17263: 17242: 17148: 17095: 17027: 16994: 16965: 16950: 16895: 16872: 16827: 16789: 16754: 16636: 16617: 16598: 16579: 16544: 16503: 16400: 16369: 16349: 16279: 16239: 16209: 16181: 16141: 16098: 16060: 15989: 15916: 15831: 15764: 15699: 15423: 15203: 14951: 14804: 14780: 14546: 14063: 13938: 13773: 13717: 13646: 13612: 13571: 13555: 13539: 13529: 13457: 13433: 13409: 13399: 13324: 13266: 13260: 13256: 13250: 13135: 13048: 13042: 13031: 12901: 12857: 12828: 12770: 12736: 12624: 12083: 12058: 10492: 10482: 9632: 8784: 8776: 8723:(VSO), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). This was still the case in 8298: 8234: 7349: 7345: 7200: 7166:). However, /ʕ/ is retained in educational speech, especially among Assyrian priests. 5215: 2734: 2699: 2554: 1884: 1865: 1860: 1840: 1700: 1677: 1399: 1395: 1304: 1262: 1138: 1019: 996: 972: 953: 941: 927: 887: 835: 767: 736: 708: 626: 359: 314: 302: 267: 31: 16517: 16491:

Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff

16489: 15666: 15099: 13732: 13335: 8771:) with differing vowel endings (-u, -a -i), fully preserved in Qur'anic Arabic (see 1708:

are spoken by populations in the semi-mountainous region of central Ethiopia, while

18218: 18205: 18169: 18139: 17980: 17965: 17946: 17923: 17823: 17528:

Foundations of an African Civilization, Aksum and the Northern Horn 1000 BC-AD 1300

17433: 17404: 17190: 17138: 17130: 16986: 16930: 16823: 16495: 16341: 16135: 16090: 15979: 15971: 15823: 15654: 15199:

Foundations of an African Civilization, Aksum and the Northern Horn 1000 BC-AD 1300

14556: 14514: 14480: 14464: 14348: 14313: 14149: 14074: 13959: 13926: 13880: 13814: 13722: 13712: 13627: 13582: 13512: 13453: 13361: 13234: 13200: 13182: 13147: 13141: 13096: 13086: 13072: 13003: 12840: 12834: 12791: 12719: 12647: 12093: 12068: 12050: 11425: 10512: 10502: 8724: 8614: 7389: 7100: 2909: 2885: 2849: 2843: 2765: 2727: 2692: 2665: 2590: 2566: 2290: 2038: 1874: 1845: 1745: 1705: 1673: 1514: 1498: 1482: 1466: 1454: 1360: 1312: 1258: 1174: 1011: 968: 851: 839: 613: 605: 554: 550: 537: 407: 367: 325: 310: 306: 279: 201: 14773:

appears in most languages (e.g. Aramaic, Arabic, Ugaritic), but the original form

13420: 18314: 18307: 18238: 18233: 18213: 18080: 18007: 17941: 17750: 17688: 17655: 17563: 17493: 17325: 17290: 17257: 17085: 17021: 16748: 16538: 15818:

Weninger, Stefan (2011). "Reconstructive Morphology". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.).

15691: 15239: 15105: 14947:

Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment

14709: 14621: 14616: 14595: 14571: 14431: 14411: 14163: 14144: 14097: 14033: 14017: 13969: 13831: 13826: 13761: 13752: 13742: 13642: 13634: 13545: 13488: 13478: 13439: 13425: 13405: 13330: 13246: 13168: 13163: 13158: 13153: 12884: 12868: 12687: 12078: 10497: 10487: 10425: 9624: 8764: 8760: 8728: 8368:

Vowel correspondences in Semitic languages (in proto-Semitic stressed syllables)

7372:, some parts of the Levant, and to lesser extent in some parts (mostly rural) of 7353: 7196: 7080: 6823: 2895: 2856: 2821: 2720: 2578: 2558: 2525: 2371: 1870: 1709: 1684: 1590: 1582: 1542: 1474: 1415: 1368: 1300: 1254: 1210: 1178: 1170: 1154: 1099: 883: 831: 805: 680: 638: 581: 379: 375: 371: 253: 69: 17835: 17424:

Müller, Hans-Peter (1995). "Ergative Constructions In Early Semitic Languages".

12848: 9779:كِتَاب or كتاب "book" (the hyphen shows end of stem before various case endings) 2870: 387: 18330: 18134: 18098: 18074: 18069: 18064: 18049: 18012: 17651: 17259:

Guillaume Postel: Prophet of the Restitution of All Things His Life and Thought

16740: 15975: 14632: 14561: 14509: 14475: 14415: 14378: 14139: 14103: 14023: 14007: 14001: 13931: 13599: 13444: 13315: 13300: 13293: 13283: 13122: 12907: 12873: 12636: 12088: 12073: 10507: 9636: 6939: 2570: 2562: 1896: 1692: 1669: 1502: 1407: 1403: 1364: 1261:(although Berber is still largely extant in many areas), and for a time to the 1166: 1158: 1073: 797: 785: 716: 617: 415: 213: 58: 16820:

Introduction to the Semitic Languages: Text Specimens and Grammatical Sketches

16345: 15966: 15827: 15658: 18345: 18223: 18108: 18032: 17461:

Nebes, Norbert (2005). "Epigraphic South Arabian". In Uhlig, Siegbert (ed.).

16744: 16353: 16330:"Forced Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean Ideology" 14816:

This root was also assimilated in various ways. For example, Hebrew reflects

14583: 14534: 14490: 14485: 14470: 14340: 14046: 13781: 13727: 13707: 13662: 13473: 13391: 13320: 13310: 13271: 13172: 10477: 8840: 8768: 8748: 7793: 7744: 7435: 7228: 7084: 4342: 4234: 2902: 2742: 2152: 2138: 1793: 1763: 1646: 1470: 980: 808:

made its inhabitants to migrate in the fourth millennium BC into what is now

580:, one of the three sons of Noah in the genealogical accounts of the biblical 259:

Semitic languages occur in written form from a very early historical date in

229: 13862: 12690:

appear to have been Semitic, but are unclassified due to insufficient data.

10398:

are used. This root also exists in other Semitic languages, such as Hebrew:

2877: 1732:

The phonologies of the attested Semitic languages are presented here from a

804:

originated from an offshoot of a still earlier language in North Africa and

18317:? (unclassified; possibly Nilo-Saharan, transitional or a language isolate) 17152: 17134: 17081: 15993: 14600: 14529: 14499: 14187: 13984: 13680: 13674: 13669: 13550: 13525: 13386: 13305: 12796: 12643: 9669: 9663: 9628: 8783:

is preserved in Ethiopian Semitic. In the northwest, the scarcely attested

8102: 7913: 7859: 7413: 7399: 7263: 7232: 6637: 6077: 5576: 5429: 4844: 4446: 2934: 2487: 2412: 2220: 2214: 2209: 2166: 2110: 2044: 2029: 1486: 1462: 1430:

Approximate distribution of the Semitic languages around the 1st century AD

1222: 1123: 1053: 789: 771: 705: 622: 426: 411: 209: 205: 54: 50: 16990: 16220:

Die Kontakte zwischen den drei Aramäer-dörfern sind nicht besonders stark.

16094: 8915: 8839:

means "years"), but for those it is obligatory. The curious phenomenon of

5715: 128: 17831:

Ancient snake spell in Egyptian pyramid may be oldest Semitic inscription

16499: 14611: 14503: 14495: 13278: 13008: 12823: 12611:

There are six fairly uncontroversial nodes within the Semitic languages:

8772: 7405: 7392:

Yemen, and parts of Oman, Northern Iraq, parts of the Levant, especially

7361: 5821: 2187: 1610: 1606: 1348: 1111: 949: 945: 751: 712: 689: 630: 585: 558: 294: 237: 221: 17852: 16303:"Hilfe für das Aramäerdorf Maaloula e.V. | an aid project in Syria" 15147: 15145: 14355:. The remnants of these people became the modern inhabitants of Lebanon. 9643:

show a system somewhere between the East and Central Semitic languages.

7031:, but they are distinguished from the pharyngeals in the Demotic-script 1080:

language emerged (though the direction of influence remains uncertain).

17160: 16361: 16329: 14577: 14539: 14324: 14301: 14230: 13737: 13219: 13206: 12669: 9601: 9600:"we are/were/will be deciding" (stative). Some of these features, e.g. 8882: 7050: 7004: 6878: 2465: 1438: 1411: 1352: 1339:

in the 14th century, Arabic began to spread south of Egypt into modern

1328: 1324: 1250: 697: 693: 634: 225: 17445: 17087:

Computational Nonlinear Morphology: With Emphasis on Semitic Languages

16942: 16633:

The Rise and Fall of Ergativity in Aramaic: Cycles of Alignment Change

15765:"Semitic languages | Definition, Map, Tree, Distribution, & Facts" 7982: 7546: 5083: 3862: 2298: 2256: 2250: 402: – a modified abjad in which vowels are notated using 15524:"LIN325: Introduction to Semitic Languages. Common Consonant Changes" 15142: 14524: 14438: 14388: 14383: 14336: 13888: 10375: 2639: 1891: 1630: 1534: 1490: 1274: 1182: 1150: 793: 774:. According to a 2009 study, the Semitic languages originated in the 732: 546: 403: 283: 260: 136: 122: 118: 16059:(in German). Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Company KG. p. 151. 15787: 952:, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature, written in 163: 17600: 17437: 17408: 17194: 17186: 16934: 16203: 16175: 15632: 14626: 14605: 14519: 14414: – ancient East Semitic speakers who moved from the 14393: 14273: 14248: 14225: 14211: 14201: 13894: 13874: 13194: 12599:

For more comparative vocabulary lists, see the Wiktionary appendix

8796: 8699:

pS *a,*ā > Akk. e,ē in the neighborhood of pS *ʕ,*ħ and before r

7058: 2706: 2366: 1815: 1379: 1270: 1077: 923: 899: 809: 759: 701: 391: 355: 344: 271: 17825:

Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural

17380:

Analytical study of phrases and sentences in epic texts of Ugarit.

16302: 14370:

and eventually disappeared into the general Babylonian population.

13920: 12557:

means "milk" in Arabic, but the color "white" in Hebrew. The root

8360:

Proto-Semitic vowels are, in general, harder to deduce due to the

1629:. Mandaic is both spoken and used as a liturgical language by the 17602:

Archaism and Innovation in the Semitic Languages. Selected Papers

14646: 14590: 14425: 14360: 14297: 14220: 13954: 13868: 12818: 9750:يَتَكَاتَبُونَ or يتكاتبون "they write to each other" (masculine) 9605: 7474: 7409: 7373: 2574: 2537: 1696: 1688: 1602: 1598: 1550: 1510: 1426: 1391: 1383: 1372: 1336: 1320: 1308: 1307:

only gradually abandoned their languages in favour of Arabic. As

1242: 1238: 1234: 1057: 1052:, which in modern terms encompassed part of the eastern coast of 1045: 1023: 1007: 911: 907: 895: 875: 827: 720: 601: 561:

described the similarities between these three languages and the

399: 395: 340: 193: 189: 17177:

languages, which was exclusively applied to it from the time of

9885:مَكتوب or مكتوب "written" (participle) or "postal letter" (noun) 991:

during the 8th century BC, and being retained by the succeeding

975:

language, first attested in the 12th century BC in the northern

414:

and the only Semitic language to be an official language of the

240:. The terminology was first used in the 1780s by members of the 17178: 15289: 14398: 14352: 14254: 14240: 14068: 13229: 12659: 12063: 9668:

All Semitic languages exhibit a unique pattern of stems called

8816: 7674: 7302: 6351: 4089: 2687: 2541: 2521: 2444: 2124: 1750: 1741: 1650: 1530: 1478: 1434: 1293: 1284: 1206: 1198: 1142: 1134: 1119: 1115: 1088: 1033: 976: 931: 891: 879: 863: 775: 755: 648: 298: 233: 197: 185: 15555:

Kaufman, Stephen (1997), "Aramaic", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.),

1785: 1716:. Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for certain groups of 151: 16869:

Semitic Languages: Features, Structures, Relations, Processes

14419: 14373: 14344: 14286: 14206: 12032:

Some early Semitic languages are speculated to have had weak

10404: 9681: 9674: 8787:

reflects a case distinction in the plural between nominative

8747:(the modern literary language based on Classical Arabic) and 8667: 8222: 8050: 7612: 7393: 7369: 7365: 7174: 7083:), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic. In 5420: 5168: 5011: 4017: 3707: 3089: 2336: 2330: 2312: 2234: 2078: 2060: 2023: 2017: 1713: 1661: 1546: 1458: 1450: 1340: 1332: 1316: 1289: 1278: 1266: 1246: 1230: 1226: 1218: 1194: 1127: 1126:

in the third to fifth centuries and continued into the early

1069: 1061: 1037: 919: 915: 903: 871: 859: 847: 728: 688:

Semitic languages were spoken and written across much of the

565:. However, neither scholar named this grouping as "Semitic". 437: 351: 217: 62: 17789:

Lectures on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages

15859: 15799: 15709: 9919:اِكتِتاب or اكتتاب "registration" or "contribution of funds" 1390:

influence, they split into a number of languages, including

1122:, India, rose to importance as a literary language of early 1072:. South Semitic languages are thought to have spread to the 14445: 14339: – founded Mediterranean colonies including 14331: 14319: 14291: 14235: 12672:, with early Ethiosemitic originating from southern Arabia 9596:"we decide" (non-past or imperfect), vs. suffix-conjugated 8356:

Proto-Afroasiatic language § Consonant correspondences

8286: 8168: 7285:) has three main pronunciations in Modern Standard Arabic. 7185: 7162: 7053:

spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds

6494: 6214: 5741: 5348: 4709: 3559: 3404: 2430: 2381: 2349: 2343: 2173: 2001: 1995: 1977: 1941: 1538: 1446: 1442: 1190: 1186: 1065: 724: 646:

Previously these languages had been commonly known as the "

577: 245: 17485:

The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia: A Comparative Phonology

16082: 7327: 7280: 7250: 7238: 7218: 7206: 7148:

is nonexistent. In general cases, the language would lack

1613:

and Classical Arabic are the main liturgical languages of

1299:

With the patronage of the caliphs and the prestige of its

1213:

is now only spoken by a few thousand Christian and Muslim

1209:

specifically, having originated in Mesopotamia. Meanwhile

17634:

Tradition and modernity in Arabic language and literature

16206:

Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien)

16178:

Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien)

15947: 15886: 15733: 15600: 15576: 15564: 15277: 14882: 13383:(Levantine Bedawi Arabic, Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic) 9646:

Later languages show further developments. In the modern

8719:

The reconstructed default word order in Proto-Semitic is

5960: 4560: 2471: 1923: 800:

to a much earlier date. According to another hypothesis,

17327:

Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society

16424:"Mesopotamian religion – Britannica Online Encyclopedia" 15721: 15322: 15112:. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pp. 37. 15011: 8693:

in a stressed closed syllable before a consonant cluster

7184:

jīm, is most probably connected to the pronunciation of

2672:

Regular correspondences of the Proto-Semitic consonants

1414:

in the region); this spread continues to this day, with

169:

Approximate historical distribution of Semitic languages

16739:

Brock, Sebastian (1998). "Syriac Culture, 337–425". In

16273: 16231: 16025:السريان في معلولا وجبعدين ولا يزال الأهلون فيها يتكلمون 15849: 15847: 15464: 15440: 15028: 15026: 8696:

when the proto-Semitic stressed vowel remained stressed

6802:

in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the

1461:. It is also studied widely in the non-Arabic-speaking 15745: 15637:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

15001: 14999: 14851: 14845: 14839: 14829: 14823: 14817: 14798: 14788: 14774: 14767: 12528: 12521: 12514: 12507: 12500: 12493: 12486: 12479: 12472: 12460: 12453: 12443: 12436: 12429: 12422: 12415: 12408: 12396: 12389: 12382: 12375: 12368: 12361: 12354: 12347: 12340: 12327: 12321: 12314: 12307: 12300: 12293: 12286: 12278: 12272: 12265: 12258: 12245: 12239: 12232: 12222: 12215: 12208: 12200: 12194: 12187: 12180: 12167: 12161: 12154: 12147: 12140: 12133: 12126: 12119: 12110: 12103: 12004: 11997: 11987: 11968: 11950: 11943: 11933: 11914: 11896: 11889: 11879: 11860: 11842: 11835: 11825: 11806: 11788: 11781: 11771: 11747: 11729: 11722: 11712: 11693: 11675: 11668: 11658: 11639: 11621: 11614: 11604: 11585: 11579: 11561: 11554: 11544: 11535: 11511: 11505: 11499: 11481: 11474: 11463: 11444: 11392: 11385: 11378: 11370: 11362: 11352: 11344: 11337: 11325: 11318: 11311: 11303: 11295: 11287: 11279: 11273: 11265: 11258: 11246: 11239: 11232: 11224: 11216: 11208: 11202: 11196: 11189: 11181: 11174: 11162: 11155: 11148: 11140: 11132: 11124: 11118: 11111: 11105: 11097: 11090: 11069: 11061: 11054: 11033: 11023: 11011: 11004: 10997: 10989: 10981: 10971: 10963: 10956: 10944: 10938: 10931: 10924: 10916: 10908: 10900: 10892: 10884: 10877: 10865: 10859: 10852: 10845: 10837: 10829: 10821: 10813: 10805: 10798: 10786: 10780: 10773: 10767: 10761: 10754: 10746: 10738: 10730: 10722: 10714: 10707: 10695: 10689: 10682: 10676: 10670: 10663: 10655: 10647: 10639: 10632: 10624: 10617: 10605: 10599: 10592: 10585: 10577: 10569: 10562: 10556: 10549: 10541: 10534: 7444: 7428: 7420: 7026: 7020: 7014: 7008: 6998: 6992: 6986: 6980: 6974: 6968: 6962: 6956: 6950: 6944: 6933: 6927: 6921: 6915: 6909: 6903: 6897: 6869: 6860: 6851: 6842: 6789: 6761: 6743: 6723: 6710: 6693: 6681: 6659: 6635: 6618: 6600: 6580: 6567: 6550: 6538: 6516: 6492: 6475: 6457: 6437: 6424: 6407: 6395: 6373: 6349: 6332: 6316: 6300: 6287: 6270: 6258: 6236: 6212: 6195: 6179: 6163: 6150: 6133: 6121: 6099: 6075: 6046: 6030: 5958: 5941: 5923: 5903: 5890: 5873: 5843: 5819: 5802: 5783: 5763: 5739: 5722: 5692: 5672: 5657: 5640: 5628: 5606: 5574: 5557: 5539: 5518: 5504: 5487: 5479: 5471: 5442: 5418: 5409: 5390: 5370: 5346: 5329: 5322: 5299: 5278: 5262: 5245: 5237: 5225: 5198: 5166: 5149: 5142: 5105: 5081: 5072: 5058: 5033: 5009: 4990: 4983: 4960: 4939: 4925: 4908: 4900: 4888: 4866: 4842: 4825: 4807: 4787: 4774: 4757: 4745: 4731: 4707: 4690: 4684: 4666: 4646: 4640: 4627: 4619: 4608: 4596: 4582: 4558: 4541: 4534: 4506: 4493: 4468: 4444: 4427: 4420: 4392: 4364: 4340: 4331: 4313: 4293: 4280: 4263: 4251: 4232: 4215: 4197: 4176: 4162: 4145: 4133: 4111: 4087: 4078: 4064: 4039: 4015: 3998: 3991: 3968: 3948: 3935: 3918: 3910: 3898: 3884: 3860: 3843: 3837: 3819: 3799: 3793: 3780: 3763: 3751: 3729: 3705: 3688: 3670: 3650: 3637: 3620: 3608: 3581: 3557: 3540: 3534: 3516: 3496: 3490: 3477: 3460: 3448: 3426: 3402: 3385: 3379: 3361: 3341: 3335: 3322: 3305: 3293: 3271: 3247: 3230: 3224: 3206: 3186: 3180: 3167: 3150: 3138: 3111: 3087: 3070: 3064: 3046: 3026: 3020: 3007: 2990: 2978: 2956: 2932: 788:

c. 800 BC from the southern Arabian Peninsula, and to

301:

respectively. The only earlier attested languages are

17395:

Moscati, Sabatino (1958). "On Semitic Case-Endings".

16985:(3rd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 568–576. 16978: 16788:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 145–166. 16086:

Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective

15793: 15258: 14937: 14608: – 8th century BCE to 2nd centuries BC 9686:(dealing with "writing" generally) yields in Arabic: 7019:

were always represented using the pharyngeal letters

6806:, so the letter ש did double duty, representing both 1617:

in the Middle East, who compose the patriarchates of

1221:. The Arabs spread their Central Semitic language to 17687:

Waltke, Bruce K.; O'Connor, Michael Patrick (1990).

16574:. In Baasten, M. F. J.; Van Peursen, W. Th. (eds.). 16540:

One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost

16454:"Akkadian language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia" 15844: 15476: 15354: 15310: 15023: 14927: 14925: 9527: 9519: 9503: 9479: 9471: 9455: 9428: 9420: 9404: 9380: 9372: 9356: 9329: 9321: 9305: 9278: 9270: 9254: 9230: 9222: 9206: 9179: 9171: 9155: 9121: 9113: 9097: 9073: 9065: 9049: 9022: 9014: 8998: 8974: 8966: 8950: 8923: 8899: 8864: 1597:, and was originally the liturgical language of the 1553:, and other Jewish scriptures. The followers of the 1437:

is currently the native language of majorities from

894:, and in the case of Phoenician, coastal regions of 17761:

The Ancient Languages of Syrio-Palestine and Arabia

17568:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 17362:

Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar

16921:Harrak, Amir (1992). "The ancient name of Edessa". 16784:. In Shibatani, Masayoshi; Bynon, Theodora (eds.). 15452: 14996: 14363: – appeared in southern Mesopotamia 7262:Ugaritic orthography indicated the vowel after the 669: 17787:Wright, William; Smith, William Robertson (1890). 17693:. Vol. 3. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. 17686: 17116: 16494:. Winona Lake, Ind.: Penn State University Press. 16488:Afsaruddin, Asma; Zahniser, A. H. Mathias (1997). 16487: 16036: 15588: 15340: 15295: 15151: 14910: 14570:-speakers. Eventually evolved into the modern day 14467: – 4th century BC to 7th century AD 1744:, whose phonology and morphology (particularly in 16782:"The Diachronic Typological Approach to Language" 16023:(in Arabic). Al-Maṭbaʻah al-Jadīdah. p. 56. 14922: 14870: 14629:of Yemen – 8th to 1st centuries BC 14262: – a minority ethnic group in the 11531:(obj.), اثنتان fem. iθnat-āni, اثنتين iθnat-ajni 9562:conjugation is noted for a particular pattern of 7496:are realized as /ʔ, -/ and /χ ~ x/, respectively. 2577:is spoken by around 575,000 to 1 million largely 1501:is the only Semitic official language within the 812:, others northwest out of Africa into West Asia. 568:The term "Semitic" was created by members of the 350:Most scripts used to write Semitic languages are 282:texts (written in a script adapted from Sumerian 18343: 17565:A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification 17295:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook 17239:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook 16847:Semitic languages: studies of linguistic history 16843:Le lingue semitiche: studi di storia linguistica 16704:. Milan: Centro Studi Camito-Semitici di Milano. 10466: 8754: 8702:i.e. pS *g,*k,*ḳ,*χ > Ge'ez gʷ, kʷ,ḳʷ,χʷ / _u 8344:possibly affricated (/dz/ /tɬʼ/ /ʦʼ/ /tθʼ/ /tɬ/) 7442:contexts. In Ugaritic, sometimes assimilates to 328:appeared in Mesopotamia and the northern Levant 17806:(as well as the Afroasiatic one), presented by 16849:] (in Italian). Naples: Istituto Orientale. 16133: 16018: 9657: 8690:in a stressed closed syllable before a geminate 7203:(which is the homeland of the Arabic language) 6877:, respectively, based on transcriptions in the 16892:Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World 16715:Allgemeine Bibliothek der biblischen Literatur 16204:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold; P. Behnstedt (1993). 16176:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold; P. Behnstedt (1993). 15630: 14745:*ənakkʷ) suggests that this goes further back. 10354:כתובה "ketubah (a Jewish marriage contract)" ( 7408:, as well as some North African towns such as 642:"Semitic languages" is completely appropriate. 17868: 17843:Swadesh vocabulary lists of Semitic languages 16853: 15417: 13185:(extinct (apart from modern liturgical uses)) 2638:This comparative approach is natural for the 1655:language of liturgy and religious scholarship 17330:(2. ed.). University of Chicago Press. 17052: 16814: 16543:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 16054: 15820:Semitic languages: an international handbook 15631:Garnier, Romain; Jacques, Guillaume (2012). 15283: 14191:Distribution of the Semitic-speaking peoples 14120:Modern South Arabian (Eastern South Semitic) 10439:means "he flew" (compare with Hebrew, where 9535: 9511: 9487: 9463: 9436: 9412: 9388: 9364: 9337: 9313: 9286: 9262: 9238: 9214: 9187: 9163: 9129: 9105: 9081: 9057: 9030: 9006: 8982: 8958: 8931: 8907: 8860:Paradigm of a regular Classical Arabic verb: 7325: 7278: 7248: 7236: 7216: 7204: 1527:Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Christianity 1359:distinct from Arabic still survive, such as 421:The Semitic languages are notable for their 410:is the only Semitic language written in the 390:, used for writing the Semitic languages of 156:Modern distribution of the Semitic languages 17786: 17117:Kitchen, A.; Ehret, C.; Assefa, S. (2009). 17019: 16854:Garbini, Giovanni; Durand, Olivier (1994). 16699: 16614:Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew 15908:Archaeology, Language, and the African Past 15865: 15805: 15715: 15606: 15582: 15570: 14900: 14888: 14828:in cardinal numerals, but less assimilated 14822:, with total assimilation; Arabic reflects 14401: – 14th to 12th centuries BC 14180:The following is a list of some modern and 14175: 9718:يُكْتَب or يكتب "being written" (masculine) 1398:. With the expansion of Ethiopia under the 17875: 17861: 17816:short annotations of the talks given there 17524: 17479: 16866: 15822:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 166. 15420:Introduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies 15269:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrandão2020 ( 15195: 15157: 7384:in most of Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, 7332:) has three main pronunciations in spoken 7061:to the corresponding fricatives (written 1637:is still spoken in two villages in Syria. 1323:followed, specifically in the wake of the 815:The various extremely closely related and 527: 17882: 17767:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 17690:An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax 17650: 17495:The Oxford Handbook of Arabic Linguistics 17142: 17026:. New York: Routledge. pp. 457–485. 16779: 16595:Comparative Semitic Linguistics: A Manual 15983: 15965: 15727: 15648: 15446: 14943: 14856:has been assimilated throughout the root. 14243: – 2nd to 5th centuries AD 10041:מכתב or מִכְתָּב "postal letter" (plural 9732:تُكتَب or تكتب "being written" (feminine) 2540:has perhaps fifteen million speakers, in 886:, some northern and eastern parts of the 536:1538 comparison of Hebrew and Arabic, by 17791:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 17356: 16890:. In Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). 16708: 16681:Transactions of the Philological Society 16656:Transactions of the Philological Society 16327: 16238:(in German). Harrassowitz. p. 133. 15950:"The Genomic History of the Middle East" 15853: 15817: 15515: 15121: 15044: 14304: – founded the nation of 14186: 9902:كَتيبة or كتيبة "squadron" or "document" 9872:مَكتَبة or مكتبة "library" or "bookshop" 9845:كَتَبَة or كتبة "clerks" (broken plural) 9627:, prefixing a verb form with the letter 8854: 7416:. In addition to other minor allophones. 7195:gāf (this sound change also occurred in 7118:at the beginning of a word, e.g. Hebrew 2633:Proto-Semitic language § Fricatives 1653:, with Biblical Hebrew remaining as the 1425: 1418:set to disappear in another generation. 1283: 1253:), where it gradually replaced Egyptian 1087: 936: 679: 531: 335:, followed by the mutually intelligible 17757: 17660:. New York: Columbia University Press. 17598: 17394: 17385: 17291:"Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics" 17235:"Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics" 16957: 16885: 16840: 16630: 16592: 16569: 16395:Zaide, Gregorio F. (16 December 1994). 16278:(in German). Harrassowitz. p. 15. 15892: 15881: 15751: 15739: 15554: 15348: 15264: 15048: 15017: 14990: 14308:which later split into the Kingdoms of 10451:means "he sailed", while the unrelated 9828:كُتاب or كتاب "writers" (broken plural) 9795:كُتَيِّب or كتيب "booklet" (diminutive) 9763:اِستِكتاب or استكتاب "causing to write" 8807:Semitic languages originally had three 8731:, e.g. Classical Arabic رأى محمد فريدا 2915: 2863: 2829: 2814: 2781: 2750: 1489:with the addition of some letters with 1421: 684:Chronology mapping of Semitic languages 14: 18344: 17726:The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic 17719: 17619:from the original on 11 September 2021 17561: 17423: 17323: 16920: 16720:General Library of Biblical Literature 16674: 16536: 16180:(in German). Harassowitz. p. 42. 15904: 15877: 15494: 15488: 15482: 15328: 14931: 14904: 1137:language, although originating in the 17856: 17774:from the original on 11 November 2020 17732:. New York: Oxford University Press. 17631: 17491: 17460: 17288: 17255: 17232: 17159: 17107:languages and dialects were known as 17080: 17007:from the original on 19 December 2021 16862:] (in Italian). Brescia: Paideia. 16738: 16687:from the original on 25 February 2022 16662:from the original on 25 February 2022 16616:. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. 16597:. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. 16394: 16208:(in German). Harassowitz. p. 5. 16083:Yaron Matras; Jeanette Sakel (2007). 16000:from the original on 25 February 2022 15470: 15458: 15360: 15344: 15316: 15110:Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern 15087: 15083: 15032: 15005: 14986: 14916: 14876: 10644:, ant, inta, inte, inti, int, (i)nta 8759:The proto-Semitic three-case system ( 7477:might have had a different phonology. 7103:hasn't undergone this process at all. 4118: 2923: 2837: 2806: 2793: 2773: 2758: 17311:from the original on 18 October 2023 17069:from the original on 21 October 2020 16611: 16572:"A Note on the History of 'Semitic'" 16309:from the original on 16 January 2024 15618: 15612: 15594: 15521: 15503:from the original on 18 October 2011 15497:"Old Aramaic (c. 850 to c. 612 BCE)" 15202:. Boydell & Brewer. p. 11. 12039: 11402: 10013:כתבה or כַּתָּבָה "article" (plural 9704:كَتَبْتُ or كتبت "I wrote" (f and m) 862:. They were spoken in what is today 17487:. London: Taylor's (Foreign) Press. 17165:A Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature 16826:Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. 16635:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 16192:Die arabischen Dialekte der Aramäer 15794:Hetzron, Kaye & Zuckermann 2018 15495:Bekins, Peter (12 September 2008). 14964:from the original on 7 October 2022 9536: 9512: 9488: 9464: 9437: 9413: 9389: 9365: 9338: 9314: 9287: 9263: 9239: 9215: 9188: 9164: 9130: 9106: 9082: 9058: 9031: 9007: 8983: 8959: 8932: 8908: 8743:, however, as well as sometimes in 8735:. (literally "saw Muhammad Farid", 7480:The pronunciations /ʕ/ and /ħ/ for 7326: 7279: 7249: 7237: 7217: 7205: 7091:are still preserved (the fricative 1169:(Assyrian and Chaldean varieties), 27:Branch of the Afroasiatic languages 24: 16856:Introduzione alle lingue semitiche 16524:from the original on 27 March 2022 16434:from the original on 30 March 2019 16321: 15775:from the original on 25 April 2020 15673:from the original on 12 April 2023 14195: 13658:Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects 13059:Palestinian Aramaic (All extinct) 8843: – e.g. in Arabic, 8802: 7356:Yemen and parts of Oman, Southern 748:origin of Semitic-speaking peoples 744:origin of Semitic-speaking peoples 704:, the earliest attested being the 616:, those names which are listed as 25: 18403: 17797: 17364:(2nd ed.). Leuven: Peeters. 16860:Introduction to Semitic languages 16464:from the original on 26 July 2008 15698:. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. 15696:An Introduction to Syriac Studies 15376:. Gorgias Handbooks. p. 14. 15246:from the original on 16 July 2023 14649: – 14th century BC 14448: – 23rd century BC 12606: 12588:and in Ethiosemitic by the roots 9858:مَكتَب or مكتب "desk" or "office" 7227:, except in western and southern 2569:has around 1.5 million speakers, 2561:speaking about ~5 million native/ 2276: 2270: 1966: 922:and other Mediterranean islands. 17707:from the original on 26 May 2024 17674:from the original on 26 May 2024 17582:from the original on 26 May 2024 17545:from the original on 26 May 2024 17512:from the original on 26 May 2024 17344:from the original on 26 May 2024 17276:from the original on 26 May 2024 17123:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 17040:from the original on 26 May 2024 16908:from the original on 26 May 2024 16802:from the original on 26 May 2024 16767:from the original on 26 May 2024 16726:from the original on 26 May 2024 16722:] (in German). Vol. 6. 16557:from the original on 26 May 2024 16376:from the original on 26 May 2024 16274:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold (2006). 16252:from the original on 26 May 2024 16232:Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold (2006). 16154:from the original on 26 May 2024 16111:from the original on 26 May 2024 16041:(in Arabic). لينين. p. 45. 15929:from the original on 26 May 2024 15152:Kitchen, Ehret & Assefa 2009 15130:from the original on 13 May 2023 14452: 14182:ancient Semitic-speaking peoples 12942:Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic 12752: 11359:hin, hinne(n), hum, humma, hūma 9933:مُكتَتِب or مكتتب "subscription" 1826:Proto-Semitic consonant phonemes 1738:Proto-Semitic language#Phonology 1645:at the end of the 19th century. 1177:) survive to this day among the 676:Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples 670:Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples 162: 150: 17758:Woodard, Roger D., ed. (2008). 17426:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 17397:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 17256:Kuntz, Marion Leathers (1981). 17185:in respect to Europe; and when 16923:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 16786:Approaches to Language Typology 16480: 16446: 16416: 16388: 16295: 16276:Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen 16267: 16235:Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen 16225: 16197: 16169: 16140:(in German). LIT. p. 133. 16127: 16076: 16048: 16030: 16012: 15941: 15898: 15871: 15811: 15757: 15685: 15624: 15548: 15411: 15402: 15393: 15384: 15366: 15334: 15301: 15232: 15216:from the original on 6 May 2021 15189: 15177:from the original on 7 May 2015 15115: 15093: 15077: 15054: 15038: 14980: 14810: 14758: 14748: 14723: 14714: 14702: 14677: 14405: 14283:nations of the early Iron Age: 13506:Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic 2614: 2605: 2596: 2573:has c. ~1.05 million speakers, 1469:is a descendant of the extinct 1076:circa 8th century BC where the 17378:Mustafa, Arafa Hussein. 1974. 16894:. Elsevier. pp. 929–935. 16570:Baasten, Martin F. J. (2003). 16537:Austin, Peter K., ed. (2008). 16334:The Harvard Theological Review 16039:إلياس أنطون نصر الله في معلولا 15422:. Gorgias Press. p. 573. 15341:Afsaruddin & Zahniser 1997 14894: 13787:Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic 10386:and the trilateral root stems 9992:כתבת or כַּתָּבֶת "reporter" ( 9955:כתבתי or כָּתַבְתִּי "I wrote" 6938: – although by 2584: 2548: 2531: 2528:by perhaps another 60 million. 2515: 1666:Modern South Arabian languages 1357:Modern South Arabian languages 557:. Almost two centuries later, 347:during the 2nd millennium BC. 13: 1: 17293:. In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). 17237:. In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). 16780:Greenberg, Joseph H. (1999). 16750:The Cambridge Ancient History 16399:. Rex Bookstore. p. 57. 16055:Rafik Schami (25 July 2011). 15559:, Routledge, pp. 117–119 14863: 14364: 13080:Christian Palestinian Aramaic 12992:Koy Sanjaq Jewish Neo-Aramaic 12673: 12662: 12580:, but in Arabic by the roots 10467:Independent personal pronouns 10378:/x/, /θ/, /v/ respectively.) 10067:מכתבה "writing desk" (plural 9937:and the same root in Hebrew: 9592:"we have decided" (perfect), 9553:") and possession on nouns (" 8755:Cases in nouns and adjectives 8714: 7073: 7049:Hebrew and Aramaic underwent 6973:respectively, but later with 2645: 1712:is restricted to the city of 1533:learn to read and recite the 1083: 784:, and were introduced to the 778: 584:, or more precisely from the 329: 318: 287: 17749:on 1 March 2016 – via 17605:. Córdoba: Oriens Academic. 17227:to demonstrate and to apply. 16702:From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew 16593:Bennett, Patrick R. (1998). 14852: 14846: 14840: 14830: 14824: 14818: 14799: 14789: 14775: 14768: 14064:Old South Arabian (Ṣayhadic) 13758:Eastern pre-Hilali Dialects 12529: 12522: 12515: 12508: 12501: 12494: 12487: 12480: 12473: 12461: 12454: 12444: 12437: 12430: 12423: 12416: 12409: 12397: 12390: 12383: 12376: 12369: 12362: 12355: 12348: 12341: 12328: 12322: 12315: 12308: 12301: 12294: 12287: 12279: 12273: 12266: 12259: 12246: 12240: 12233: 12223: 12216: 12209: 12201: 12195: 12188: 12181: 12168: 12162: 12155: 12148: 12141: 12134: 12127: 12120: 12111: 12104: 12005: 11998: 11988: 11969: 11951: 11944: 11934: 11915: 11897: 11890: 11880: 11861: 11843: 11836: 11826: 11807: 11789: 11782: 11772: 11748: 11730: 11723: 11713: 11694: 11676: 11669: 11659: 11640: 11622: 11615: 11605: 11586: 11580: 11562: 11555: 11545: 11536: 11512: 11506: 11500: 11482: 11475: 11464: 11445: 11393: 11386: 11379: 11371: 11363: 11353: 11345: 11338: 11326: 11319: 11312: 11304: 11296: 11288: 11280: 11274: 11266: 11259: 11247: 11240: 11233: 11225: 11217: 11209: 11203: 11197: 11190: 11182: 11175: 11163: 11156: 11149: 11141: 11133: 11125: 11119: 11112: 11106: 11098: 11091: 11070: 11062: 11055: 11034: 11024: 11012: 11005: 10998: 10990: 10982: 10972: 10964: 10957: 10945: 10939: 10932: 10925: 10917: 10909: 10901: 10893: 10885: 10878: 10866: 10860: 10853: 10846: 10838: 10830: 10822: 10814: 10806: 10799: 10787: 10781: 10774: 10768: 10762: 10755: 10747: 10739: 10731: 10723: 10715: 10708: 10696: 10690: 10683: 10677: 10671: 10664: 10656: 10648: 10640: 10633: 10625: 10618: 10606: 10600: 10593: 10586: 10578: 10570: 10563: 10557: 10550: 10542: 10535: 10447:means "a sailing trip", and 9658:Morphology: triliteral roots 7445: 7429: 7421: 7027: 7021: 7015: 7009: 6999: 6993: 6987: 6981: 6975: 6969: 6963: 6957: 6951: 6945: 6934: 6928: 6922: 6916: 6910: 6904: 6898: 6870: 6861: 6852: 6843: 6790: 6762: 6744: 6724: 6711: 6694: 6682: 6660: 6636: 6619: 6601: 6581: 6568: 6551: 6539: 6517: 6493: 6476: 6458: 6438: 6425: 6408: 6396: 6374: 6350: 6333: 6317: 6301: 6288: 6271: 6259: 6237: 6213: 6196: 6180: 6164: 6151: 6134: 6122: 6100: 6076: 6047: 6031: 5959: 5942: 5924: 5904: 5891: 5874: 5844: 5820: 5803: 5784: 5764: 5740: 5723: 5693: 5673: 5658: 5641: 5629: 5607: 5575: 5558: 5540: 5519: 5505: 5488: 5480: 5472: 5443: 5419: 5410: 5391: 5371: 5347: 5330: 5323: 5300: 5279: 5263: 5246: 5238: 5226: 5199: 5167: 5150: 5143: 5106: 5082: 5073: 5059: 5034: 5010: 4991: 4984: 4961: 4940: 4926: 4909: 4901: 4889: 4867: 4843: 4826: 4808: 4788: 4775: 4758: 4746: 4732: 4708: 4691: 4685: 4667: 4647: 4641: 4628: 4620: 4609: 4597: 4583: 4559: 4542: 4535: 4507: 4494: 4469: 4445: 4428: 4421: 4393: 4365: 4341: 4332: 4314: 4294: 4281: 4264: 4252: 4233: 4216: 4198: 4177: 4163: 4146: 4134: 4112: 4088: 4079: 4065: 4040: 4016: 3999: 3992: 3969: 3949: 3936: 3919: 3911: 3899: 3885: 3861: 3844: 3838: 3820: 3800: 3794: 3781: 3764: 3752: 3730: 3706: 3689: 3671: 3651: 3638: 3621: 3609: 3582: 3558: 3541: 3535: 3517: 3497: 3491: 3478: 3461: 3449: 3427: 3403: 3386: 3380: 3362: 3342: 3336: 3323: 3306: 3294: 3272: 3248: 3231: 3225: 3207: 3187: 3181: 3168: 3151: 3139: 3112: 3088: 3071: 3065: 3047: 3027: 3021: 3008: 2991: 2979: 2957: 2933: 2593:has around 483,000 speakers, 1727: 1615:Oriental Orthodox Christians 1331:. After the collapse of the 354: – a type of 309:(2800 BCE to 550 BCE), both 244:, who derived the name from 7: 17498:. Oxford University Press. 17465:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. 16982:The World's Major Languages 16871:. Oxford University Press. 16867:Goldenberg, Gideon (2013). 16649: 16578:. Peeters. pp. 57–73. 16089:. De Gruyter. p. 185. 14783:languages, and a form with 14665:Middle Bronze Age alphabets 14653: 13948:Transversal South Ethiopic 13768:Western pre-Hilali dialects 12987:Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic 12957:Jewish Assyrian Neo-Aramaic 12601:List of Proto-Semitic stems 12027: 9971:כתב or כַּתָּב "reporter" ( 9812:كِتَابَة or كتابة "writing" 9528: 9520: 9504: 9480: 9472: 9456: 9429: 9421: 9405: 9381: 9373: 9357: 9330: 9322: 9306: 9279: 9271: 9255: 9231: 9223: 9207: 9180: 9172: 9156: 9122: 9114: 9098: 9074: 9066: 9050: 9023: 9015: 8999: 8975: 8967: 8951: 8924: 8916: 8900: 8865: 8687:in a stressed open syllable 8362:nonconcatenative morphology 7319: 7305:and most North Africa; and 7272: 7108:Northwest Semitic languages 5716: 1571:Assyrian Evangelical Church 1567:Assyrian Pentecostal Church 1555:Assyrian Church of the East 1406:) and non-Semitic (such as 1371:which are mainly spoken in 1030:Old South Arabian languages 1014:, sometimes referred to as 824:Northwest Semitic languages 657:", was later introduced by 570:Göttingen school of history 563:Ethiopian Semitic languages 423:nonconcatenative morphology 242:Göttingen school of history 182:Afroasiatic language family 10: 18408: 17525:Phillipson, David (2012). 17390:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. 17386:Moscati, Sabatino (1969). 17324:Levine, Donald N. (2000). 17193:, and other idioms of the 17092:Cambridge University Press 16841:Garbini, Giovanni (1984). 16710:Eichhorn, Johann Gottfried 16700:Dolgopolsky, Aron (1999). 15976:10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.013 15296:Waltke & O'Connor 1990 15196:Phillipson, David (2012). 14640: 14580:from 110 BCE until 578 CE 13691:Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic 13068:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic 12967:Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic 12918:Christian Urmi Neo-Aramaic 12656:computational phylogenetic 12627:(also known as Sayhadic), 9661: 9588:"we decided" (preterite), 8706: 8353: 7404:in most of the Levant and 2731: 2724: 2717: 2710: 2703: 2696: 2684: 2511: 1643:was revived in spoken form 1563:Ancient Church of the East 673: 664: 661:and used by some writers. 574:August Ludwig von Schlözer 29: 18324: 18293: 18249: 18204: 18125: 18091: 18057: 18048: 17988: 17979: 17922: 17890: 17804:Semitic genealogical tree 17209:has been proposed by Dr. 17053:Izre'el, Shlomo (1987c), 16916:– via Google Books. 16631:Coghill, Eleanor (2016). 16346:10.1017/S0017816000017843 16328:Weitzman, Steven (1999). 15967:10.1101/2020.10.18.342816 15828:10.1515/9783110251586.151 15659:10.1017/s0041977x11001261 15066:Johann Gottfried Eichhorn 13578:North Mesopotamian Arabic 13561:South Mesopotamian Arabic 13432:Sudanese-Chadian Arabic ( 13016:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic 10511: 10506: 10501: 10496: 10491: 10486: 10481: 10476: 10473: 9613:Central Semitic languages 9444: 9345: 9299: 9294: 9195: 9137: 9038: 8939: 8893: 8888: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8387: 8384: 8381: 8378: 8375: 8372: 8349: 8248: 8242: 8124: 8118: 7935: 7815: 7568: 7520: 7517: 7514: 7511: 7508: 7505: 7003:. (Also note that due to 6666: 6523: 6380: 6243: 6106: 5985: 5850: 5770: 5698: 5691: 5688: 5683: 5671: 5664: 5655: 5650: 5647: 5621: 5618: 5613: 5449: 5377: 5338: 5335: 5305: 5298: 5295: 5290: 5276: 5269: 5260: 5255: 5252: 5213: 5210: 5205: 5056: 5053: 5040: 4999: 4996: 4966: 4959: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4937: 4932: 4923: 4918: 4915: 4886: 4873: 4738: 4589: 4483: 4480: 4475: 4371: 4319: 4312: 4309: 4278: 4273: 4270: 4261: 4258: 4249: 4224: 4221: 4126: 4123: 4109: 4104: 4046: 4007: 4004: 3974: 3967: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3947: 3942: 3933: 3928: 3925: 3896: 3891: 3744: 3741: 3736: 3433: 3278: 2963: 2875: 2868: 2861: 2854: 2847: 2842: 2835: 2826: 2819: 2812: 2803: 2798: 2791: 2786: 2779: 2770: 2763: 2756: 2747: 2740: 2733: 2726: 2719: 2712: 2705: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2464: 2405: 2370: 2365: 2096: 1895: 1890: 1579:Eastern Aramaic languages 1288:Page from a 12th-century 1185:of northern and southern 1145:. With the advent of the 1006:(not to be confused with 971:, a still living ancient 962:Canaano-Akkadian language 594:Johann Gottfried Eichhorn 161: 149: 135: 117: 97: 87: 70:Linguistic classification 68: 44: 39: 17812:Vladislav Illich-Svitych 17562:Ruhlen, Merritt (1991). 17531:. Boydell & Brewer. 17492:Owens, Jonathan (2013). 17463:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica 16958:Hetzron, Robert (1997). 16886:Hackett, Jo Ann (2006). 16134:Dr. Emna Labidi (2022). 16037:iنصر الله، إلياس أنطون. 16021:اثرنا في الايقليم السوري 14944:Vermeulen, H.F. (2015). 14836:Epigraphic South Arabian 14670: 14176:Semitic-speaking peoples 13798:Central Hilali dialects 13381:Northwest Arabian Arabic 12898:Northeastern Neo-Aramaic 10256:נכתבה "it was written" ( 10206:התכתב "he corresponded ( 10096:כתובת "address" (plural 8094:'watermelon-like plant' 7199:), hence in most of the 7042:'owner, lord' > Akk. 6794:was still pronounced as 1649:is the main language of 1559:Chaldean Catholic Church 934:in north western Syria. 30:Not to be confused with 17215:Physical History of Man 15769:Encyclopedia Britannica 15170:Encyclopædia Britannica 14901:Hudson & Kogan 1997 14889:Hudson & Kogan 1997 13808:Western Hilali dialects 13802:Algerian Saharan Arabic 13795:Eastern Hilali dialects 13398:Egypto-Sudanic Arabic ( 10362:(Underlined consonants 10238:נכתב "it was written" ( 9680:For instance, the root 9641:South Semitic languages 9631:in order to change its 8835:means "two years", and 8733:ra'ā muħammadun farīdan 7434:, and always is in the 1525:(Classical Syriac) and 1457:is the language of the 890:, southwest fringes of 868:Palestinian territories 588:rendering of the name, 528:Name and identification 18084:(possibly independent) 17289:Kogan, Leonid (2011). 17262:. The Hague: Nijhoff. 17233:Kogan, Leonid (2012). 17207:Syro-Arabian languages 17135:10.1098/rspb.2009.0408 16816:Bergsträsser, Gotthelf 15905:Blench, Roger (2006). 14844:; Ugaritic has a form 14660:Proto-Semitic language 14192: 13909:Western South Semitic 13593:Jewish Baghdadi Arabic 13496:South Levantine Arabic 13464:North Levantine Arabic 13240:Modern Standard Arabic 13038:Western Middle Aramaic 12864:Eastern Middle Aramaic 12694:Summary classification 12542:, cf. Biblical Hebrew 11292:, hūma, hom, hinne(n) 8745:Modern Standard Arabic 7301:occurs in most of the 6782: 1718:Christians in Ethiopia 1595:Syriac Catholic Church 1575:Syriac Orthodox Church 1545:, the language of the 1431: 1296: 1104:Eastern Middle Aramaic 1096: 957: 685: 655:Syro-Arabian languages 644: 549:countries and through 541: 226:expatriate communities 18357:Afroasiatic languages 17884:Afroasiatic languages 17847:Swadesh-list appendix 17632:Smart, J. R. (2013). 17297:. Walter de Gruyter. 17241:. Walter de Gruyter. 17225:comparative philology 17023:The Semitic Languages 16991:10.4324/9781315644936 16961:The Semitic Languages 16675:Davies, John (1854). 16650:Davies, John (1854). 16612:Blau, Joshua (2010). 16164:Aramäer von Ǧubbˁadīn 16095:10.1515/9783110199192 16019:Abū al-Faraj ʻIshsh. 15960:(18): 4612–4625.e14. 15557:The Semitic Languages 15122:Murtonen, A. (1967). 14834:in ordinal numerals. 14217:Ancient North Arabian 14190: 13995:Outer South Ethiopic 13923:(Classical Ethiopic) 13701:Judeo-Algerian Arabic 13696:Judeo-Tunisian Arabic 13686:Judeo-Moroccan Arabic 13653:Pre-Hilalian dialects 13416:Judeo-Egyptian Arabic 13000:Southeastern Aramaic 11430:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic 10174:הכתיב "he dictated" ( 9579:Afroasiatic languages 9568:prefixes where (1) a 8855:Verb aspect and tense 6814:. Later on, however, 6778: 1513:(Hebrew and Aramaic ( 1429: 1386:, where, under heavy 1287: 1091: 940: 817:mutually intelligible 764:Eastern Mediterranean 683: 659:James Cowles Prichard 610: 535: 384:ancient South Arabian 297:and the northeastern 16518:10.5325/j.ctv1w36pkt 16500:10.5325/j.ctv1w36pkt 15911:. Lanham, Maryland: 14551:Modern South Arabian 13609:Central Asian Arabic 13341:Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic 13289:Bahraini Gulf Arabic 13225:Pre-classical Arabic 12952:Qaraqosh Neo-Aramaic 12947:Hertevin Neo-Aramaic 12935:Chaldean Neo-Aramaic 12913:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic 12743:Modern South Arabian 12629:Modern South Arabian 12481:mû (root *mā-/*māy-) 11076:Plural form is used 11040:Plural form is used 10463:pertain to flight). 10435:means "flight", and 10431:means "fly!", while 7470:, is also attested). 7138:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic 6881:. As in the case of 1774:merging into Arabic 1422:Present distribution 1147:early Arab conquests 398:, is technically an 180:are a branch of the 18387:Phoenician language 17845:(from Wiktionary's 17808:Alexander Militarev 17721:Watson, Janet C. E. 17657:The Arabic Language 17082:Kiraz, George Anton 16888:"Semitic Languages" 16262:Aramäern in Ma'lūla 15880:, pp. 261–71; 15154:, pp. 2703–10. 15073:Semitische Sprachen 13966:Harari–East Gurage 13624:Kashkadarian Arabic 13522:Mesopotamian Arabic 13484:Judeo-Syrian Arabic 13357:Judeo-Yemeni Arabic 13055:Western Neo-Aramaic 12880:Central Neo-Aramaic 10978:niħna, iħna, ħinna 10564:ana, āni, āna, ānig 10443:means "set sail!", 10317:מכותב "addressee" ( 10293:תכתיב "prescript" ( 9648:varieties of Arabic 9559:prefix conjugations 9547:Suffix conjugations 8871: 8809:grammatical numbers 8721:verb–subject–object 8369: 7099:in modern Hebrew). 6804:Early Linear Script 2673: 1828: 1736:point of view (see 1657:of Jews worldwide. 1635:Western Neo-Aramaic 1587:liturgical language 1523:Syriac Christianity 1477:formerly spoken in 1375:, Yemen, and Oman. 1203:Mesopotamian Arabic 1108:liturgical language 1106:dialect, used as a 989:Tiglath-Pileser III 985:Neo-Assyrian Empire 820:Canaanite languages 737:third millennium BC 524:"he writes", etc.. 337:Canaanite languages 248:, one of the three 17481:Ullendorff, Edward 17169:W. Clowes and Sons 17109:Oriental languages 16057:Märchen aus Malula 15895:, pp. 929–35. 15742:, pp. 142–43. 15522:Harrison, Shelly. 15473:, pp. 54–151. 15331:, pp. 209–14. 15104:2020-07-31 at the 15047:, pp. 773–6; 14838:reflects original 14553:-speaking peoples 14461:-speaking peoples 14281:Canaanite-speaking 14264:Qalamoun mountains 14260:Arameans (Syriacs) 14193: 14086:Awsānian (extinct) 13645:(Western Arabic) ( 13588:Judeo-Iraqi Arabic 13501:Palestinian Arabic 13249:(Eastern Arabic) ( 12928:Senaya Neo-Aramaic 12923:Bohtan Neo-Aramaic 12022:polarity of gender 11519:θinaːn,θinajn,kilʔ 10958:*niyaħnū, *niyaħnā 10619:*ʔanka > *ʔanta 10525:common vernaculars 10420:"journalism", and 8859: 8831:means "one year", 8741:Arabic vernaculars 8737:Muhammad saw Farid 8367: 7454:'thirsty' (Arabic 7316:The Arabic letter 7269:The Arabic letter 7033:papyrus Amherst 63 2671: 1824: 1660:In Arab-dominated 1432: 1343:; soon after, the 1297: 1215:Arameans (Syriacs) 1097: 1094:Arabic calligraphy 997:Achaemenid Empires 958: 918:, and possibly in 822:, a branch of the 686: 542: 512:"he wrote", يكتُب 18392:Akkadian language 18362:Aramaic languages 18352:Semitic languages 18337: 18336: 18331:extinct languages 18121: 18120: 18117: 18116: 17899:Proto-Afroasiatic 17667:978-0-231-11152-2 17643:978-1-13678-812-3 17612:978-84-695-7829-2 17472:978-3-447-05238-2 17337:978-0-226-22967-6 17304:978-3-11-025158-6 17248:978-3-11-025158-6 17129:(1668): 2703–10. 17000:978-1-315-64493-6 16971:978-0-415-05767-7 16878:978-0-19-964491-9 16824:Daniels, Peter T. 16642:978-0-19-872380-6 16623:978-1-57506-129-0 16550:978-0-520-25560-9 16509:978-1-57506-020-0 15922:978-0-7591-0466-2 15868:, pp. 61–62. 15837:978-3-11-018613-0 15808:, pp. 10–11. 15718:, pp. 85–86. 15536:on 21 August 2006 14957:978-0-8032-7738-0 14781:Old South Arabian 14112: ? (extinct) 13897: ? (extinct) 13891: ? (extinct) 13774:Hilalian dialects 13718:Cottonera Dialect 13647:dialect continuum 13613:dialect continuum 13572:dialect continuum 13556:Khuzestani Arabic 13540:dialect continuum 13530:dialect continuum 13458:dialect continuum 13434:dialect continuum 13410:dialect continuum 13400:dialect continuum 13325:dialect continuum 13267:Old Hijazi Arabic 13261:dialect continuum 13257:Peninsular Arabic 13251:dialect continuum 13209: ? (extinct) 13063:Samaritan Aramaic 13049:Palmyrene Aramaic 13043:Nabataean Aramaic 13032:dialect continuum 12902:dialect continuum 12858:dialect continuum 12814:Northwest Semitic 12737:Old South Arabian 12733:Ethiopian Semitic 12715:Northwest Semitic 12668:during the Early 12633:Ethiopian Semitic 12625:Old South Arabian 12617:Northwest Semitic 12536: 12535: 12040:Common vocabulary 12018: 12017: 11403:Cardinal numerals 11400: 11399: 11087:You (pl., masc.) 10614:You (sg., masc.) 10372:⟨ḇ⟩ 10368:⟨ṯ⟩ 10364:⟨ḵ⟩ 10276:כתיב "spelling" ( 10127:כתב "handwriting" 9557:dog"). So-called 9543: 9542: 9498: 9450: 9399: 9351: 9249: 9201: 9150: 9092: 9044: 8993: 8945: 8739:). In the modern 8684: 8683: 8345: 8340: 8339: 7346:Arabian Peninsula 7201:Arabian peninsula 7173:of Proto-Semitic 6777: 6776: 2927: 2918: 2905: 2898: 2880: 2873: 2866: 2859: 2852: 2840: 2833: 2824: 2817: 2810: 2801: 2796: 2789: 2784: 2777: 2768: 2761: 2754: 2745: 2629: 2628: 1678:Old South Arabian 1400:Solomonic dynasty 1305:Arabian Peninsula 1263:Iberian Peninsula 1197:and southeastern 1179:Assyrians/Syriacs 1139:Arabian Peninsula 1020:Northwest Semitic 1004:Chaldean language 973:Northwest Semitic 942:Epic of Gilgamesh 928:Northwest Semitic 888:Arabian Peninsula 768:Arabian Peninsula 627:alphabetic script 598:Semitic languages 497:"writers", كَتَب 483:"writer", كُتّاب 311:language isolates 286:) appearing from 178:Semitic languages 174: 173: 32:Sinitic languages 16:(Redirected from 18399: 18377:Amharic language 18170:Somali languages 18055: 18054: 17986: 17985: 17877: 17870: 17863: 17854: 17853: 17820: 17814:, Moscow, 2004; 17792: 17783: 17781: 17779: 17773: 17766: 17754: 17748: 17742:. Archived from 17731: 17716: 17714: 17712: 17683: 17681: 17679: 17647: 17628: 17626: 17624: 17595: 17589: 17587: 17558: 17552: 17550: 17521: 17519: 17517: 17488: 17476: 17457: 17420: 17391: 17375: 17358:Lipiński, Edward 17353: 17351: 17349: 17320: 17318: 17316: 17285: 17283: 17281: 17252: 17229: 17156: 17146: 17113: 17077: 17076: 17074: 17068: 17061: 17056:Canaano-Akkadian 17049: 17047: 17045: 17016: 17014: 17012: 16975: 16954: 16917: 16915: 16913: 16882: 16863: 16850: 16837: 16822:. Translated by 16811: 16809: 16807: 16776: 16774: 16772: 16735: 16733: 16731: 16705: 16696: 16694: 16692: 16671: 16669: 16667: 16646: 16627: 16608: 16589: 16566: 16564: 16562: 16533: 16531: 16529: 16474: 16473: 16471: 16469: 16450: 16444: 16443: 16441: 16439: 16420: 16414: 16413: 16392: 16386: 16385: 16383: 16381: 16325: 16319: 16318: 16316: 16314: 16299: 16293: 16292: 16271: 16265: 16264: 16259: 16257: 16229: 16223: 16222: 16201: 16195: 16194: 16173: 16167: 16166: 16161: 16159: 16131: 16125: 16124: 16118: 16116: 16080: 16074: 16073: 16052: 16046: 16045: 16034: 16028: 16027: 16016: 16010: 16009: 16007: 16005: 15987: 15969: 15945: 15939: 15938: 15936: 15934: 15902: 15896: 15890: 15884: 15875: 15869: 15866:Dolgopolsky 1999 15863: 15857: 15851: 15842: 15841: 15815: 15809: 15806:Dolgopolsky 1999 15803: 15797: 15791: 15785: 15784: 15782: 15780: 15761: 15755: 15749: 15743: 15737: 15731: 15725: 15719: 15716:Dolgopolsky 1999 15713: 15707: 15692:Brock, Sebastian 15689: 15683: 15682: 15680: 15678: 15652: 15628: 15622: 15616: 15610: 15607:Dolgopolsky 1999 15604: 15598: 15592: 15586: 15583:Dolgopolsky 1999 15580: 15574: 15571:Dolgopolsky 1999 15568: 15562: 15560: 15552: 15546: 15545: 15543: 15541: 15535: 15529:. Archived from 15528: 15519: 15513: 15512: 15510: 15508: 15492: 15486: 15480: 15474: 15468: 15462: 15456: 15450: 15444: 15438: 15437: 15415: 15409: 15406: 15400: 15397: 15391: 15388: 15382: 15381: 15374:CLASSICAL SYRIAC 15370: 15364: 15358: 15352: 15338: 15332: 15326: 15320: 15314: 15308: 15305: 15299: 15293: 15287: 15281: 15275: 15274: 15262: 15256: 15255: 15253: 15251: 15236: 15230: 15229: 15223: 15221: 15193: 15187: 15186: 15184: 15182: 15161: 15155: 15149: 15140: 15139: 15137: 15135: 15119: 15113: 15097: 15091: 15081: 15069: 15061: 15052: 15042: 15036: 15030: 15021: 15020:, p. 68-69. 15015: 15009: 15003: 14994: 14984: 14978: 14977: 14971: 14969: 14941: 14935: 14929: 14920: 14914: 14908: 14898: 14892: 14886: 14880: 14874: 14857: 14855: 14849: 14843: 14833: 14827: 14821: 14814: 14808: 14802: 14792: 14778: 14771: 14762: 14756: 14752: 14746: 14727: 14721: 14718: 14712: 14706: 14700: 14698: 14694: 14690: 14686: 14681: 14369: 14366: 14349:ancient Carthage 14266:who still speak 14042:Sebat Bet Gurage 13951:Amharic–Argobba 13881:Nabataean Arabic 13815:Hassaniya Arabic 13778:Sulaym dialects 13723:Gozitan dialects 13628:Khorasani Arabic 13621:Bukharian Arabic 13618:Bakhtiari Arabic 13583:Anatolian Arabic 13513:Jordanian Arabic 13479:Damascene Arabic 13454:Levantine Arabic 13362:Tihamiyya Arabic 13235:Classical Arabic 13183:Samaritan Hebrew 13132:South Canaanite 13113:North Canaanite 13087:Lebanese Aramaic 13073:Galilean dialect 12869:Classical Syriac 12841:Biblical Aramaic 12835:Imperial Aramaic 12785:Canaano-Akkadian 12688:Sutean languages 12678: 12675: 12667: 12664: 12648:Gurage languages 12532: 12525: 12518: 12511: 12504: 12497: 12490: 12483: 12476: 12464: 12457: 12447: 12440: 12433: 12426: 12419: 12412: 12400: 12393: 12386: 12379: 12372: 12365: 12358: 12351: 12344: 12331: 12325: 12318: 12311: 12304: 12297: 12290: 12282: 12276: 12269: 12262: 12249: 12243: 12236: 12226: 12219: 12212: 12204: 12198: 12191: 12184: 12171: 12165: 12158: 12151: 12144: 12137: 12130: 12123: 12116: 12107: 12047: 12046: 12008: 12001: 11994: 11991: 11983: 11977: 11972: 11954: 11947: 11940: 11937: 11929: 11923: 11918: 11900: 11893: 11886: 11883: 11875: 11869: 11864: 11846: 11839: 11832: 11829: 11821: 11815: 11810: 11792: 11785: 11778: 11775: 11766: 11762: 11756: 11751: 11733: 11726: 11719: 11716: 11708: 11702: 11697: 11679: 11672: 11665: 11662: 11654: 11648: 11643: 11625: 11618: 11611: 11608: 11600: 11594: 11593:ɬalaːθ>θalaːθ 11589: 11583: 11565: 11558: 11551: 11548: 11542: 11539: 11530: 11526: 11520: 11515: 11509: 11503: 11485: 11478: 11471: 11467: 11459: 11453: 11448: 11407: 11406: 11396: 11389: 11382: 11374: 11366: 11356: 11348: 11341: 11329: 11322: 11315: 11307: 11299: 11291: 11283: 11277: 11269: 11262: 11250: 11243: 11236: 11228: 11220: 11212: 11206: 11200: 11193: 11185: 11178: 11171:You (pl., fem.) 11166: 11159: 11152: 11144: 11136: 11128: 11122: 11115: 11109: 11101: 11094: 11073: 11065: 11058: 11037: 11027: 11015: 11008: 11001: 10993: 10985: 10975: 10967: 10960: 10948: 10942: 10935: 10928: 10920: 10912: 10904: 10896: 10888: 10881: 10869: 10863: 10856: 10849: 10841: 10833: 10825: 10817: 10809: 10802: 10790: 10784: 10777: 10771: 10765: 10758: 10750: 10742: 10734: 10726: 10718: 10711: 10704:You (sg., fem.) 10699: 10693: 10686: 10680: 10674: 10667: 10659: 10651: 10643: 10636: 10628: 10621: 10609: 10603: 10596: 10589: 10581: 10573: 10566: 10560: 10553: 10545: 10538: 10536:*ʔanāku, *ʔaniya 10471: 10470: 10373: 10369: 10365: 10143:כתוב "written" ( 9566: 9539: 9538: 9531: 9523: 9515: 9514: 9507: 9496: 9491: 9490: 9483: 9475: 9467: 9466: 9459: 9448: 9440: 9439: 9432: 9424: 9416: 9415: 9408: 9397: 9392: 9391: 9384: 9376: 9368: 9367: 9360: 9349: 9341: 9340: 9333: 9325: 9317: 9316: 9309: 9290: 9289: 9282: 9274: 9266: 9265: 9258: 9247: 9242: 9241: 9234: 9226: 9218: 9217: 9210: 9199: 9191: 9190: 9183: 9175: 9167: 9166: 9159: 9146: 9133: 9132: 9125: 9117: 9109: 9108: 9101: 9090: 9085: 9084: 9077: 9069: 9061: 9060: 9053: 9042: 9034: 9033: 9026: 9018: 9010: 9009: 9002: 8991: 8986: 8985: 8978: 8970: 8962: 8961: 8954: 8943: 8935: 8934: 8927: 8919: 8911: 8910: 8903: 8872: 8868: 8866:kataba (yaktubu) 8858: 8775:), Akkadian and 8725:Classical Arabic 8626:ay/ī & ay/ē 8370: 8366: 8343: 8293: 8285: 8251: 8245: 8229: 8221: 8181: 8175: 8167: 8127: 8121: 8115: 8109: 8101: 8065: 8057: 8049: 8007: 8000: 7995: 7989: 7981: 7938: 7932: 7926: 7920: 7912: 7878: 7872: 7866: 7858: 7818: 7812: 7806: 7800: 7792: 7769: 7763: 7757: 7751: 7743: 7709: 7703: 7697: 7692: 7686: 7681: 7673: 7631: 7625: 7619: 7611: 7571: 7565: 7559: 7553: 7545: 7503: 7502: 7466:'thirsty', root 7448: 7432: 7424: 7403: 7383: 7343: 7331: 7330: 7322: 7312: 7300: 7292: 7284: 7283: 7275: 7258: 7254: 7253: 7246: 7242: 7241: 7226: 7222: 7221: 7214: 7210: 7209: 7194: 7190: 7183: 7179: 7159: 7147: 7117: 7113: 7101:Samaritan Hebrew 7098: 7094: 7090: 7078: 7075: 7072: 7068: 7056: 7030: 7024: 7018: 7012: 7002: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6937: 6931: 6925: 6919: 6913: 6907: 6901: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6876: 6873: 6867: 6864: 6858: 6855: 6849: 6846: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6801: 6793: 6773: 6765: 6752: 6747: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6714: 6706: 6697: 6685: 6677: 6669: 6663: 6650: 6641: 6630: 6622: 6609: 6604: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6571: 6563: 6554: 6542: 6534: 6526: 6520: 6507: 6498: 6487: 6479: 6466: 6461: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6428: 6420: 6411: 6399: 6391: 6383: 6377: 6364: 6355: 6344: 6336: 6320: 6304: 6291: 6283: 6274: 6262: 6254: 6246: 6240: 6227: 6218: 6207: 6199: 6183: 6167: 6154: 6146: 6137: 6125: 6117: 6109: 6103: 6090: 6081: 6070: 6050: 6034: 6017: 5996: 5988: 5973: 5964: 5953: 5945: 5932: 5927: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5894: 5886: 5877: 5853: 5847: 5834: 5825: 5814: 5806: 5793: 5787: 5773: 5767: 5754: 5745: 5734: 5726: 5719: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5669: 5661: 5653: 5644: 5632: 5624: 5616: 5610: 5597: 5589: 5580: 5569: 5561: 5548: 5543: 5533: 5528: 5522: 5508: 5500: 5491: 5483: 5475: 5452: 5446: 5433: 5424: 5413: 5400: 5394: 5380: 5374: 5361: 5352: 5341: 5333: 5326: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5293: 5288: 5282: 5274: 5266: 5258: 5249: 5241: 5229: 5208: 5202: 5189: 5181: 5172: 5161: 5153: 5146: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5120: 5115: 5109: 5096: 5087: 5076: 5062: 5051: 5043: 5037: 5024: 5015: 5004: 4994: 4987: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4954: 4949: 4943: 4929: 4921: 4912: 4904: 4892: 4884: 4876: 4870: 4857: 4848: 4837: 4829: 4816: 4811: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4778: 4770: 4761: 4749: 4741: 4735: 4722: 4713: 4702: 4694: 4688: 4675: 4670: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4644: 4631: 4623: 4612: 4600: 4592: 4586: 4573: 4564: 4553: 4545: 4538: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4497: 4486: 4478: 4472: 4459: 4450: 4439: 4431: 4424: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4389: 4382: 4374: 4368: 4355: 4346: 4335: 4322: 4317: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4284: 4276: 4267: 4255: 4247: 4238: 4227: 4219: 4206: 4201: 4191: 4186: 4180: 4166: 4158: 4149: 4137: 4129: 4121: 4115: 4102: 4093: 4082: 4068: 4057: 4049: 4043: 4030: 4021: 4010: 4002: 3995: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3939: 3931: 3922: 3914: 3902: 3894: 3888: 3875: 3866: 3855: 3847: 3841: 3828: 3823: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3797: 3784: 3776: 3767: 3755: 3747: 3739: 3733: 3720: 3711: 3700: 3692: 3679: 3674: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3641: 3633: 3624: 3612: 3604: 3596: 3591: 3585: 3572: 3563: 3552: 3544: 3538: 3525: 3520: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3494: 3481: 3473: 3464: 3452: 3444: 3436: 3430: 3417: 3408: 3397: 3389: 3383: 3370: 3365: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3339: 3326: 3318: 3309: 3297: 3289: 3281: 3275: 3262: 3253: 3242: 3234: 3228: 3215: 3210: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3184: 3171: 3163: 3154: 3142: 3134: 3126: 3121: 3115: 3102: 3093: 3082: 3074: 3068: 3055: 3050: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3024: 3011: 3003: 2994: 2982: 2974: 2966: 2960: 2947: 2938: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2914: 2903: 2896: 2876: 2869: 2865: 2862: 2855: 2848: 2844:Samaritan Hebrew 2839: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2820: 2816: 2813: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2792: 2787: 2783: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2764: 2760: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2741: 2674: 2670: 2621: 2618: 2612: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2594: 2588: 2582: 2552: 2546: 2535: 2529: 2519: 2497: 2490: 2481: 2474: 2454: 2447: 2440: 2433: 2422: 2415: 2391: 2384: 2359: 2352: 2346: 2339: 2333: 2322: 2315: 2308: 2301: 2280: 2274: 2266: 2259: 2253: 2244: 2237: 2230: 2223: 2217: 2197: 2190: 2183: 2176: 2169: 2162: 2155: 2148: 2141: 2134: 2127: 2120: 2113: 2088: 2081: 2070: 2063: 2054: 2047: 2033: 2026: 2020: 2011: 2004: 1998: 1987: 1980: 1970: 1951: 1944: 1933: 1926: 1917: 1910: 1829: 1823: 1820: 1819: 1811: 1804:becoming Arabic 1803: 1796: 1790: 1789: 1781: 1773: 1766: 1760: 1753: 1746:Classical Arabic 1706:Gurage languages 1583:Classical Syriac 1541:speak and study 1521:)), churches of 1485:is based on the 1483:Maltese alphabet 1467:Maltese language 1455:Classical Arabic 1313:Fertile Crescent 1259:Berber languages 1100:Classical Syriac 1012:Biblical variant 987:(911–605 BC) by 856:Samaritan Hebrew 783: 780: 656: 652: 614:Table of Nations 606:Table of Nations 591: 555:Guillaume Postel 551:Biblical studies 538:Guillaume Postel 425:. That is, word 334: 331: 323: 320: 292: 289: 166: 154: 145: 131: 37: 36: 21: 18:Semitic language 18407: 18406: 18402: 18401: 18400: 18398: 18397: 18396: 18372:Hebrew language 18367:Arabic language 18342: 18341: 18338: 18333: 18320: 18289: 18245: 18200: 18113: 18087: 18044: 17975: 17918: 17886: 17881: 17818: 17800: 17795: 17777: 17775: 17771: 17764: 17751:Wayback Machine 17746: 17740: 17729: 17710: 17708: 17701: 17677: 17675: 17668: 17652:Versteegh, Kees 17644: 17622: 17620: 17613: 17585: 17583: 17576: 17548: 17546: 17539: 17515: 17513: 17506: 17473: 17372: 17347: 17345: 17338: 17314: 17312: 17305: 17279: 17277: 17270: 17249: 17102: 17072: 17070: 17066: 17059: 17043: 17041: 17034: 17010: 17008: 17001: 16972: 16911: 16909: 16902: 16879: 16834: 16805: 16803: 16796: 16770: 16768: 16761: 16741:Cameron, Averil 16729: 16727: 16690: 16688: 16665: 16663: 16643: 16624: 16605: 16586: 16560: 16558: 16551: 16527: 16525: 16510: 16483: 16478: 16477: 16467: 16465: 16452: 16451: 16447: 16437: 16435: 16422: 16421: 16417: 16407: 16393: 16389: 16379: 16377: 16326: 16322: 16312: 16310: 16301: 16300: 16296: 16286: 16272: 16268: 16255: 16253: 16246: 16230: 16226: 16216: 16202: 16198: 16188: 16174: 16170: 16157: 16155: 16148: 16132: 16128: 16114: 16112: 16105: 16081: 16077: 16067: 16053: 16049: 16035: 16031: 16017: 16013: 16003: 16001: 15946: 15942: 15932: 15930: 15923: 15915:. p. 157. 15903: 15899: 15891: 15887: 15876: 15872: 15864: 15860: 15852: 15845: 15838: 15816: 15812: 15804: 15800: 15792: 15788: 15778: 15776: 15763: 15762: 15758: 15750: 15746: 15738: 15734: 15726: 15722: 15714: 15710: 15690: 15686: 15676: 15674: 15650:10.1.1.395.1033 15629: 15625: 15617: 15613: 15605: 15601: 15593: 15589: 15581: 15577: 15569: 15565: 15553: 15549: 15539: 15537: 15533: 15526: 15520: 15516: 15506: 15504: 15493: 15489: 15481: 15477: 15469: 15465: 15457: 15453: 15445: 15441: 15430: 15416: 15412: 15407: 15403: 15398: 15394: 15389: 15385: 15372: 15371: 15367: 15359: 15355: 15347:, p. 253; 15343:, p. 464; 15339: 15335: 15327: 15323: 15315: 15311: 15306: 15302: 15294: 15290: 15282: 15278: 15268: 15263: 15259: 15249: 15247: 15238: 15237: 15233: 15219: 15217: 15210: 15194: 15190: 15180: 15178: 15163: 15162: 15158: 15150: 15143: 15133: 15131: 15120: 15116: 15106:Wayback Machine 15098: 15094: 15082: 15078: 15064: 15055: 15043: 15039: 15031: 15024: 15016: 15012: 15004: 14997: 14985: 14981: 14967: 14965: 14958: 14942: 14938: 14930: 14923: 14915: 14911: 14903:, p. 424; 14899: 14895: 14887: 14883: 14875: 14871: 14866: 14861: 14860: 14850:, in which the 14815: 14811: 14779:appears in the 14763: 14759: 14753: 14749: 14728: 14724: 14719: 14715: 14710:Canaanite shift 14707: 14703: 14682: 14678: 14673: 14656: 14643: 14572:Hadhrami people 14520:Tigrigna People 14455: 14432:Assyrian people 14408: 14367: 14268:Western Aramaic 14198: 14196:Central Semitic 14178: 14173: 13945:South Ethiopic 13917:North Ethiopic 13832:Moroccan Arabic 13827:Algerian Arabic 13811:Maqil dialects 13762:Tunisian Arabic 13753:Andalusi Arabic 13743:Corfiot Maltese 13643:Maghrebi Arabic 13635:Shirvani Arabic 13546:Baghdadi Arabic 13489:Lebanese Arabic 13474:Aleppine Arabic 13469:Cilician Arabic 13440:Sudanese Arabic 13406:Egyptian Arabic 13351:Djibouti Arabic 13331:Hadhrami Arabic 13247:Mashriqi Arabic 13164:Medieval Hebrew 13159:Mishnaic Hebrew 13154:Biblical Hebrew 13028:Western Aramaic 12962:Lishanid Noshan 12885:Turoyo (Surayt) 12854:Eastern Aramaic 12809:Central Semitic 12755: 12710:Central Semitic 12676: 12666: 3750 BCE 12665: 12646:notes that the 12609: 12410:*lišān-/*lašān- 12042: 12030: 11685:አርባዕቱ ʾärbaʿtu 11446:*ʼaḥad-, *ʻišt- 11405: 11123:, antum, antu, 10469: 10371: 10367: 10363: 9666: 9660: 9625:waw-consecutive 9148: 8881: 8861: 8857: 8805: 8803:Number in nouns 8757: 8729:Biblical Hebrew 8717: 8709: 8666: 8656: 8622: 8458: 8358: 8352: 8335: 8330: 8322: 8308: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8256: 8213: 8208: 8200: 8186: 8159: 8151: 8143: 8132: 8093: 8088: 8080: 8070: 8041: 8033: 8022: 8011: 7973: 7965: 7957: 7943: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7883: 7850: 7845: 7837: 7823: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7714: 7694: 7683: 7665: 7660: 7651: 7636: 7603: 7598: 7590: 7576: 7462:, but Ugaritic 7426:can be written 7344:in most of the 7197:Yemenite Hebrew 7081:functional load 7076: 6824:Tiberian Hebrew 6720: 6655: 6577: 6512: 6434: 6369: 6297: 6232: 6160: 6095: 6027: 5978: 5900: 5839: 5759: 5709: 5704: 5668: 5665: 5602: 5514: 5438: 5366: 5316: 5311: 5273: 5270: 5194: 5136: 5131: 5101: 5029: 5002: 4977: 4972: 4935: 4862: 4784: 4727: 4637: 4578: 4528: 4523: 4503: 4464: 4414: 4409: 4388: 4385: 4360: 4290: 4172: 4107: 4035: 3985: 3980: 3945: 3880: 3790: 3725: 3647: 3577: 3487: 3422: 3332: 3267: 3177: 3107: 3017: 2952: 2678: 2648: 2625: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2597: 2589: 2585: 2553: 2549: 2536: 2532: 2526:second language 2520: 2516: 2486: 2470: 2443: 2429: 2411: 2380: 2348: 2342: 2335: 2329: 2311: 2297: 2255: 2249: 2233: 2219: 2213: 2186: 2172: 2165: 2151: 2137: 2123: 2109: 2077: 2059: 2043: 2022: 2016: 2000: 1994: 1976: 1940: 1922: 1906: 1813: 1812: 1792: 1783: 1782: 1762: 1749: 1730: 1591:Maronite Church 1543:Biblical Hebrew 1475:Maghrebi Arabic 1473:, a variety of 1424: 1245:, and northern 1211:Western Aramaic 1193:, northeastern 1189:, northwestern 1163:Eastern Aramaic 1086: 910:, and parts of 884:Sinai Peninsula 882:, the northern 806:desertification 781: 678: 672: 667: 654: 647: 639:Hamitic peoples 589: 582:Book of Genesis 572:, initially by 530: 469:"books", كاتِب 432:triliteral root 386:alphabets. The 332: 322: 3000 BCE 321: 291: 2600 BCE 290: 270:(also known as 254:Book of Genesis 220:, and in large 184:. They include 170: 167: 157: 141: 127: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 18405: 18395: 18394: 18389: 18384: 18382:Ge'ez language 18379: 18374: 18369: 18364: 18359: 18354: 18335: 18334: 18325: 18322: 18321: 18319: 18318: 18312: 18311: 18310: 18297: 18295: 18291: 18290: 18288: 18287: 18286: 18285: 18280: 18279: 18278: 18263: 18255: 18253: 18247: 18246: 18244: 18243: 18242: 18241: 18236: 18226: 18221: 18216: 18210: 18208: 18202: 18201: 18199: 18198: 18193: 18192: 18191: 18186: 18181: 18180: 18179: 18174: 18173: 18172: 18167: 18147: 18142: 18137: 18131: 18129: 18123: 18122: 18119: 18118: 18115: 18114: 18112: 18111: 18106: 18101: 18095: 18093: 18089: 18088: 18086: 18085: 18077: 18072: 18067: 18061: 18059: 18052: 18046: 18045: 18043: 18042: 18041: 18040: 18035: 18030: 18025: 18023:Hausa–Gwandara 18020: 18015: 18010: 18000: 17995: 17989: 17983: 17977: 17976: 17974: 17973: 17968: 17963: 17962: 17961: 17960: 17959: 17954: 17944: 17934: 17928: 17926: 17920: 17919: 17917: 17916: 17909: 17902: 17894: 17892: 17888: 17887: 17880: 17879: 17872: 17865: 17857: 17851: 17850: 17840: 17833: 17828: 17821: 17799: 17798:External links 17796: 17794: 17793: 17784: 17755: 17738: 17717: 17699: 17684: 17666: 17648: 17642: 17629: 17611: 17596: 17574: 17559: 17537: 17522: 17505:978-0199344093 17504: 17489: 17477: 17471: 17458: 17438:10.1086/373769 17432:(4): 261–271. 17421: 17409:10.1086/371454 17403:(2): 142–144. 17392: 17383: 17376: 17370: 17354: 17336: 17321: 17303: 17286: 17268: 17253: 17247: 17230: 17157: 17114: 17100: 17094:. p. 25. 17078: 17050: 17032: 17017: 16999: 16976: 16970: 16955: 16935:10.1086/373553 16929:(3): 209–214. 16918: 16900: 16883: 16877: 16864: 16851: 16838: 16832: 16812: 16794: 16777: 16759: 16745:Garnsey, Peter 16736: 16706: 16697: 16672: 16647: 16641: 16628: 16622: 16609: 16603: 16590: 16584: 16567: 16549: 16534: 16508: 16484: 16482: 16479: 16476: 16475: 16458:Britannica.com 16445: 16428:Britannica.com 16415: 16405: 16387: 16320: 16294: 16284: 16266: 16244: 16224: 16214: 16196: 16186: 16168: 16146: 16126: 16103: 16075: 16065: 16047: 16029: 16011: 15940: 15921: 15913:Altamira Press 15897: 15885: 15870: 15858: 15843: 15836: 15810: 15798: 15796:, p. 568. 15786: 15756: 15754:, p. 123. 15744: 15732: 15730:, p. 157. 15728:Greenberg 1999 15720: 15708: 15684: 15643:(1): 135–145. 15623: 15611: 15599: 15587: 15575: 15563: 15547: 15514: 15487: 15475: 15463: 15451: 15447:Versteegh 1997 15439: 15428: 15410: 15401: 15392: 15383: 15365: 15363:, p. 335. 15353: 15333: 15321: 15319:, p. 708. 15309: 15300: 15288: 15276: 15257: 15231: 15208: 15188: 15156: 15141: 15114: 15092: 15086:, p. 25; 15076: 15053: 15037: 15035:, p. 192. 15022: 15010: 14995: 14989:, p. 25; 14979: 14956: 14936: 14921: 14909: 14893: 14891:, p. 457. 14881: 14868: 14867: 14865: 14862: 14859: 14858: 14809: 14757: 14747: 14722: 14713: 14701: 14675: 14674: 14672: 14669: 14668: 14667: 14662: 14655: 14652: 14651: 14650: 14642: 14639: 14638: 14637: 14636: 14635: 14633:Soqotri people 14630: 14624: 14619: 14614: 14609: 14603: 14598: 14593: 14591:Harsusi people 14588: 14587: 14586: 14575: 14564: 14559: 14557:Bathari people 14544: 14543: 14542: 14537: 14532: 14527: 14522: 14517: 14512: 14510:Jeberti people 14507: 14493: 14488: 14483: 14481:Dahalik people 14478: 14476:Argobba people 14473: 14468: 14454: 14451: 14450: 14449: 14443: 14442: 14441: 14436: 14435: 14434: 14416:Arabian Desert 14407: 14404: 14403: 14402: 14396: 14391: 14386: 14381: 14376: 14371: 14368: 1000 BC 14358: 14357: 14356: 14334: 14329: 14328: 14327: 14322: 14295: 14289: 14278: 14277: 14276: 14271: 14257: 14246: 14245: 14244: 14238: 14233: 14228: 14223: 14214: 14204: 14197: 14194: 14177: 14174: 14172: 14171: 14170: 14169: 14168: 14167: 14158: 14157: 14156: 14155: 14154: 14153: 14152: 14147: 14142: 14137: 14132: 14127: 14117: 14116: 14115: 14114: 14113: 14107: 14101: 14095: 14089: 14088: 14087: 14078: 14072: 14061: 14060: 14059: 14058: 14057: 14056: 14055: 14054: 14053: 14052: 14051: 14050: 14049: 14044: 14036: 14026: 14021: 14012: 14011: 14010: 14005: 13993: 13992: 13991: 13990: 13989: 13988: 13987: 13982: 13972: 13964: 13963: 13962: 13957: 13943: 13942: 13941: 13936: 13935: 13934: 13929: 13902: 13901: 13900: 13899: 13898: 13892: 13886: 13885: 13884: 13878: 13872: 13866: 13860: 13859: 13858: 13855:Ṭayyiˀ dialect 13852: 13849:Huḏayl dialect 13846: 13840: 13839: 13838: 13837: 13836: 13835: 13834: 13829: 13821: 13820: 13819: 13818: 13817: 13809: 13806: 13805: 13804: 13796: 13793: 13792: 13791: 13790: 13789: 13771: 13770: 13769: 13766: 13765: 13764: 13756: 13750: 13749: 13748: 13747: 13746: 13740: 13735: 13733:Żejtun dialect 13730: 13725: 13720: 13705: 13704: 13703: 13698: 13693: 13688: 13677: 13672: 13667: 13666: 13665: 13640: 13639: 13638: 13632: 13631: 13630: 13625: 13622: 13619: 13606: 13605: 13604: 13603: 13602: 13600:Cypriot Arabic 13597: 13596: 13595: 13585: 13580: 13565: 13564: 13563: 13558: 13553: 13548: 13519: 13518: 13517: 13516: 13515: 13510: 13509: 13508: 13493: 13492: 13491: 13486: 13481: 13476: 13471: 13451: 13450: 13449: 13448: 13447: 13445:Chadian Arabic 13442: 13430: 13429: 13428: 13426:Cairene Arabic 13423: 13418: 13396: 13395: 13394: 13389: 13384: 13378: 13377: 13376: 13371: 13370: 13369: 13367:Zabidi dialect 13359: 13354: 13353: 13352: 13349: 13346: 13345:Taʽizzi Arabic 13338: 13336:Sanʽani Arabic 13333: 13318: 13316:Dhofari Arabic 13313: 13308: 13303: 13301:Bahrani Arabic 13298: 13297: 13296: 13294:Kuwaiti Arabic 13291: 13286: 13284:Emirati Arabic 13276: 13275: 13274: 13244: 13243: 13242: 13212: 13211: 13210: 13204: 13198: 13192: 13191: 13190: 13189: 13188: 13187: 13186: 13180: 13179: 13178: 13177: 13176: 13151: 13145: 13139: 13130: 13129: 13128: 13127: 13126: 13106: 13105: 13104: 13103: 13102: 13101: 13100: 13094: 13093: 13092: 13091: 13090: 13084: 13083: 13082: 13077: 13076: 13075: 13065: 13057: 13052: 13046: 13025: 13024: 13023: 13022: 13021: 13020: 13019: 13013: 13012: 13011: 12998: 12997: 12996: 12995: 12994: 12989: 12984: 12979: 12974: 12969: 12964: 12954: 12949: 12944: 12939: 12938: 12937: 12932: 12931: 12930: 12925: 12920: 12895: 12894: 12893: 12887: 12877: 12874:Hatran Aramaic 12871: 12849:Middle Aramaic 12846: 12845: 12844: 12832: 12801: 12800: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12788: 12787: 12782: 12779: 12776: 12767:(All extinct) 12756: 12754: 12751: 12750: 12749: 12748: 12747: 12746: 12745: 12739: 12724: 12723: 12722: 12717: 12702: 12696: 12695: 12677: 800 BCE 12637:Robert Hetzron 12608: 12607:Classification 12605: 12534: 12533: 12526: 12519: 12512: 12505: 12498: 12491: 12484: 12477: 12470: 12466: 12465: 12458: 12451: 12448: 12441: 12434: 12427: 12420: 12413: 12406: 12402: 12401: 12394: 12387: 12380: 12373: 12366: 12359: 12352: 12345: 12338: 12334: 12333: 12319: 12312: 12305: 12298: 12291: 12284: 12270: 12263: 12256: 12252: 12251: 12237: 12230: 12227: 12220: 12213: 12206: 12192: 12185: 12178: 12174: 12173: 12159: 12152: 12145: 12138: 12131: 12124: 12117: 12108: 12101: 12097: 12096: 12091: 12086: 12081: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12056: 12055:Proto-Semitic 12053: 12041: 12038: 12029: 12026: 12016: 12015: 12012: 12009: 12002: 11995: 11984: 11978: 11973: 11966: 11962: 11961: 11958: 11955: 11948: 11941: 11930: 11924: 11919: 11912: 11908: 11907: 11904: 11901: 11894: 11887: 11876: 11870: 11865: 11858: 11854: 11853: 11850: 11847: 11840: 11833: 11822: 11816: 11811: 11804: 11800: 11799: 11796: 11793: 11786: 11779: 11768: 11763:(ordinal سادس 11757: 11752: 11745: 11741: 11740: 11737: 11734: 11727: 11720: 11709: 11703: 11698: 11691: 11687: 11686: 11683: 11680: 11673: 11666: 11655: 11649: 11644: 11637: 11633: 11632: 11629: 11626: 11619: 11612: 11601: 11595: 11590: 11577: 11573: 11572: 11569: 11566: 11559: 11552: 11532: 11527:(nom.), اثنين 11521: 11516: 11497: 11493: 11492: 11489: 11486: 11479: 11472: 11460: 11458:waːħid-,ʔaħad- 11454: 11449: 11442: 11438: 11437: 11434: 11431: 11428: 11423: 11420: 11417: 11414: 11413:Proto-Semitic 11411: 11404: 11401: 11398: 11397: 11390: 11383: 11375: 11367: 11360: 11357: 11349: 11342: 11335: 11331: 11330: 11323: 11316: 11308: 11300: 11293: 11284: 11270: 11263: 11256: 11252: 11251: 11244: 11237: 11229: 11221: 11214: 11194: 11186: 11179: 11172: 11168: 11167: 11160: 11153: 11145: 11137: 11130: 11116: 11102: 11095: 11088: 11084: 11083: 11081: 11079: 11077: 11074: 11066: 11059: 11052: 11048: 11047: 11045: 11043: 11041: 11038: 11030: 11028: 11021: 11017: 11016: 11009: 11002: 10994: 10986: 10979: 10976: 10968: 10961: 10954: 10950: 10949: 10936: 10929: 10921: 10913: 10906: 10898: 10889: 10882: 10875: 10871: 10870: 10857: 10850: 10842: 10834: 10827: 10819: 10810: 10803: 10796: 10792: 10791: 10778: 10759: 10751: 10743: 10736: 10735:(i)nti, intch 10727: 10719: 10712: 10705: 10701: 10700: 10687: 10668: 10660: 10652: 10645: 10637: 10629: 10622: 10615: 10611: 10610: 10597: 10590: 10582: 10574: 10567: 10554: 10546: 10539: 10532: 10528: 10527: 10522: 10516: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10475: 10468: 10465: 10412:"number", and 10374:represent the 10360: 10359: 10338: 10298: 10281: 10261: 10243: 10226: 10190: 10162: 10128: 10112: 10080: 10054: 10029: 9997: 9976: 9956: 9935: 9934: 9920: 9903: 9886: 9873: 9859: 9846: 9829: 9813: 9796: 9780: 9764: 9751: 9733: 9719: 9705: 9662:Main article: 9659: 9656: 9619:(indicative), 9541: 9540: 9533: 9516: 9509: 9499: 9493: 9492: 9485: 9468: 9461: 9451: 9446: 9442: 9441: 9434: 9417: 9410: 9400: 9394: 9393: 9386: 9369: 9362: 9352: 9347: 9343: 9342: 9335: 9318: 9311: 9301: 9297: 9296: 9292: 9291: 9284: 9267: 9260: 9250: 9244: 9243: 9236: 9219: 9212: 9202: 9197: 9193: 9192: 9185: 9168: 9161: 9151: 9149:& feminine 9144: 9140: 9139: 9135: 9134: 9127: 9110: 9103: 9093: 9087: 9086: 9079: 9062: 9055: 9045: 9040: 9036: 9035: 9028: 9011: 9004: 8994: 8988: 8987: 8980: 8963: 8956: 8946: 8941: 8937: 8936: 8929: 8912: 8905: 8895: 8891: 8890: 8886: 8885: 8878: 8875: 8856: 8853: 8847:"one dam" vs. 8841:broken plurals 8804: 8801: 8756: 8753: 8716: 8713: 8708: 8705: 8704: 8703: 8700: 8697: 8694: 8691: 8688: 8682: 8681: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8671: 8663: 8661: 8653: 8650: 8647: 8643: 8642: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8612: 8609: 8606: 8602: 8601: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8579: 8576: 8572: 8571: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8550: 8547: 8543: 8542: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8532: 8529: 8527: 8524: 8521: 8518: 8514: 8513: 8510: 8507: 8504: 8501: 8498: 8495: 8492: 8489: 8486: 8482: 8481: 8478: 8475: 8472: 8469: 8466: 8463: 8455: 8452: 8449: 8445: 8444: 8441: 8438: 8435: 8432: 8429: 8426: 8423: 8420: 8417: 8413: 8412: 8409: 8406: 8403: 8400: 8397: 8394: 8390: 8389: 8386: 8383: 8380: 8377: 8374: 8351: 8348: 8347: 8346: 8338: 8337: 8332: 8324: 8316: 8310: 8305: 8295: 8289: 8280: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8258: 8253: 8247: 8241: 8231: 8225: 8216: 8215: 8210: 8202: 8194: 8188: 8183: 8177: 8171: 8162: 8161: 8156: 8148: 8140: 8134: 8129: 8123: 8117: 8111: 8105: 8096: 8095: 8090: 8082: 8074: 8072: 8067: 8061: 8059: 8053: 8044: 8043: 8038: 8027: 8019: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7991: 7985: 7976: 7975: 7970: 7959: 7951: 7945: 7940: 7934: 7928: 7922: 7916: 7907: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7885: 7880: 7874: 7868: 7862: 7853: 7852: 7847: 7839: 7831: 7825: 7820: 7814: 7808: 7802: 7796: 7787: 7786: 7783: 7780: 7777: 7774: 7771: 7765: 7759: 7753: 7747: 7738: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7716: 7711: 7705: 7699: 7688: 7677: 7668: 7667: 7662: 7653: 7644: 7638: 7633: 7627: 7621: 7615: 7606: 7605: 7600: 7592: 7584: 7578: 7573: 7567: 7561: 7555: 7549: 7540: 7539: 7536: 7533: 7530: 7527: 7523: 7522: 7519: 7516: 7513: 7510: 7507: 7506:Proto-Semitic 7498: 7497: 7478: 7471: 7417: 7314: 7267: 7260: 7171:palatalization 7167: 7134: 7131: 7104: 7095:is pronounced 7077: 200 BCE 7047: 7036: 6940:Middle Aramaic 6894: 6839: 6788:Proto-Semitic 6775: 6774: 6769: 6766: 6759: 6756: 6753: 6748: 6741: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6707: 6702: 6699: 6690: 6687: 6678: 6673: 6670: 6665: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6642: 6632: 6631: 6626: 6623: 6616: 6613: 6610: 6605: 6598: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6564: 6559: 6556: 6547: 6544: 6535: 6530: 6527: 6522: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6499: 6489: 6488: 6483: 6480: 6473: 6470: 6467: 6462: 6455: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6421: 6416: 6413: 6404: 6401: 6392: 6387: 6384: 6379: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6356: 6346: 6345: 6340: 6337: 6330: 6327: 6324: 6321: 6314: 6311: 6308: 6305: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6284: 6279: 6276: 6267: 6264: 6255: 6250: 6247: 6242: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6219: 6209: 6208: 6203: 6200: 6193: 6190: 6187: 6184: 6177: 6174: 6171: 6168: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6147: 6142: 6139: 6130: 6127: 6118: 6113: 6110: 6105: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6082: 6072: 6071: 6066: 6063: 6060: 6057: 6054: 6051: 6044: 6041: 6038: 6035: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6010: 6005: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5965: 5955: 5954: 5949: 5946: 5939: 5936: 5933: 5928: 5921: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5887: 5882: 5879: 5870: 5867: 5864: 5857: 5854: 5849: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5826: 5816: 5815: 5810: 5807: 5800: 5797: 5794: 5789: 5780: 5777: 5774: 5769: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5746: 5736: 5735: 5730: 5727: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5690: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5670: 5666: 5663: 5654: 5649: 5646: 5637: 5634: 5625: 5620: 5617: 5612: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5581: 5571: 5570: 5565: 5562: 5555: 5552: 5549: 5544: 5537: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5501: 5496: 5493: 5468: 5465: 5459: 5456: 5453: 5448: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5425: 5415: 5414: 5407: 5404: 5401: 5396: 5387: 5384: 5381: 5376: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5353: 5343: 5342: 5337: 5334: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5297: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5275: 5271: 5268: 5259: 5254: 5251: 5234: 5231: 5222: 5212: 5209: 5204: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5173: 5163: 5162: 5157: 5154: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5088: 5078: 5077: 5070: 5067: 5064: 5055: 5052: 5047: 5044: 5039: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5016: 5006: 5005: 4998: 4995: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4958: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4922: 4917: 4914: 4897: 4894: 4885: 4880: 4877: 4872: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4849: 4839: 4838: 4833: 4830: 4823: 4820: 4817: 4812: 4805: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4771: 4766: 4763: 4754: 4751: 4742: 4737: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4714: 4704: 4703: 4698: 4695: 4682: 4679: 4676: 4671: 4664: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4624: 4617: 4614: 4605: 4602: 4593: 4588: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4565: 4555: 4554: 4549: 4546: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4490: 4487: 4482: 4479: 4474: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4451: 4441: 4440: 4435: 4432: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4390: 4386: 4383: 4378: 4375: 4370: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4347: 4337: 4336: 4329: 4326: 4323: 4318: 4311: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4277: 4272: 4269: 4260: 4257: 4248: 4239: 4229: 4228: 4223: 4220: 4213: 4210: 4207: 4202: 4195: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4159: 4154: 4151: 4142: 4139: 4130: 4125: 4122: 4117: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4094: 4084: 4083: 4076: 4073: 4070: 4061: 4058: 4053: 4050: 4045: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4022: 4012: 4011: 4006: 4003: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3966: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3932: 3927: 3924: 3907: 3904: 3895: 3890: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3867: 3857: 3856: 3851: 3848: 3835: 3832: 3829: 3824: 3817: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3777: 3772: 3769: 3760: 3757: 3748: 3743: 3740: 3735: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3712: 3702: 3701: 3696: 3693: 3686: 3683: 3680: 3675: 3668: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3634: 3629: 3626: 3617: 3614: 3605: 3600: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3564: 3554: 3553: 3548: 3545: 3532: 3529: 3526: 3521: 3514: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3474: 3469: 3466: 3457: 3454: 3445: 3440: 3437: 3432: 3423: 3420: 3418: 3409: 3399: 3398: 3393: 3390: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3366: 3359: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3319: 3314: 3311: 3302: 3299: 3290: 3285: 3282: 3277: 3268: 3265: 3263: 3254: 3244: 3243: 3238: 3235: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3211: 3204: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3164: 3159: 3156: 3147: 3144: 3135: 3130: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3094: 3084: 3083: 3078: 3075: 3062: 3059: 3056: 3051: 3044: 3041: 3036: 3031: 3018: 3015: 3013: 3004: 2999: 2996: 2987: 2984: 2975: 2970: 2967: 2962: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2939: 2929: 2928: 2919: 2912: 2907: 2900: 2893: 2888: 2882: 2881: 2874: 2867: 2860: 2853: 2846: 2841: 2834: 2825: 2818: 2811: 2802: 2797: 2790: 2785: 2778: 2769: 2762: 2755: 2746: 2738: 2737: 2732: 2730: 2725: 2723: 2718: 2716: 2711: 2709: 2704: 2702: 2700:Akkadian 2697: 2695: 2690: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2647: 2644: 2627: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2613: 2604: 2595: 2583: 2547: 2530: 2513: 2512: 2509: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2484: 2482: 2468: 2462: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2441: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2409: 2403: 2402: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2369: 2363: 2362: 2360: 2340: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2309: 2295: 2293: 2287: 2286: 2284: 2282: 2267: 2247: 2245: 2231: 2207: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2184: 2170: 2163: 2149: 2135: 2121: 2107: 2105: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2091: 2089: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2057: 2055: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2014: 2012: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1974: 1972: 1963: 1957: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1920: 1918: 1904: 1899: 1894: 1888: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1729: 1726: 1680:inscriptions. 1605:, and ancient 1503:European Union 1423: 1420: 1355:. A number of 1319:. Most of the 1159:Turkic peoples 1085: 1082: 1074:Horn of Africa 993:Neo-Babylonian 798:Horn of Africa 786:Horn of Africa 782: 3750 BC 674:Main article: 671: 668: 666: 663: 612:In the Mosaic 529: 526: 455:"book", كُتُب 416:European Union 333: 2100 BC 214:Horn of Africa 172: 171: 168: 159: 158: 155: 147: 146: 139: 133: 132: 125: 115: 114: 113: 112: 107: 99: 95: 94: 89: 88:Proto-language 85: 84: 83: 82: 72: 66: 65: 59:Horn of Africa 48: 42: 41: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 18404: 18393: 18390: 18388: 18385: 18383: 18380: 18378: 18375: 18373: 18370: 18368: 18365: 18363: 18360: 18358: 18355: 18353: 18350: 18349: 18347: 18340: 18332: 18328: 18323: 18316: 18313: 18309: 18306: 18305: 18304: 18303: 18299: 18298: 18296: 18292: 18284: 18281: 18277: 18274: 18273: 18272: 18269: 18268: 18267: 18264: 18262: 18261: 18257: 18256: 18254: 18252: 18248: 18240: 18237: 18235: 18232: 18231: 18230: 18227: 18225: 18222: 18220: 18217: 18215: 18212: 18211: 18209: 18207: 18203: 18197: 18194: 18190: 18187: 18185: 18182: 18178: 18175: 18171: 18168: 18166: 18165:Rendille–Boni 18163: 18162: 18161: 18158: 18157: 18156: 18153: 18152: 18151: 18148: 18146: 18145:Highland East 18143: 18141: 18138: 18136: 18133: 18132: 18130: 18128: 18124: 18110: 18107: 18105: 18102: 18100: 18097: 18096: 18094: 18090: 18083: 18082: 18078: 18076: 18073: 18071: 18068: 18066: 18063: 18062: 18060: 18056: 18053: 18051: 18047: 18039: 18036: 18034: 18031: 18029: 18026: 18024: 18021: 18019: 18016: 18014: 18011: 18009: 18006: 18005: 18004: 18001: 17999: 17996: 17994: 17991: 17990: 17987: 17984: 17982: 17978: 17972: 17969: 17967: 17964: 17958: 17955: 17953: 17950: 17949: 17948: 17945: 17943: 17940: 17939: 17938: 17935: 17933: 17930: 17929: 17927: 17925: 17921: 17915: 17914: 17913:Proto-Semitic 17910: 17908: 17907: 17903: 17901: 17900: 17896: 17895: 17893: 17891:Reconstructed 17889: 17885: 17878: 17873: 17871: 17866: 17864: 17859: 17858: 17855: 17848: 17844: 17841: 17839: 17838: 17834: 17832: 17829: 17827: 17826: 17822: 17817: 17813: 17809: 17805: 17802: 17801: 17790: 17785: 17770: 17763: 17762: 17756: 17752: 17745: 17741: 17739:0-19-824137-2 17735: 17728: 17727: 17722: 17718: 17706: 17702: 17700:0-931464-31-5 17696: 17692: 17691: 17685: 17673: 17669: 17663: 17659: 17658: 17653: 17649: 17645: 17639: 17635: 17630: 17618: 17614: 17608: 17604: 17603: 17597: 17594: 17581: 17577: 17575:0-8047-1894-6 17571: 17567: 17566: 17560: 17557: 17544: 17540: 17538:9781846158735 17534: 17530: 17529: 17523: 17511: 17507: 17501: 17497: 17496: 17490: 17486: 17482: 17478: 17474: 17468: 17464: 17459: 17455: 17451: 17447: 17443: 17439: 17435: 17431: 17427: 17422: 17418: 17414: 17410: 17406: 17402: 17398: 17393: 17389: 17384: 17381: 17377: 17373: 17371:90-429-0815-7 17367: 17363: 17359: 17355: 17343: 17339: 17333: 17329: 17328: 17322: 17310: 17306: 17300: 17296: 17292: 17287: 17275: 17271: 17269:90-247-2523-2 17265: 17261: 17260: 17254: 17250: 17244: 17240: 17236: 17231: 17228: 17226: 17222: 17221: 17220:Indo-Germanic 17216: 17212: 17208: 17204: 17200: 17196: 17192: 17188: 17184: 17180: 17176: 17170: 17166: 17162: 17158: 17154: 17150: 17145: 17140: 17136: 17132: 17128: 17124: 17120: 17115: 17112: 17110: 17103: 17101:9780521631969 17097: 17093: 17089: 17088: 17083: 17079: 17065: 17058: 17057: 17051: 17039: 17035: 17033:0-415-05767-1 17029: 17025: 17024: 17018: 17006: 17002: 16996: 16992: 16988: 16984: 16983: 16977: 16973: 16967: 16964:. Routledge. 16963: 16962: 16956: 16952: 16948: 16944: 16940: 16936: 16932: 16928: 16924: 16919: 16907: 16903: 16901:9780080877754 16897: 16893: 16889: 16884: 16880: 16874: 16870: 16865: 16861: 16857: 16852: 16848: 16844: 16839: 16835: 16833:0-931464-10-2 16829: 16825: 16821: 16817: 16813: 16801: 16797: 16795:0-19-823866-5 16791: 16787: 16783: 16778: 16766: 16762: 16760:0-521-85073-8 16756: 16752: 16751: 16746: 16742: 16737: 16725: 16721: 16717: 16716: 16711: 16707: 16703: 16698: 16686: 16682: 16678: 16673: 16661: 16657: 16653: 16648: 16644: 16638: 16634: 16629: 16625: 16619: 16615: 16610: 16606: 16604:1-57506-021-3 16600: 16596: 16591: 16587: 16585:90-429-1215-4 16581: 16577: 16573: 16568: 16556: 16552: 16546: 16542: 16541: 16535: 16523: 16519: 16515: 16511: 16505: 16501: 16497: 16493: 16492: 16486: 16485: 16463: 16459: 16455: 16449: 16433: 16429: 16425: 16419: 16412: 16408: 16406:9789712314728 16402: 16398: 16397:World History 16391: 16375: 16371: 16367: 16363: 16359: 16355: 16351: 16347: 16343: 16339: 16335: 16331: 16324: 16308: 16304: 16298: 16291: 16287: 16285:9783447053136 16281: 16277: 16270: 16263: 16251: 16247: 16245:9783447053136 16241: 16237: 16236: 16228: 16221: 16217: 16215:9783447033268 16211: 16207: 16200: 16193: 16189: 16187:9783447033268 16183: 16179: 16172: 16165: 16153: 16149: 16147:9783643152619 16143: 16139: 16138: 16130: 16123: 16110: 16106: 16104:9783110199192 16100: 16096: 16092: 16088: 16087: 16079: 16072: 16068: 16066:9783446239005 16062: 16058: 16051: 16044: 16040: 16033: 16026: 16022: 16015: 15999: 15995: 15991: 15986: 15981: 15977: 15973: 15968: 15963: 15959: 15955: 15951: 15944: 15928: 15924: 15918: 15914: 15910: 15909: 15901: 15894: 15889: 15883: 15879: 15874: 15867: 15862: 15855: 15854:Lipiński 2001 15850: 15848: 15839: 15833: 15829: 15825: 15821: 15814: 15807: 15802: 15795: 15790: 15774: 15770: 15766: 15760: 15753: 15748: 15741: 15736: 15729: 15724: 15717: 15712: 15705: 15704:1-59333-349-8 15701: 15697: 15693: 15688: 15672: 15668: 15664: 15660: 15656: 15651: 15646: 15642: 15638: 15634: 15627: 15620: 15615: 15609:, p. 73. 15608: 15603: 15597:, p. 56. 15596: 15591: 15585:, p. 72. 15584: 15579: 15573:, p. 35. 15572: 15567: 15558: 15551: 15532: 15525: 15518: 15502: 15498: 15491: 15485:, p. 13. 15484: 15479: 15472: 15467: 15461:, p. 54. 15460: 15455: 15449:, p. 13. 15448: 15443: 15436: 15431: 15429:9781463238933 15425: 15421: 15414: 15405: 15396: 15387: 15380: 15375: 15369: 15362: 15357: 15351:, p. 129 15350: 15346: 15342: 15337: 15330: 15325: 15318: 15313: 15304: 15297: 15292: 15285: 15284:Izre'el 1987c 15280: 15272: 15267:, p. 23. 15266: 15261: 15245: 15241: 15235: 15228: 15215: 15211: 15209:9781846158735 15205: 15201: 15200: 15192: 15176: 15172: 15171: 15166: 15160: 15153: 15148: 15146: 15129: 15125: 15118: 15111: 15107: 15103: 15100: 15096: 15090:, p. 192 15089: 15085: 15080: 15074: 15071: 15070: 15067: 15060: 15059: 15050: 15046: 15045:Eichhorn 1794 15041: 15034: 15029: 15027: 15019: 15014: 15008:, p. 25. 15007: 15002: 15000: 14992: 14988: 14983: 14976: 14963: 14959: 14953: 14949: 14948: 14940: 14933: 14928: 14926: 14919:, p. 25. 14918: 14913: 14906: 14902: 14897: 14890: 14885: 14878: 14873: 14869: 14854: 14848: 14842: 14837: 14832: 14826: 14820: 14813: 14806: 14803:) appears in 14801: 14796: 14793:(rather than 14791: 14786: 14782: 14777: 14772: 14770: 14761: 14751: 14744: 14740: 14736: 14732: 14726: 14717: 14711: 14705: 14680: 14676: 14666: 14663: 14661: 14658: 14657: 14648: 14645: 14644: 14634: 14631: 14628: 14625: 14623: 14622:Razihi people 14620: 14618: 14617:Shehri people 14615: 14613: 14610: 14607: 14604: 14602: 14599: 14597: 14596:Hobyot people 14594: 14592: 14589: 14585: 14584:Yemenite Jews 14582: 14581: 14579: 14576: 14573: 14569: 14565: 14563: 14560: 14558: 14555: 14554: 14552: 14548: 14545: 14541: 14538: 14536: 14535:Wolane people 14533: 14531: 14528: 14526: 14525:Tigray people 14523: 14521: 14518: 14516: 14515:Silt'e people 14513: 14511: 14508: 14505: 14501: 14497: 14494: 14492: 14491:Harari people 14489: 14487: 14486:Gurage people 14484: 14482: 14479: 14477: 14474: 14472: 14471:Amhara people 14469: 14466: 14463: 14462: 14460: 14457: 14456: 14453:South Semitic 14447: 14444: 14440: 14437: 14433: 14429: 14428: 14427: 14424: 14423: 14421: 14417: 14413: 14410: 14409: 14400: 14397: 14395: 14392: 14390: 14387: 14385: 14382: 14380: 14377: 14375: 14372: 14362: 14359: 14354: 14350: 14346: 14342: 14338: 14335: 14333: 14330: 14326: 14323: 14321: 14318: 14317: 14315: 14311: 14307: 14303: 14299: 14296: 14293: 14290: 14288: 14285: 14284: 14282: 14279: 14275: 14272: 14269: 14265: 14261: 14258: 14256: 14253: 14252: 14250: 14247: 14242: 14239: 14237: 14234: 14232: 14229: 14227: 14224: 14222: 14218: 14215: 14213: 14210: 14209: 14208: 14205: 14203: 14200: 14199: 14189: 14185: 14184:and nations: 14183: 14165: 14162: 14161: 14160:Unclassified 14159: 14151: 14148: 14146: 14143: 14141: 14138: 14136: 14133: 14131: 14128: 14126: 14123: 14122: 14121: 14118: 14111: 14108: 14105: 14102: 14099: 14096: 14093: 14090: 14085: 14084: 14082: 14079: 14076: 14073: 14070: 14067: 14066: 14065: 14062: 14048: 14045: 14043: 14040: 14039: 14037: 14035: 14032: 14031: 14030: 14027: 14025: 14022: 14019: 14016: 14015: 14013: 14009: 14006: 14003: 14000: 13999: 13997: 13996: 13994: 13986: 13983: 13981: 13978: 13977: 13976: 13973: 13971: 13968: 13967: 13965: 13961: 13958: 13956: 13953: 13952: 13950: 13949: 13947: 13946: 13944: 13940: 13937: 13933: 13930: 13928: 13925: 13924: 13922: 13919: 13918: 13916: 13915: 13914: 13911: 13910: 13908: 13907: 13906: 13905:South Semitic 13903: 13896: 13893: 13890: 13887: 13882: 13879: 13876: 13873: 13870: 13867: 13864: 13861: 13856: 13853: 13850: 13847: 13844: 13841: 13833: 13830: 13828: 13825: 13824: 13822: 13816: 13813: 13812: 13810: 13807: 13803: 13800: 13799: 13797: 13794: 13788: 13785: 13784: 13783: 13782:Libyan Arabic 13780: 13779: 13777: 13776: 13775: 13772: 13767: 13763: 13760: 13759: 13757: 13754: 13751: 13744: 13741: 13739: 13736: 13734: 13731: 13729: 13728:Qormi dialect 13726: 13724: 13721: 13719: 13716: 13715: 13714: 13711: 13710: 13709: 13708:Siculo-Arabic 13706: 13702: 13699: 13697: 13694: 13692: 13689: 13687: 13684: 13683: 13682: 13678: 13676: 13673: 13671: 13668: 13664: 13663:Fessi dialect 13661: 13660: 13659: 13656: 13655: 13654: 13651: 13650: 13648: 13644: 13641: 13636: 13633: 13629: 13626: 13623: 13620: 13617: 13616: 13614: 13610: 13607: 13601: 13598: 13594: 13591: 13590: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13575: 13573: 13569: 13566: 13562: 13559: 13557: 13554: 13552: 13549: 13547: 13544: 13543: 13541: 13537: 13534: 13533: 13531: 13527: 13523: 13520: 13514: 13511: 13507: 13504: 13503: 13502: 13499: 13498: 13497: 13494: 13490: 13487: 13485: 13482: 13480: 13477: 13475: 13472: 13470: 13467: 13466: 13465: 13462: 13461: 13459: 13455: 13452: 13446: 13443: 13441: 13438: 13437: 13435: 13431: 13427: 13424: 13422: 13421:Saʽidi Arabic 13419: 13417: 13414: 13413: 13411: 13407: 13404: 13403: 13401: 13397: 13393: 13392:Bareqi Arabic 13390: 13388: 13385: 13382: 13379: 13375: 13374:Yafi'i Arabic 13372: 13368: 13365: 13364: 13363: 13360: 13358: 13355: 13350: 13347: 13344: 13343: 13342: 13339: 13337: 13334: 13332: 13329: 13328: 13326: 13322: 13321:Yemeni Arabic 13319: 13317: 13314: 13312: 13311:Shihhi Arabic 13309: 13307: 13304: 13302: 13299: 13295: 13292: 13290: 13287: 13285: 13282: 13281: 13280: 13277: 13273: 13272:Hejazi Arabic 13270: 13269: 13268: 13265: 13264: 13262: 13258: 13255: 13254: 13252: 13248: 13245: 13241: 13238: 13237: 13236: 13233: 13232: 13231: 13228: 13227: 13226: 13223: 13222: 13221: 13218: 13217: 13216: 13215:North Arabian 13213: 13208: 13205: 13202: 13199: 13196: 13193: 13184: 13181: 13174: 13173:Modern Hebrew 13170: 13167: 13166: 13165: 13162: 13161: 13160: 13157: 13156: 13155: 13152: 13149: 13146: 13143: 13140: 13137: 13134: 13133: 13131: 13124: 13121: 13120: 13118: 13115: 13114: 13112: 13111: 13110: 13107: 13098: 13095: 13088: 13085: 13081: 13078: 13074: 13071: 13070: 13069: 13066: 13064: 13061: 13060: 13058: 13056: 13053: 13050: 13047: 13044: 13041: 13040: 13039: 13036: 13035: 13033: 13029: 13026: 13017: 13014: 13010: 13007: 13006: 13005: 13002: 13001: 12999: 12993: 12990: 12988: 12985: 12983: 12980: 12978: 12975: 12973: 12970: 12968: 12965: 12963: 12960: 12959: 12958: 12955: 12953: 12950: 12948: 12945: 12943: 12940: 12936: 12933: 12929: 12926: 12924: 12921: 12919: 12916: 12915: 12914: 12911: 12910: 12909: 12906: 12905: 12903: 12899: 12896: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12882: 12881: 12878: 12875: 12872: 12870: 12867: 12866: 12865: 12862: 12861: 12859: 12855: 12852: 12851: 12850: 12847: 12842: 12839: 12838: 12836: 12833: 12830: 12827: 12826: 12825: 12822: 12821: 12820: 12817: 12816: 12815: 12812: 12811: 12810: 12807: 12806: 12805: 12802: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12786: 12783: 12780: 12777: 12774: 12773: 12772: 12769: 12768: 12766: 12763: 12762: 12761: 12758: 12757: 12753:Detailed list 12744: 12740: 12738: 12734: 12730: 12729: 12728: 12727:South Semitic 12725: 12721: 12718: 12716: 12713: 12712: 12711: 12708: 12707: 12706: 12703: 12701: 12698: 12697: 12693: 12692: 12691: 12689: 12685: 12680: 12671: 12661: 12657: 12652: 12649: 12645: 12641: 12638: 12634: 12630: 12626: 12622: 12621:North Arabian 12618: 12614: 12604: 12602: 12597: 12595: 12591: 12587: 12583: 12579: 12574: 12572: 12568: 12564: 12560: 12556: 12552: 12547: 12546:"dwelling"). 12545: 12541: 12531: 12527: 12524: 12520: 12517: 12513: 12510: 12506: 12503: 12499: 12496: 12492: 12489: 12485: 12482: 12478: 12475: 12471: 12468: 12467: 12463: 12459: 12456: 12452: 12449: 12446: 12442: 12439: 12435: 12432: 12428: 12425: 12421: 12418: 12414: 12411: 12407: 12404: 12403: 12399: 12395: 12392: 12388: 12385: 12381: 12378: 12374: 12371: 12367: 12364: 12360: 12357: 12353: 12350: 12346: 12343: 12339: 12336: 12335: 12330: 12324: 12320: 12317: 12313: 12310: 12306: 12303: 12299: 12296: 12292: 12289: 12285: 12281: 12275: 12271: 12268: 12264: 12261: 12257: 12254: 12253: 12248: 12242: 12238: 12235: 12231: 12228: 12225: 12221: 12218: 12214: 12211: 12207: 12203: 12197: 12193: 12190: 12186: 12183: 12179: 12176: 12175: 12170: 12164: 12160: 12157: 12153: 12150: 12146: 12143: 12139: 12136: 12132: 12129: 12125: 12122: 12118: 12115: 12114: 12109: 12106: 12102: 12099: 12098: 12095: 12092: 12090: 12087: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12054: 12052: 12049: 12048: 12045: 12037: 12035: 12025: 12023: 12014:ዐሠርቱ ʿäśärtu 12013: 12010: 12007: 12003: 12000: 11996: 11990: 11985: 11979: 11974: 11971: 11967: 11964: 11963: 11960:ተስዐቱ täsʿätu 11959: 11956: 11953: 11949: 11946: 11942: 11936: 11931: 11925: 11920: 11917: 11913: 11910: 11909: 11906:ሰማንቱ sämantu 11905: 11902: 11899: 11895: 11892: 11888: 11882: 11877: 11871: 11866: 11863: 11859: 11856: 11855: 11852:ሰብዐቱ säbʿätu 11851: 11848: 11845: 11841: 11838: 11834: 11828: 11823: 11817: 11812: 11809: 11805: 11802: 11801: 11798:ስድስቱ sədsətu 11797: 11794: 11791: 11787: 11784: 11780: 11774: 11769: 11758: 11753: 11750: 11746: 11743: 11742: 11739:ኀምስቱ ḫämsətu 11738: 11735: 11732: 11728: 11725: 11721: 11715: 11710: 11704: 11699: 11696: 11692: 11689: 11688: 11684: 11681: 11678: 11674: 11671: 11667: 11661: 11656: 11650: 11645: 11642: 11638: 11635: 11634: 11631:ሠለስቱ śälästu 11630: 11627: 11624: 11620: 11617: 11613: 11607: 11602: 11596: 11591: 11588: 11582: 11578: 11575: 11574: 11571:ክልኤቱ kəlʾetu 11570: 11567: 11564: 11560: 11557: 11553: 11547: 11538: 11533: 11522: 11517: 11514: 11508: 11502: 11498: 11495: 11494: 11490: 11487: 11484: 11480: 11477: 11473: 11466: 11461: 11455: 11450: 11447: 11443: 11440: 11439: 11435: 11432: 11429: 11427: 11424: 11421: 11418: 11415: 11412: 11409: 11408: 11395: 11391: 11388: 11384: 11381: 11376: 11373: 11368: 11365: 11361: 11358: 11355: 11350: 11347: 11343: 11340: 11336: 11333: 11332: 11328: 11324: 11321: 11317: 11314: 11309: 11306: 11301: 11298: 11294: 11290: 11285: 11282: 11276: 11271: 11268: 11264: 11261: 11257: 11255:They (masc.) 11254: 11253: 11249: 11245: 11242: 11238: 11235: 11230: 11227: 11222: 11219: 11215: 11211: 11205: 11199: 11195: 11192: 11187: 11184: 11180: 11177: 11173: 11170: 11169: 11165: 11161: 11158: 11154: 11151: 11146: 11143: 11138: 11135: 11131: 11127: 11121: 11117: 11114: 11108: 11103: 11100: 11096: 11093: 11089: 11086: 11085: 11082: 11080: 11078: 11075: 11072: 11067: 11064: 11060: 11057: 11053: 11050: 11049: 11046: 11044: 11042: 11039: 11036: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11022: 11019: 11018: 11014: 11010: 11007: 11003: 11000: 10995: 10992: 10991:ʔānū, ʔănaħnū 10987: 10984: 10980: 10977: 10974: 10969: 10966: 10962: 10959: 10955: 10952: 10951: 10947: 10941: 10937: 10934: 10930: 10927: 10922: 10919: 10914: 10911: 10907: 10903: 10899: 10895: 10890: 10887: 10883: 10880: 10876: 10873: 10872: 10868: 10862: 10858: 10855: 10851: 10848: 10843: 10840: 10835: 10832: 10828: 10824: 10820: 10816: 10811: 10808: 10804: 10801: 10797: 10794: 10793: 10789: 10783: 10779: 10776: 10770: 10764: 10760: 10757: 10752: 10749: 10744: 10741: 10737: 10733: 10729:ʔanti, anti, 10728: 10725: 10720: 10717: 10713: 10710: 10706: 10703: 10702: 10698: 10692: 10688: 10685: 10679: 10673: 10669: 10666: 10661: 10658: 10653: 10650: 10646: 10642: 10638: 10635: 10630: 10627: 10623: 10620: 10616: 10613: 10612: 10608: 10602: 10598: 10595: 10591: 10588: 10583: 10580: 10575: 10572: 10568: 10565: 10559: 10555: 10552: 10547: 10544: 10540: 10537: 10533: 10530: 10529: 10526: 10523: 10521: 10518: 10517: 10514: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10494: 10489: 10484: 10479: 10478:Proto-Semitic 10472: 10464: 10462: 10458: 10454: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10434: 10430: 10427: 10423: 10419: 10415: 10411: 10407: 10406: 10401: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10379: 10377: 10357: 10353: 10351: 10347: 10343: 10339: 10336: 10332: 10330: 10326: 10322: 10316: 10315: 10311: 10307: 10302: 10299: 10296: 10292: 10291: 10287: 10282: 10279: 10275: 10274: 10270: 10266: 10262: 10259: 10255: 10253: 10249: 10244: 10241: 10237: 10236: 10232: 10227: 10224: 10222: 10218: 10214: 10209: 10205: 10204: 10200: 10196: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10182: 10177: 10173: 10172: 10168: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10154: 10150: 10146: 10142: 10141: 10137: 10133: 10129: 10126: 10125: 10121: 10117: 10113: 10110: 10108: 10104: 10100: 10095: 10093: 10089: 10085: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10072: 10066: 10064: 10060: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10046: 10040: 10039: 10035: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10021: 10017: 10012: 10010: 10006: 10002: 9998: 9995: 9991: 9989: 9985: 9981: 9977: 9974: 9970: 9969: 9965: 9961: 9957: 9954: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9940: 9939: 9938: 9932: 9930: 9926: 9921: 9918: 9917: 9913: 9909: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9895: 9891: 9887: 9884: 9883: 9879: 9874: 9871: 9869: 9865: 9860: 9857: 9856: 9852: 9847: 9844: 9842: 9838: 9834: 9830: 9827: 9826: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9805: 9801: 9797: 9794: 9793: 9789: 9785: 9781: 9778: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9762: 9761: 9757: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9743: 9739: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9725: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9711: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9697: 9693: 9689: 9688: 9687: 9685: 9684: 9678: 9676: 9671: 9670:Semitic roots 9665: 9655: 9653: 9649: 9644: 9642: 9638: 9634: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9618: 9614: 9609: 9607: 9603: 9599: 9595: 9591: 9587: 9582: 9580: 9575: 9571: 9567: 9560: 9556: 9552: 9548: 9534: 9532: 9530: 9524: 9522: 9517: 9510: 9508: 9506: 9500: 9495: 9494: 9486: 9484: 9482: 9476: 9474: 9469: 9462: 9460: 9458: 9452: 9447: 9443: 9435: 9433: 9431: 9425: 9423: 9418: 9411: 9409: 9407: 9401: 9396: 9395: 9387: 9385: 9383: 9377: 9375: 9370: 9363: 9361: 9359: 9353: 9348: 9344: 9336: 9334: 9332: 9326: 9324: 9319: 9312: 9310: 9308: 9302: 9298: 9293: 9285: 9283: 9281: 9275: 9273: 9268: 9261: 9259: 9257: 9251: 9246: 9245: 9237: 9235: 9233: 9227: 9225: 9220: 9213: 9211: 9209: 9203: 9198: 9194: 9186: 9184: 9182: 9176: 9174: 9169: 9162: 9160: 9158: 9152: 9145: 9142: 9141: 9136: 9128: 9126: 9124: 9118: 9116: 9111: 9104: 9102: 9100: 9094: 9089: 9088: 9080: 9078: 9076: 9070: 9068: 9063: 9056: 9054: 9052: 9046: 9041: 9037: 9029: 9027: 9025: 9019: 9017: 9012: 9005: 9003: 9001: 8995: 8990: 8989: 8981: 8979: 8977: 8971: 8969: 8964: 8957: 8955: 8953: 8947: 8942: 8938: 8930: 8928: 8926: 8920: 8918: 8913: 8906: 8904: 8902: 8896: 8892: 8887: 8884: 8873: 8869: 8867: 8852: 8850: 8846: 8842: 8838: 8834: 8830: 8826: 8822: 8818: 8814: 8810: 8800: 8798: 8794: 8790: 8786: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8762: 8752: 8750: 8749:Modern Hebrew 8746: 8742: 8738: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8722: 8712: 8701: 8698: 8695: 8692: 8689: 8686: 8685: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8654: 8651: 8648: 8645: 8644: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8620: 8616: 8613: 8610: 8607: 8604: 8603: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8580: 8577: 8574: 8573: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8551: 8548: 8545: 8544: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8522: 8519: 8516: 8515: 8511: 8508: 8505: 8502: 8499: 8496: 8493: 8490: 8487: 8484: 8483: 8479: 8476: 8473: 8470: 8467: 8464: 8461: 8456: 8453: 8450: 8447: 8446: 8442: 8439: 8436: 8433: 8430: 8427: 8424: 8421: 8418: 8415: 8414: 8410: 8407: 8404: 8401: 8398: 8395: 8392: 8391: 8371: 8365: 8363: 8357: 8342: 8341: 8333: 8328: 8325: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8311: 8306: 8303: 8300: 8296: 8290: 8288: 8282: 8281: 8275: 8270: 8265: 8263: 8259: 8254: 8239: 8236: 8232: 8226: 8224: 8218: 8217: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8193: 8189: 8184: 8178: 8172: 8170: 8164: 8163: 8157: 8155: 8149: 8147: 8141: 8139: 8135: 8130: 8112: 8106: 8104: 8098: 8097: 8091: 8086: 8083: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8068: 8062: 8060: 8054: 8052: 8046: 8045: 8039: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8025: 8020: 8018: 8014: 8009: 8004: 8002: 7992: 7986: 7984: 7978: 7977: 7971: 7968: 7963: 7960: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7946: 7941: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7915: 7909: 7908: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7890: 7886: 7881: 7875: 7869: 7863: 7861: 7855: 7854: 7848: 7843: 7840: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7826: 7821: 7809: 7803: 7797: 7795: 7789: 7788: 7784: 7781: 7778: 7775: 7772: 7766: 7760: 7754: 7748: 7746: 7740: 7739: 7736:'moon/month' 7733: 7728: 7723: 7721: 7717: 7712: 7706: 7700: 7689: 7678: 7676: 7670: 7669: 7663: 7658: 7654: 7649: 7645: 7643: 7639: 7634: 7628: 7622: 7616: 7614: 7608: 7607: 7601: 7596: 7593: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7579: 7574: 7562: 7556: 7550: 7548: 7542: 7541: 7537: 7534: 7531: 7528: 7525: 7524: 7504: 7501: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7479: 7476: 7472: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7447: 7441: 7437: 7433: 7431: 7425: 7423: 7418: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7401: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7381: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7347: 7341: 7335: 7329: 7323: 7321: 7315: 7310: 7304: 7298: 7290: 7282: 7276: 7274: 7268: 7265: 7261: 7252: 7240: 7234: 7231:and parts of 7230: 7220: 7208: 7202: 7198: 7187: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7165: 7164: 7160:(as heard in 7157: 7151: 7145: 7139: 7135: 7132: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7109: 7105: 7102: 7086: 7085:Modern Hebrew 7082: 7064: 7060: 7052: 7048: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7034: 7029: 7023: 7017: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6995: 6989: 6983: 6977: 6971: 6965: 6959: 6953: 6947: 6941: 6936: 6930: 6924: 6918: 6912: 6906: 6900: 6895: 6880: 6872: 6863: 6854: 6845: 6840: 6825: 6805: 6799: 6792: 6787: 6786: 6785: 6781: 6770: 6767: 6764: 6760: 6757: 6754: 6749: 6746: 6742: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6726: 6722: 6717: 6715: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6696: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6671: 6664: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6648: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6634: 6633: 6627: 6624: 6621: 6617: 6614: 6611: 6606: 6603: 6599: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6583: 6579: 6574: 6572: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6553: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6528: 6521: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6505: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6491: 6490: 6484: 6481: 6478: 6474: 6471: 6468: 6463: 6460: 6456: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6440: 6436: 6431: 6429: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6410: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6385: 6378: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6362: 6357: 6354: 6353: 6348: 6347: 6341: 6338: 6335: 6331: 6328: 6325: 6322: 6319: 6315: 6312: 6309: 6306: 6303: 6299: 6294: 6292: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6273: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6248: 6241: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6225: 6220: 6217: 6216: 6211: 6210: 6204: 6201: 6198: 6194: 6191: 6188: 6185: 6182: 6178: 6175: 6172: 6169: 6166: 6162: 6157: 6155: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6136: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6111: 6104: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6080: 6079: 6074: 6073: 6067: 6064: 6061: 6058: 6055: 6052: 6049: 6045: 6042: 6039: 6036: 6033: 6029: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5993: 5990: 5983: 5980: 5975: 5971: 5966: 5963: 5962: 5957: 5956: 5950: 5947: 5944: 5940: 5937: 5934: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5906: 5902: 5897: 5895: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5876: 5871: 5868: 5865: 5862: 5858: 5855: 5848: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5832: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5818: 5817: 5811: 5808: 5805: 5801: 5798: 5795: 5790: 5788: 5786: 5781: 5778: 5775: 5768: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5752: 5747: 5744: 5743: 5738: 5737: 5731: 5728: 5725: 5720: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5695: 5678: 5675: 5662: 5660: 5645: 5643: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5626: 5611: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5595: 5587: 5582: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5572: 5566: 5563: 5560: 5556: 5553: 5550: 5545: 5542: 5538: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5523: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5509: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5490: 5484: 5482: 5476: 5474: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5447: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5431: 5426: 5423: 5422: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5405: 5402: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5388: 5385: 5382: 5375: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5359: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5345: 5344: 5332: 5327: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5302: 5285: 5283: 5281: 5267: 5265: 5250: 5248: 5242: 5240: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5223: 5220: 5217: 5203: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5187: 5179: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5165: 5164: 5158: 5155: 5152: 5147: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5094: 5089: 5086: 5085: 5080: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5061: 5048: 5045: 5038: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5022: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5008: 5007: 4993: 4988: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4963: 4944: 4942: 4930: 4928: 4913: 4911: 4905: 4903: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4881: 4878: 4871: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4855: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4841: 4840: 4834: 4831: 4828: 4824: 4821: 4818: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4790: 4786: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4760: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4743: 4736: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4720: 4715: 4712: 4711: 4706: 4705: 4699: 4696: 4693: 4687: 4683: 4680: 4677: 4672: 4669: 4665: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4649: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4625: 4622: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4594: 4587: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4556: 4550: 4547: 4544: 4539: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4509: 4505: 4500: 4498: 4496: 4491: 4488: 4473: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4442: 4436: 4433: 4430: 4425: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4395: 4391: 4384: 4379: 4376: 4369: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4339: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4327: 4324: 4316: 4304: 4299: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4285: 4283: 4268: 4266: 4256: 4254: 4245: 4240: 4237: 4236: 4231: 4230: 4218: 4214: 4211: 4208: 4203: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4167: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4131: 4116: 4114: 4100: 4095: 4092: 4091: 4086: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4062: 4059: 4054: 4051: 4044: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4020: 4019: 4014: 4013: 4001: 3996: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3971: 3951: 3940: 3938: 3923: 3921: 3915: 3913: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3889: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3865: 3864: 3859: 3858: 3852: 3849: 3846: 3840: 3836: 3833: 3830: 3825: 3822: 3818: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3802: 3796: 3792: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3749: 3734: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3710: 3709: 3704: 3703: 3697: 3694: 3691: 3687: 3684: 3681: 3676: 3673: 3669: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3586: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3562: 3561: 3556: 3555: 3549: 3546: 3543: 3537: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3499: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3438: 3431: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3415: 3410: 3407: 3406: 3401: 3400: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3382: 3378: 3375: 3372: 3367: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3344: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3283: 3276: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3246: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3227: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3202: 3197: 3192: 3189: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3165: 3160: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3092: 3091: 3086: 3085: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3067: 3063: 3060: 3057: 3052: 3049: 3045: 3042: 3037: 3032: 3029: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2968: 2961: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2945: 2940: 2937: 2936: 2931: 2930: 2926: 2920: 2913: 2911: 2908: 2906: 2901: 2899: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2858: 2851: 2845: 2832: 2823: 2809: 2776: 2767: 2753: 2744: 2739: 2736: 2729: 2722: 2715: 2708: 2701: 2698: 2694: 2689: 2675: 2669: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2643: 2641: 2636: 2634: 2617: 2608: 2599: 2592: 2587: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2495: 2489: 2485: 2483: 2479: 2473: 2469: 2467: 2463: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2452: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2432: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2393: 2389: 2383: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2351: 2345: 2341: 2338: 2332: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2320: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2300: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2289: 2288: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2273: 2268: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2248: 2246: 2242: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2222: 2216: 2211: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2195: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2175: 2171: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2112: 2108: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2080: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2062: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2046: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2031: 2025: 2019: 2015: 2013: 2009: 2003: 1997: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1985: 1979: 1975: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1943: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1925: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1909: 1905: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1893: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1830: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1809: 1801: 1795: 1787: 1779: 1771: 1765: 1758: 1752: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1725: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1691:in Ethiopia, 1690: 1686: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1647:Modern Hebrew 1644: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1481:. The modern 1480: 1476: 1472: 1471:Siculo-Arabic 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1428: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1095: 1090: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1000: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 981:lingua franca 978: 974: 970: 966: 963: 955: 951: 948:from ancient 947: 943: 939: 935: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 818: 813: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 740: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 682: 677: 662: 660: 650: 643: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 619: 615: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 566: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 539: 534: 525: 523: 521: 517: 511: 509: 505: 501: 496: 495: 491: 487: 482: 481: 477: 473: 468: 467: 463: 459: 454: 453: 449: 445: 440: 439: 434: 433: 428: 424: 419: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 348: 346: 342: 338: 327: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 266: 262: 257: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 230:North America 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 165: 160: 153: 148: 144: 140: 138: 134: 130: 126: 124: 120: 116: 111: 108: 105: 102: 101: 100: 96: 93: 92:Proto-Semitic 90: 86: 81: 78: 77: 76: 73: 71: 67: 64: 60: 56: 52: 49: 43: 38: 33: 19: 18339: 18326: 18300: 18258: 18250: 18160:Macro-Somali 18150:Lowland East 18079: 18038:South Bauchi 18028:North Bauchi 18018:Bole–Tangale 17911: 17906:Proto-Berber 17904: 17897: 17836: 17824: 17819:(in Russian) 17788: 17776:. Retrieved 17760: 17744:the original 17725: 17709:. Retrieved 17689: 17676:. Retrieved 17656: 17633: 17621:. Retrieved 17601: 17591: 17584:. Retrieved 17564: 17554: 17547:. Retrieved 17527: 17514:. Retrieved 17494: 17484: 17462: 17429: 17425: 17400: 17396: 17387: 17379: 17361: 17346:. Retrieved 17326: 17313:. Retrieved 17294: 17278:. Retrieved 17258: 17238: 17218: 17214: 17206: 17202: 17195:remoter East 17182: 17174: 17172: 17164: 17126: 17122: 17108: 17105: 17086: 17071:, retrieved 17055: 17042:. Retrieved 17022: 17009:. Retrieved 16981: 16960: 16926: 16922: 16910:. Retrieved 16891: 16868: 16859: 16855: 16846: 16842: 16819: 16804:. Retrieved 16785: 16769:. Retrieved 16749: 16728:. Retrieved 16719: 16714: 16701: 16691:21 September 16689:. Retrieved 16680: 16666:21 September 16664:. Retrieved 16655: 16632: 16613: 16594: 16575: 16559:. Retrieved 16539: 16526:. Retrieved 16490: 16481:Bibliography 16466:. Retrieved 16457: 16448: 16436:. Retrieved 16427: 16418: 16410: 16396: 16390: 16378:. Retrieved 16340:(1): 37–59. 16337: 16333: 16323: 16311:. Retrieved 16297: 16289: 16275: 16269: 16261: 16254:. Retrieved 16234: 16227: 16219: 16205: 16199: 16191: 16177: 16171: 16163: 16156:. Retrieved 16136: 16129: 16120: 16113:. Retrieved 16085: 16078: 16070: 16056: 16050: 16042: 16038: 16032: 16024: 16020: 16014: 16002:. Retrieved 15957: 15953: 15943: 15931:. Retrieved 15907: 15900: 15893:Hackett 2006 15888: 15882:Coghill 2016 15873: 15861: 15819: 15813: 15801: 15789: 15777:. Retrieved 15768: 15759: 15752:Hetzron 1997 15747: 15740:Moscati 1958 15735: 15723: 15711: 15695: 15687: 15675:. Retrieved 15640: 15636: 15626: 15614: 15602: 15590: 15578: 15566: 15556: 15550: 15538:. Retrieved 15531:the original 15517: 15505:. Retrieved 15490: 15478: 15466: 15459:Kogan (2011) 15454: 15442: 15433: 15419: 15413: 15404: 15395: 15386: 15377: 15373: 15368: 15356: 15349:Sánchez 2013 15336: 15324: 15312: 15303: 15298:, p. 8. 15291: 15286:, p. 4. 15279: 15265:Brandão 2020 15260: 15248:. Retrieved 15234: 15225: 15218:. Retrieved 15198: 15191: 15179:. Retrieved 15168: 15159: 15132:. Retrieved 15117: 15109: 15095: 15079: 15072: 15063: 15062: 15058: 15057: 15051:, p. 69 15049:Baasten 2003 15040: 15018:Baasten 2003 15013: 14993:, p. 67 14991:Baasten 2003 14982: 14973: 14966:. Retrieved 14946: 14939: 14912: 14907:, p. 74 14896: 14884: 14879:, p. 2. 14872: 14812: 14794: 14784: 14766: 14760: 14750: 14743:proto-Berber 14738: 14734: 14730: 14725: 14716: 14704: 14679: 14601:Mehri people 14562:Faifi people 14530:Tigre people 14504:Falash Muras 14500:Beta Abraham 14406:East Semitic 14179: 13843:ˀAzd dialect 13681:Judeo-Arabic 13675:Jijel Arabic 13670:Jebli Arabic 13551:Shawi Arabic 13526:Iraqi Arabic 13387:Najdi Arabic 13348:Adeni Arabic 13306:Omani Arabic 12982:Lishán Didán 12977:Lishana Deni 12804:West Semitic 12775:Old Akkadian 12765:East Semitic 12759: 12705:West Semitic 12700:East Semitic 12681: 12653: 12644:Roger Blench 12642: 12613:East Semitic 12610: 12598: 12593: 12589: 12585: 12581: 12577: 12575: 12570: 12566: 12562: 12558: 12554: 12550: 12548: 12543: 12539: 12537: 12112: 12043: 12031: 12019: 11543:, fem. שתים 11364:እማንቱ ʔəmāntu 11334:They (fem.) 11297:እሙንቱ ʔəmuntu 11134:አንትሙ ʔantəmu 11051:They (dual) 10902:hiyya, hiyye 10823:huwwa, huwwe 10579:ʔānōḵī, ʔănī 10460: 10456: 10452: 10448: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10428: 10421: 10417: 10413: 10409: 10403: 10399: 10395: 10391: 10387: 10383: 10380: 10361: 10355: 10349: 10345: 10341: 10340: 10334: 10328: 10324: 10320: 10318: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10304: 10300: 10294: 10289: 10285: 10283: 10277: 10272: 10268: 10264: 10263: 10257: 10251: 10247: 10245: 10239: 10234: 10230: 10228: 10220: 10216: 10212: 10210: 10207: 10202: 10198: 10194: 10192: 10184: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10170: 10166: 10164: 10156: 10152: 10148: 10147: 10144: 10139: 10135: 10131: 10130: 10123: 10119: 10115: 10114: 10106: 10102: 10098: 10097: 10091: 10087: 10083: 10082: 10074: 10070: 10068: 10062: 10058: 10056: 10048: 10044: 10042: 10037: 10033: 10031: 10023: 10019: 10015: 10014: 10008: 10004: 10000: 9999: 9993: 9987: 9983: 9979: 9978: 9972: 9967: 9963: 9959: 9958: 9950: 9946: 9942: 9941: 9936: 9928: 9924: 9922: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9905: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9888: 9881: 9877: 9875: 9867: 9863: 9861: 9854: 9850: 9848: 9840: 9836: 9832: 9831: 9824: 9820: 9816: 9815: 9807: 9803: 9799: 9798: 9791: 9787: 9783: 9782: 9775: 9771: 9767: 9766: 9759: 9755: 9753: 9745: 9741: 9737: 9735: 9727: 9723: 9721: 9713: 9709: 9707: 9699: 9695: 9691: 9690: 9682: 9679: 9667: 9664:Semitic root 9651: 9645: 9620: 9616: 9610: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9585: 9583: 9573: 9569: 9563: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9544: 9526: 9518: 9502: 9478: 9470: 9454: 9427: 9419: 9403: 9379: 9371: 9355: 9328: 9320: 9304: 9277: 9269: 9253: 9229: 9221: 9205: 9178: 9170: 9154: 9120: 9112: 9096: 9072: 9064: 9048: 9021: 9013: 8997: 8973: 8965: 8949: 8922: 8914: 8898: 8863: 8848: 8844: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8820: 8811:: singular, 8806: 8792: 8791:and oblique 8788: 8780: 8758: 8736: 8732: 8718: 8710: 8359: 8326: 8318: 8313: 8261: 8205: 8197: 8191: 8153: 8145: 8137: 8084: 8076: 8034: 8030: 8023: 8016: 7997: 7966: 7961: 7953: 7948: 7888: 7841: 7833: 7828: 7719: 7656: 7647: 7641: 7594: 7586: 7581: 7499: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7467: 7463: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7443: 7427: 7419: 7317: 7270: 7264:glottal stop 7161: 7127: 7126:(cf. Arabic 7123: 7119: 7063:ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ 7062: 7043: 7039: 6818:merged with 6783: 6779: 6709: 6692: 6680: 6658: 6566: 6549: 6537: 6515: 6423: 6406: 6394: 6372: 6286: 6269: 6257: 6235: 6149: 6132: 6120: 6098: 6020: 6007: 5999: 5981: 5889: 5872: 5842: 5782: 5762: 5714: 5656: 5639: 5627: 5605: 5517: 5503: 5486: 5478: 5470: 5462: 5441: 5389: 5369: 5321: 5277: 5261: 5244: 5236: 5224: 5197: 5141: 5104: 5057: 5032: 4982: 4938: 4924: 4907: 4899: 4887: 4865: 4773: 4756: 4744: 4730: 4626: 4607: 4595: 4581: 4533: 4492: 4467: 4419: 4363: 4279: 4262: 4250: 4175: 4161: 4144: 4132: 4110: 4063: 4038: 3990: 3934: 3917: 3909: 3897: 3883: 3779: 3762: 3750: 3728: 3636: 3619: 3607: 3580: 3476: 3459: 3447: 3425: 3321: 3304: 3292: 3270: 3166: 3149: 3137: 3110: 3006: 2989: 2977: 2955: 2663: 2659: 2656: 2651: 2649: 2637: 2630: 2616: 2607: 2598: 2586: 2550: 2533: 2517: 1825: 1731: 1682: 1659: 1639: 1507: 1487:Latin script 1463:Muslim world 1433: 1377: 1298: 1223:North Africa 1132: 1124:Christianity 1098: 1054:Saudi Arabia 1028: 1015: 1003: 1001: 983:of the vast 967: 959: 852:Carthaginian 814: 790:North Africa 772:North Africa 766:region, the 741: 706:East Semitic 687: 645: 629:(never with 623:syllabograms 611: 597: 567: 547:Near Eastern 543: 519: 515: 513: 507: 503: 499: 498: 493: 489: 485: 484: 479: 475: 471: 470: 465: 461: 457: 456: 451: 447: 443: 442: 436: 430: 420: 412:Latin script 388:Geʽez script 349: 265:East Semitic 258: 250:sons of Noah 210:North Africa 177: 175: 110:West Semitic 104:East Semitic 98:Subdivisions 79: 75:Afro-Asiatic 55:North Africa 47:distribution 18104:Ngeté-Herdé 17993:Biu–Mandara 17957:Mzab–Wargla 17952:East Zenati 17711:17 December 17678:21 December 17623:19 February 17348:17 December 17280:17 December 17161:Kitto, John 17011:19 December 16771:19 December 16561:19 December 16380:28 December 16004:24 December 15878:Müller 1995 15483:Watson 2002 15329:Harrak 1992 14932:Ruhlen 1991 14905:Austin 2008 14612:Qatabanians 14496:Beta Israel 14439:Babylonians 14337:Phoenicians 14092:Hadramautic 14029:West Gurage 13975:East Gurage 13279:Gulf Arabic 13175:) (revived) 13009:Neo-Mandaic 12824:Old Aramaic 12474:*may-/*māy- 11878:fem. שמונה 11491:አሐዱ ʾäḥädu 11218:አንትን ʔantən 11213:, (i)ntūma 11210:intu, intum 11129:, (i)ntūma 11126:intu, intum 11020:You (dual) 10988:אנו, אנחנו 9489:يَكْتُبُونَ 9414:كَتَبْتُنَّ 9390:تَكْتُبُونَ 9288:تَكْتُبَانِ 9240:يَكْتُبَانِ 9189:تَكْتُبَانِ 9165:كَتَبْتُمَا 9032:تَكْتُبِينَ 8870:"to write" 8538:ā, later a 8440:a, later ä 7406:Lower Egypt 7362:Upper Egypt 7122:"boy" < 2407:Approximant 1851:Interdental 1734:comparative 1611:Koine Greek 1445:, and from 1349:Arabization 1345:Beni Ḥassān 1335:kingdom of 1217:in western 1165:(including 1112:Mesopotamia 1102:, a 200 CE 1092:Example of 950:Mesopotamia 752:Mesopotamia 735:) from the 713:Mesopotamia 696:during the 690:Middle East 631:hieroglyphs 586:Koine Greek 559:Hiob Ludolf 295:Mesopotamia 238:Australasia 18346:Categories 17167:. London: 16468:27 January 16438:27 January 16313:1 December 15933:3 February 15779:23 January 15619:Blau (2010 15471:Kogan 2012 15361:Nebes 2005 15345:Smart 2013 15317:Brock 1998 15088:Kitto 1845 15084:Kiraz 2001 15033:Kitto 1845 15006:Kiraz 2001 14987:Kiraz 2001 14917:Kuntz 1981 14877:Owens 2013 14864:References 14578:Himyarites 14568:Hadramitic 14540:Zay people 14459:Abyssinian 14325:Samaritans 14302:Israelites 14231:Nabataeans 14219:-speaking 14110:Himyaritic 14083:(extinct) 14081:Qatabanian 14038:Sebat Bet 13738:Maltralian 13570:Dialects ( 13538:Dialects ( 13220:Old Arabic 13207:Taymanitic 13119:(extinct) 13117:Phoenician 12837:(extinct) 12778:Babylonian 12684:Himyaritic 12670:Bronze Age 12267:bītu, bētu 12224:lëḇ, lëḇāḇ 12036:features. 11874:θamaːn-ij- 11657:fem. ארבע 11603:fem. שלוש 11456:واحد، أحد 11452:ʔaħad,ʔiʃt 11372:hēn, hēnnā 11305:hēm, hēmmā 10983:ንሕነ ʔnəħnā 10910:ይእቲ yəʔəti 10831:ውእቱ wəʔətu 10732:inti, init 10576:אנכי, אני 10408:"scribe", 10376:fricatives 9602:gemination 9537:يَكْتُبْنَ 9366:كَتَبْتُمْ 9147:masculine 8883:Indicative 8765:accusative 8761:nominative 8715:Word order 8393:Classical 8354:See also: 8042:'laughed' 7396:dialects. 7180:to Arabic 7152:fricative 7150:pharyngeal 7051:begadkefat 7040:*ˈbaʕal-um 7005:begadkefat 6879:Septuagint 5467:𐎀, 𐎛, 𐎜 2878:Pronounced 2714:Phoenician 2652:italicized 2646:Consonants 2640:consonants 2581:speakers). 2565:speakers, 1880:Pharyngeal 1722:in Eritrea 1627:Alexandria 1573:, and the 1493:marks and 1439:Mauritania 1412:Christians 1353:Mauritania 1329:al-Andalus 1325:Banu Hilal 1301:liturgical 1251:Mauritania 1084:Common Era 844:Phoenician 794:Phoenician 698:Bronze Age 694:Asia Minor 635:pictograms 364:Phoenician 356:alphabetic 276:Babylonian 45:Geographic 18329:indicate 18276:Northwest 18189:Saho–Afar 17586:26 August 17516:26 August 17454:161626451 17417:161828505 17213:, in his 17073:10 August 17044:26 August 16951:162190342 16912:26 August 16806:2 January 16730:26 August 16370:162887617 16354:0017-8160 16122:intimate… 15645:CiteSeerX 15595:Blau 2010 15507:22 August 14968:7 October 14733:, Coptic 14426:Assyrians 14412:Akkadians 14394:Samalians 14389:Maronites 14384:Mandaeans 14287:Ammonites 14166:(extinct) 14094:(extinct) 14077:(extinct) 14071:(extinct) 14020:(extinct) 14014:tt-group 14004:(extinct) 13889:Dadanitic 13883:(extinct) 13877:(extinct) 13871:(extinct) 13865:(extinct) 13857:(extinct) 13851:(extinct) 13845:(extinct) 13755:(extinct) 13745:(extinct) 13679:Maghrebi 13637:(extinct) 13203:(extinct) 13197:(extinct) 13150:(extinct) 13144:(extinct) 13138:(extinct) 13125:(extinct) 13109:Canaanite 13099:(extinct) 13089:(extinct) 13051:(extinct) 13045:(extinct) 13018:(extinct) 12892:(extinct) 12876:(extinct) 12843:(extinct) 12831:(extinct) 12741:Eastern: 12731:Western: 12431:leššān-āʼ 12316:beyt, bêt 12182:*lib(a)b- 11986:fem. עשר 11932:fem. תשע 11891:*ṯmny/ṯmn 11868:θamaːnij- 11862:*ṯamāniy- 11824:fem. שבע 11711:fem. חמש 11201:, antin, 11063:*sunī(ti) 10740:አንቲ ʔánti 10649:አንተ ʔánta 9449:masculine 9350:masculine 9315:كَتَبْنَا 9264:كَتَبَتَا 9200:masculine 9043:masculine 8944:masculine 8889:Singular 8621:ay(i), ē, 8388:Akkadian 8150:חֲמִשָּׁה 7521:Examples 7458:, Hebrew 7334:varieties 5700:/ʕ/,/ʔ/~∅ 5307:/ʕ/,/ʔ/~∅ 5292:/ʕ/~/ʔ/~∅ 2916:Translit. 2897:Classical 2886:Classical 2864:Translit. 2830:Translit. 2815:Translit. 2782:Translit. 2751:Translit. 2103:voiceless 2098:Fricative 1902:voiceless 1892:Obstruent 1728:Phonology 1631:Mandaeans 1623:Jerusalem 1585:as their 1491:diacritic 1275:Gibraltar 1257:and many 1183:Mandaeans 1151:Near East 1024:Chaldeans 960:A hybrid 946:epic poem 826:included 733:Babylonia 651:languages 604:" in the 590:Σήμ (Sēm) 404:diacritic 284:cuneiform 261:West Asia 222:immigrant 206:West Asia 137:Glottolog 119:ISO 639-2 51:West Asia 18302:Egyptian 18155:Omo–Tana 18127:Cushitic 17937:Northern 17769:Archived 17723:(2002). 17705:Archived 17672:Archived 17654:(1997). 17617:Archived 17580:Archived 17543:Archived 17510:Archived 17483:(1955). 17360:(2001). 17342:Archived 17309:Archived 17274:Archived 17211:Prichard 17199:Eichhorn 17187:Sanskrit 17175:Oriental 17163:(1845). 17153:19403539 17084:(2001). 17064:archived 17038:Archived 17005:Archived 16906:Archived 16818:(1995). 16800:Archived 16765:Archived 16747:(eds.). 16724:Archived 16712:(1794). 16685:Archived 16660:Archived 16555:Archived 16528:27 March 16522:Archived 16462:Archived 16432:Archived 16374:Archived 16307:Archived 16250:Archived 16152:Archived 16109:Archived 15998:Archived 15994:34352227 15927:Archived 15773:Archived 15694:(2006). 15671:Archived 15667:16649580 15501:Archived 15250:14 March 15244:Archived 15214:Archived 15181:24 March 15175:Archived 15165:"Semite" 15134:28 March 15128:Archived 15102:Archived 14962:Archived 14805:Akkadian 14654:See also 14627:Sabaeans 14606:Minaeans 14566:Ancient 14446:Eblaites 14399:Ugarites 14332:Moabites 14292:Edomites 14274:Mhallami 14249:Arameans 14226:Itureans 14221:bedouins 14212:Alawites 14202:Amorites 13998:n-group 13939:Tigrinya 13913:Ethiopic 13895:Thamudic 13875:Hasaitic 13863:Safaitic 13195:Ugaritic 13136:Ammonite 12829:Samalian 12781:Assyrian 12771:Akkadian 12488:māʼ-/māy 12059:Akkadian 12034:ergative 12028:Typology 11982:ʕaʃ(a)r- 11903:tmienja 11770:fem. שש 11641:*ʼarbaʻ- 11550:ˈʃt-ajim 11541:ˈʃn-ajim 11529:iθn-ajni 11510:(obl.), 11507:*ṯin-ayn 11504:(nom.), 11433:Maltese 11410:English 11369:הן, הנה 11302:הם, המה 11207:, antu, 11191:ʔantunna 11176:*ʔantinā 11092:*ʔantunū 11025:*ʔantunā 10520:standard 10483:Akkadian 10474:English 10445:hap̄lāḡā 10402:"book", 9594:niparras 9590:niptaras 9565:ʔ-t-y-n- 9513:كَتَبْنَ 9497:feminine 9465:كَتَبُوا 9398:feminine 9339:نَكْتُبُ 9248:feminine 9131:تَكْتُبُ 9107:كَتَبَتْ 9091:feminine 9083:يَكْتُبُ 9008:كَتَبْتِ 8992:feminine 8984:تَكْتُبُ 8960:كَتَبْتَ 8933:أَكْتُبُ 8909:كَتَبْتُ 8833:šnatayim 8823:"sea" + 8797:nunation 8785:Samalian 8777:Ugaritic 8769:genitive 8631:ayi, ay 8443:a, e, ē 8399:usually 8379:Aramaic 8336:'seven' 8214:'dream' 8160:'shout' 8142:חַמְשָׁה 7972:'shadow' 7937:*/sˤ~ts/ 7851:'peace' 7718:sikkina 7538:meaning 7532:Aramaic 7529:Maltese 7515:Aramaic 7512:Maltese 7450:, as in 7436:Ugaritic 7386:Southern 7350:Northern 7059:softened 7055:/bɡdkpt/ 4654:/tʰ/,/θ/ 3658:/kˤ/~/q/ 3504:/kʰ/,/x/ 3349:/pʰ/,/ɸ/ 2850:Imperial 2707:Ugaritic 2679:Semitic 2579:Assyrian 2555:Tigrinya 2367:Resonant 2203:emphatic 1961:emphatic 1856:Alveolar 1818:⟩ 1814:⟨ 1788:⟩ 1784:⟨ 1701:Tigrinya 1668:such as 1599:Melkites 1581:and use 1519:Talmudic 1515:Biblical 1495:digraphs 1396:Tigrinya 1388:Cushitic 1380:Ethiopia 1347:brought 1271:Portugal 1265:(modern 1018:) was a 1016:Chaldean 954:Akkadian 924:Ugaritic 900:Carthage 866:and the 860:Ekronite 836:Ammonite 810:Ethiopia 760:Ethiopia 709:Akkadian 702:Iron Age 649:Oriental 625:or with 392:Ethiopia 360:Ugaritic 345:Ugaritic 315:Egyptian 303:Sumerian 272:Assyrian 268:Akkadian 143:semi1276 18327:Italics 18271:Central 18251:Semitic 18184:Oromoid 18177:Western 17971:Western 17932:Eastern 17203:Semitic 17191:Chinese 17144:2839953 16362:1510155 15985:8445022 15962:bioRxiv 15677:29 June 15621::78–81) 15540:25 June 15075:, 1795 14831:*šādiš- 14769:*ṯalāṯ- 14647:Suteans 14641:Unknown 14430:Modern 14379:Maltese 14361:Chaldea 14298:Hebrews 14150:Soqotri 14130:Ḥarsusi 14125:Baṭḥari 14106: ? 14100: ? 14075:Minaean 13960:Argobba 13955:Amharic 13927:Dahalik 13869:Hismaic 13823:Koines 13713:Maltese 13201:Amorite 13148:Edomite 13142:Moabite 13097:Armazic 13004:Mandaic 12972:Hulaulá 12819:Aramaic 12797:Kishite 12792:Eblaite 12760:Semitic 12565:(root: 12495:mayy-āʼ 12450:ləssān 12405:tongue 12363:šlām-āʼ 12342:*šalām- 12288:bayt-āʼ 12241:ilbieba 12234:ḥa-wbēb 12210:lebb-āʼ 12169:missier 12100:father 12094:Maltese 12069:Aramaic 12051:English 12011:għaxra 11957:disgħa 11898:*tmanyā 11881:šəmṓneh 11849:sebgħa 11783:*šdṯ/šṯ 11765:saːdis- 11682:erbgħa 11653:ʔarbaʕ- 11628:tlieta 11599:θalaːθ- 11587:*ṯalāṯ- 11581:*śalāṯ- 11546:šətáyim 11537:šənáyim 11525:iθn-āni 11501:*ṯin-ān 11488:wieħed 11426:Sabaean 11422:Hebrew 11419:Arabic 11241:axtōxūn 11157:axtōxūn 11113:ʔantumu 11035:ʔantumā 10571:አነ ʔana 10561:, anā, 10513:Maltese 10503:Aramaic 10457:təʕūp̄ā 10449:hip̄līḡ 10441:hap̄lēḡ 10333:מכותבת 10225:התכתבה) 10189:הכתיבה) 10111:כתובות) 10079:מכתבות) 10053:מכתבים) 9675:infixes 9606:jussive 9598:parsānu 9295:Plural 9216:كَتَبَا 8880:Present 8862:Form I 8707:Grammar 8411:/ˈ_C.C 8402:/_C.ˈV 8396:Modern 8382:Hebrew 8376:Arabic 8334:'slave' 8314:sebgħa 8312:għabid 8278:'west' 8276:'raven' 8260:għorab 8092:'shout' 7974:'noon' 7903:'three' 7887:tlieta 7776:għaxra 7734:'knife' 7666:'time' 7664:'scale' 7640:miżien 7635:موازين 7604:'male' 7535:Hebrew 7526:Arabic 7518:Hebrew 7509:Arabic 7475:Amharic 7410:Tlemcen 7390:Western 7374:Maghreb 7354:Eastern 7255:is qāf 7243:is gīm 7223:is gāf 7211:is jīm 7114:became 7106:In the 7044:bēlu(m) 6830:vs. שׂ 6784:Notes: 6736:/v/~/w/ 5685:/χ/~/ħ/ 5114:/ɮˤ~dˤ/ 3807:/d/,/ð/ 3509:/k/,/x/ 3354:/p/,/f/ 3194:/ɡ/,/ɣ/ 3120:/ɟ~d͡ʒ/ 3039:/b/,/v/ 3034:/b/,/β/ 2924:Pronun. 2910:Written 2871:Written 2838:Pronun. 2822:Written 2807:Pronun. 2800:Written 2794:Pronun. 2788:Written 2774:Pronun. 2766:Written 2759:Pronun. 2743:Written 2728:Aramaic 2693:Maltese 2668:stop . 2591:Maltese 2575:Aramaic 2545:grades. 2538:Amharic 1885:Glottal 1866:Lateral 1861:Palatal 1841:Voicing 1697:Eritrea 1689:Amharic 1674:Soqotri 1619:Antioch 1603:Antioch 1551:Midrash 1531:Muslims 1511:Judaism 1499:Maltese 1392:Amharic 1384:Eritrea 1373:Socotra 1361:Soqotri 1337:Dongola 1321:Maghreb 1309:Bedouin 1243:Morocco 1239:Algeria 1235:Tunisia 1175:Mandaic 1155:Iranian 1128:Islamic 1058:Bahrain 1046:Socotra 1010:or its 1008:Aramaic 969:Aramaic 912:Morocco 908:Algeria 896:Tunisia 876:Lebanon 840:Moabite 828:Edomite 802:Semitic 721:Assyria 665:History 618:Semites 602:Hamitic 408:Maltese 400:abugida 396:Eritrea 368:Aramaic 341:Aramaic 326:Amorite 307:Elamite 280:Eblaite 263:, with 252:in the 202:Maltese 194:Aramaic 190:Amharic 80:Semitic 40:Semitic 18315:Ongota 18308:Coptic 18294:Others 18219:Dizoid 18206:Omotic 18140:Dullay 18081:Zumaya 17981:Chadic 17966:Tuareg 17947:Zenati 17924:Berber 17778:17 May 17736: 17697: 17664: 17640: 17609: 17572: 17535: 17502: 17469: 17452: 17446:545846 17444: 17415: 17368: 17334: 17301: 17266: 17245: 17179:Jerome 17151: 17141: 17098: 17030: 16997: 16968: 16949: 16943:545546 16941: 16898: 16875: 16830: 16792: 16757: 16683:(13). 16658:(10). 16639: 16620: 16601: 16582: 16547: 16516: 16506: 16403: 16368: 16360: 16352: 16282: 16242: 16212: 16184: 16144: 16101: 16063: 15992: 15982: 15964: 15919: 15834: 15702: 15665: 15647: 15426: 15206: 14954: 14825:*šitt- 14819:*šišš- 14502:, and 14353:Punics 14310:Israel 14306:Israel 14255:Ahlamu 14241:Thamud 14164:Sutean 14145:Shehri 14135:Hobyót 14098:Razihi 14069:Sabaic 14034:Mesqan 14018:Mesmes 13980:Silt'e 13970:Harari 13230:Arabic 13169:Hebrew 12908:Sureth 12890:Mlaḥsô 12720:Arabic 12660:Levant 12631:, and 12563:medina 12469:water 12462:ilsien 12438:lišānā 12424:lisān- 12417:lišān- 12356:salām- 12349:šalām- 12337:peace 12260:*bayt- 12255:house 12177:heart 12128:ʼaḇ-āʼ 12079:Hebrew 12064:Arabic 11993:ˈʔeseʁ 11970:*ʻaśr- 11939:ˈtejʃa 11916:*tišʻ- 11885:ʃˈmone 11872:ثماني 11857:Eight 11808:*šabʻ- 11803:Seven 11795:sitta 11749:*šidṯ- 11736:ħamsa 11718:ˈχameʃ 11714:ḥā́mēš 11695:*ḫamš- 11664:ˈʔaʁba 11660:ʼárbaʻ 11647:ʔarbaʕ 11610:ʃaˈloʃ 11576:Three 11568:tnejn 11523:اثنان 11513:*kilʼ- 11470:ʔeˈχad 11436:Ge'ez 11380:hinnin 11313:hinnun 11234:ʔanten 11226:ʔatten 11204:ʔantum 11198:ʔantin 11188:أنتنّ 11183:attina 11150:ʔantun 11142:ʔattem 11120:ʔantum 11107:ʔantum 11099:attunu 11032:أنتما 10709:*ʔanti 10498:Hebrew 10488:Arabic 10459:, and 10426:Kabyle 10422:ṣaḥīfa 10418:ṣaḥāfa 10414:sippūr 10410:mispār 10405:sōp̄er 10400:sep̄er 10394:, and 10161:כתובה) 10028:כתבות) 9639:. The 9637:aspect 9586:niprus 9406:-tunna 9059:كَتَبَ 8817:plural 8815:, and 8773:ʾIʿrab 8668:pausal 8652:ō, aw 8611:ē, ay 8509:ə, ʷə 8408:/ˈ_Cː 8385:Ge'ez 8350:Vowels 8262:għarb 8250:*/ʕ~ʔ/ 8228:*/ɣ~ʁ/ 8212:'salt' 8158:'five' 8136:ħamsa 8126:*/ħ~χ/ 8108:*/x~χ/ 8040:'land' 8017:daħaq 7905:'two' 7889:tnejn 7884:اثنان 7882:ثلاثة 7849:'year' 7829:sliem 7785:'ten' 7720:xahar 7642:żmien 7602:'gold' 7599:זָכָר 7580:deheb 7577:ذَكَر 7473:Early 7440:Arabic 7352:, and 7303:Levant 7235:where 6997:, and 6967:, and 6932:, and 6891:/ʁ//ʕ/ 6889:and ע 6887:/χ//ħ/ 6826:as שׁ 5132:𐡒, 𐡏 5001:/tsʼ/, 4973:𐡑, 𐡈 4920:/t͡sʼ/ 4524:𐡔, 𐡕 4410:𐡔, 𐡎 3981:𐡆, 𐡃 2904:Modern 2891:Modern 2857:Syriac 2721:Hebrew 2688:Arabic 2666:uvular 2567:Gurage 2559:Hebrew 2542:Africa 2522:Arabic 2291:voiced 2039:voiced 1875:Uvular 1846:Labial 1836:Manner 1742:Arabic 1710:Harari 1699:, and 1685:Razihi 1651:Israel 1625:, and 1577:speak 1535:Qur'an 1479:Sicily 1465:. The 1435:Arabic 1416:Qimant 1369:Shehri 1333:Nubian 1315:, and 1294:Arabic 1277:) and 1273:, and 1255:Coptic 1207:Edessa 1199:Turkey 1173:, and 1171:Turoyo 1143:Levant 1135:Arabic 1120:Kerala 1118:, and 1116:Levant 1114:, the 1068:, and 1056:, and 1048:, and 1034:Dilmun 977:Levant 932:Ugarit 892:Turkey 880:Jordan 864:Israel 858:, and 832:Hebrew 776:Levant 770:, and 762:, the 756:Levant 754:, the 731:, and 382:, and 380:Arabic 376:Syriac 372:Hebrew 352:abjads 343:, and 313:, and 299:Levant 278:) and 236:, and 234:Europe 212:, the 198:Hebrew 186:Arabic 18283:South 18239:Ometo 18234:Gonga 18229:North 18214:Aroid 18196:South 18099:Mesme 18092:South 18075:Musey 18070:Massa 18065:Marba 18058:North 18008:Angas 17942:Atlas 17772:(PDF) 17765:(PDF) 17747:(PDF) 17730:(PDF) 17556:date. 17549:6 May 17450:S2CID 17442:JSTOR 17413:S2CID 17315:7 May 17067:(PDF) 17060:(PDF) 16947:S2CID 16939:JSTOR 16858:[ 16845:[ 16718:[ 16514:JSTOR 16366:S2CID 16358:JSTOR 16256:1 May 16158:1 May 16115:1 May 15663:S2CID 15534:(PDF) 15527:(PDF) 15227:date. 15220:6 May 14797:< 14787:< 14689:/ħ,ʕ/ 14685:/χ,ʁ/ 14671:Notes 14420:Sumer 14374:Druze 14345:Sidon 14314:Judah 14207:Arabs 14140:Mehri 14104:Faifi 14024:Muher 14008:Soddo 14002:Gafat 13932:Tigre 13921:Geʽez 13568:Qeltu 13536:Gilit 13123:Punic 12594:f-l-ṭ 12590:ʿ-w-q 12586:ʿ-l-m 12582:ʿ-r-f 12578:y-d-ʿ 12571:d-w-n 12567:d-y-n 12559:l-ḥ-m 12555:l-b-n 12551:b-y-ḍ 12523:ḥə-mō 12509:máyim 12455:əwšēn 12445:lāšôn 12398:sliem 12391:səlōm 12384:salām 12377:šālôm 12370:šlāmā 12302:báyiṯ 12274:bayt- 12229:ləbb 12202:qalb- 12196:lubb- 12189:libb- 12156:ḥa-yb 12105:*ʼab- 12089:Mehri 12084:Ge'ez 12074:Suret 12006:*uṣrā 11989:ʻéśer 11935:tḗšaʻ 11928:tisʕ- 11911:Nine 11831:ˈʃeva 11827:šéḇaʻ 11820:sabʕ- 11761:sitt- 11731:xamšā 11707:χams- 11690:Five 11670:*ʼrbʻ 11651:أربع 11636:Four 11606:šālṓš 11597:ثلاث 11584:> 11534:שנים 11465:ʼeḥáḏ 11354:hunna 11339:*sinā 11289:humma 11286:hum, 11260:*sunū 11248:intom 11231:אנתן 11164:intom 11147:אנתן 11104:أنتم 11056:*sunā 11006:axnan 10999:náħnā 10996:נחנא 10973:naħnu 10905:, hī 10897:, hī 10879:*siʔa 10826:, hū 10818:, hū 10800:*suʔa 10756:ʔanti 10724:ʔanti 10665:ʔantā 10657:ʔattā 10634:ʔanta 10601:jiena 10543:anāku 10508:Suret 10493:Ge'ez 10437:yufeg 10433:affug 10396:ṣ-f-r 10392:ṣ-h-f 10388:m-ṣ-f 9748:ūn(a) 9683:k-t-b 9633:tense 9501:katab 9453:katab 9402:katab 9354:katab 9303:katab 9252:katab 9204:katab 9157:-tumā 9153:katab 9138:Dual 9095:katab 9047:katab 8996:katab 8948:katab 8897:katab 8877:Past 8849:sudūd 8837:šanim 8670:ˈāwɛ 8660:aw/ū 8658:WSyr. 8624:WSyr. 8541:ā, ē 8494:u, o 8474:ɛ, e 8460:WSyr. 8457:e, i, 8405:/ˈ_. 8309:سبعة 8304:/ għ 8273:מערב 8268:מערב 8255:غراب 8240:/ għ 8209:חלום 8192:ħolm 8190:melħ 8131:خمسة 8064:*/sʼ/ 8056:*/sˤ/ 8048:*/sʼ/ 8006:*/ʕ/ע 7988:*/dˤ/ 7980:*/ɬʼ/ 7969:הרים 7958:טהרא 7947:dell 7931:*/tʼ/ 7919:*/ðˤ/ 7911:*/θʼ/ 7900:שתים 7895:תרין 7846:שלום 7827:sena 7824:سلام 7782:עשׂר 7779:עשׂר 7713:سكين 7591:דכרא 7490:ʿAyin 7482:ʿAyin 7402:] 7398:[ 7394:Druze 7382:] 7378:[ 7370:Libya 7366:Sudan 7342:] 7338:[ 7311:] 7307:[ 7299:] 7295:[ 7291:] 7287:[ 7229:Yemen 7213:/d͡ʒ/ 7191:as a 7182:/d͡ʒ/ 7158:] 7154:[ 7146:] 7142:[ 7128:walad 7124:*wald 7120:yeled 7089:/vχf/ 7071:/χ,ʁ/ 7067:/θ,ð/ 7057:were 6859:from 6834:< 6800:] 6796:[ 6649:] 6645:[ 6506:] 6502:[ 6363:] 6359:[ 6226:] 6222:[ 6089:] 6085:[ 5972:] 5968:[ 5931:/ʔ/~∅ 5916:/h/~∅ 5833:] 5829:[ 5753:] 5749:[ 5615:/x~χ/ 5596:] 5592:[ 5588:] 5584:[ 5547:/ʔ/~∅ 5532:/ʔ/~∅ 5432:] 5428:[ 5360:] 5356:[ 5207:/ɣ~ʁ/ 5188:] 5184:[ 5180:] 5176:[ 5095:] 5091:[ 5023:] 5019:[ 4953:/t͡s/ 4906:> 4856:] 4852:[ 4721:] 4717:[ 4572:] 4568:[ 4458:] 4454:[ 4354:] 4350:[ 4246:] 4242:[ 4157:/t͡s/ 4101:] 4097:[ 4029:] 4025:[ 3930:/d͡z/ 3916:> 3874:] 3870:[ 3719:] 3715:[ 3603:/ʔ~q/ 3590:/ɡ~q/ 3571:] 3567:[ 3416:] 3412:[ 3261:] 3257:[ 3133:/d͡ʒ/ 3125:/d͡ʒ/ 3101:] 3097:[ 2946:] 2942:[ 2735:Ge'ez 2677:Proto 2571:Tigre 2496:] 2492:[ 2480:] 2476:[ 2466:Nasal 2453:] 2449:[ 2439:] 2435:[ 2421:] 2417:[ 2390:] 2386:[ 2372:Trill 2358:] 2354:[ 2321:] 2317:[ 2307:] 2303:[ 2265:] 2261:[ 2243:] 2239:[ 2229:] 2225:[ 2196:] 2192:[ 2182:] 2178:[ 2161:] 2157:[ 2147:] 2143:[ 2133:] 2129:[ 2119:] 2115:[ 2087:] 2083:[ 2069:] 2065:[ 2053:] 2049:[ 2032:] 2028:[ 2010:] 2006:[ 1986:] 1982:[ 1950:] 1946:[ 1932:] 1928:[ 1916:] 1912:[ 1871:Velar 1832:Type 1802:] 1798:[ 1772:] 1768:[ 1759:] 1755:[ 1714:Harar 1693:Tigre 1670:Mahri 1662:Yemen 1607:Syria 1547:Torah 1459:Quran 1451:Sudan 1408:Weyto 1404:Gafat 1365:Mehri 1341:Sudan 1317:Egypt 1290:Quran 1279:Malta 1267:Spain 1247:Sudan 1231:Libya 1227:Egypt 1219:Syria 1195:Syria 1167:Suret 1130:era. 1078:Ge'ez 1070:Yemen 1062:Qatar 1050:Magan 1038:Sheba 944:, an 920:Malta 916:Spain 904:Libya 872:Syria 848:Punic 729:Larsa 717:Akkad 438:k-t-b 427:roots 218:Malta 63:Malta 18266:West 18260:East 18135:Agaw 18109:Peve 18050:Masa 18013:Bade 18003:West 17998:East 17780:2017 17734:ISBN 17713:2021 17695:ISBN 17680:2018 17662:ISBN 17638:ISBN 17625:2022 17607:ISBN 17588:2020 17570:ISBN 17551:2021 17533:ISBN 17518:2020 17500:ISBN 17467:ISBN 17366:ISBN 17350:2021 17332:ISBN 17317:2017 17299:ISBN 17282:2021 17264:ISBN 17243:ISBN 17183:east 17149:PMID 17096:ISBN 17075:2020 17046:2020 17028:ISBN 17013:2021 16995:ISBN 16966:ISBN 16914:2020 16896:ISBN 16873:ISBN 16828:ISBN 16808:2022 16790:ISBN 16773:2021 16755:ISBN 16732:2020 16693:2018 16668:2018 16637:ISBN 16618:ISBN 16599:ISBN 16580:ISBN 16563:2021 16545:ISBN 16530:2022 16504:ISBN 16470:2013 16440:2013 16401:ISBN 16382:2023 16350:ISSN 16315:2023 16280:ISBN 16258:2024 16240:ISBN 16210:ISBN 16182:ISBN 16160:2024 16142:ISBN 16117:2024 16099:ISBN 16061:ISBN 16006:2021 15990:PMID 15954:Cell 15935:2024 15917:ISBN 15832:ISBN 15781:2020 15700:ISBN 15679:2014 15542:2006 15509:2011 15424:ISBN 15271:help 15252:2023 15222:2021 15204:ISBN 15183:2014 15136:2023 14970:2022 14952:ISBN 14841:*šdṯ 14739:anok 14735:anak 14708:see 14695:and 14687:and 14549:and 14465:Axum 14347:and 14341:Tyre 14320:Jews 14312:and 14236:Tayy 14047:Inor 13985:Zway 12735:and 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