Sedimentary rock - Knowledge

1893: 2998: 1432: 1908: 1943: 2260: 3341: 3194: 47: 3330: 2473: 3821: 2331: 3017: 3669: 2621: 2714:). In contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. However, the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous rock. Minerals in a sedimentary rock may have been present in the original sediments or may formed by precipitation during diagenesis. In the second case, a mineral precipitate may have grown over an older generation of cement. A complex diagenetic history can be established by 3647: 1609: 1924: 4017: 2781: 4049: 3555: 2562: 1162: 1621: 2968: 2692: 3143: 1754: 1207: 3909: 2830: 4002:. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains. 2756:, and finally other less stable minerals that are only present when little weathering has occurred. The amount of weathering depends mainly on the distance to the source area, the local climate and the time it took for the sediment to be transported to the point where it is deposited. In most sedimentary rocks, mica, feldspar and less stable minerals have been weathered to 1474: 2341:. While material dissolves at places where grains are in contact, that material may recrystallize from the solution and act as cement in open pore spaces. As a result, there is a net flow of material from areas under high stress to those under low stress, producing a sedimentary rock that is harder and more compact. Loose sand can become sandstone in this way. 3278:. While the clastic bed is still fluid, diapirism can cause a denser upper layer to sink into a lower layer. Sometimes, density contrasts occur or are enhanced when one of the lithologies dehydrates. Clay can be easily compressed as a result of dehydration, while sand retains the same volume and becomes relatively less dense. On the other hand, when the 3496:. In the quiet water of swamps, lakes and lagoons, fine sediment is deposited, mingled with organic material from dead plants and animals. In rivers, the energy of the water is much greater and can transport heavier clastic material. Besides transport by water, sediment can be transported by wind or glaciers. Sediment transported by wind is called 3893:. Catastrophic processes can see the sudden deposition of a large amount of sediment at once. In some sedimentary environments, most of the total column of sedimentary rock was formed by catastrophic processes, even though the environment is usually a quiet place. Other sedimentary environments are dominated by normal, ongoing sedimentation. 3872:), which are assumed to have been caused by astronomic cycles. Climate change can influence the global sea level (and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary basins) and sediment supply from a certain region. Eventually, small changes in astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and sedimentation. 2411:. Points of contact between grains are under the greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact. The increased pressure and temperature stimulate further chemical reactions, such as the reactions by which 3547:(where fine clay and organic material is deposited). Every sedimentary environment has its own characteristic deposits. When sedimentary strata accumulate through time, the environment can shift, forming a change in facies in the subsurface at one location. On the other hand, when a rock layer with a certain age is followed laterally, the 3074:. Laminae are usually less than a few centimetres thick. Though bedding and lamination are often originally horizontal in nature, this is not always the case. In some environments, beds are deposited at a (usually small) angle. Sometimes multiple sets of layers with different orientations exist in the same rock, a structure called 3243:. Concretions are roughly concentric bodies with a different composition from the host rock. Their formation can be the result of localized precipitation due to small differences in composition or porosity of the host rock, such as around fossils, inside burrows or around plant roots. In carbonate rocks such as limestone or 3081:

The opposite of cross-bedding is parallel lamination, where all sedimentary layering is parallel. Differences in laminations are generally caused by cyclic changes in the sediment supply, caused, for example, by seasonal changes in rainfall, temperature or biochemical activity. Laminae that represent

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Global collage of sand samples. There is one square centimeter of sand on every sample photo. Sand samples row by row from left to right: 1. Glass sand from Kauai, Hawaii 2. Dune sand from the Gobi Desert 3. Quartz sand with green glauconite from Estonia 4. Volcanic sand with reddish weathered basalt

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may cause sudden deposits of large quantities of detrital material, but in most places eolian erosion dominates. The amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of supplied material, but also on how well the material consolidates. Erosion removes most deposited sediment

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is deposited. When the continent is far away, the amount of such sediment deposited may be small, and biochemical processes dominate the type of rock that forms. Especially in warm climates, shallow marine environments far offshore mainly see deposition of carbonate rocks. The shallow, warm water is

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only settles in quiet water while gravel and larger clasts are moved only by rapidly moving water. The grain size of a rock is usually expressed with the Wentworth scale, though alternative scales are sometimes used. The grain size can be expressed as a diameter or a volume, and is always an average

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The relative abundance of sand-sized framework grains determines the first word in a sandstone name. Naming depends on the dominance of the three most abundant components quartz, feldspar, or the lithic fragments that originated from other rocks. All other minerals are considered accessories and not

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by oxidation or bacterial activity. Under anoxic circumstances, however, organic material cannot decay and leaves a dark sediment, rich in organic material. This can, for example, occur at the bottom of deep seas and lakes. There is little water mixing in such environments; as a result, oxygen from

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Six sandstone names are possible using the descriptors for grain composition (quartz-, feldspathic-, and lithic-) and the amount of matrix (wacke or arenite). For example, a quartz arenite would be composed of mostly (>90%) quartz grains and have little or no clayey matrix between the grains, a

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Ripple marks also form in flowing water. There can be symmetric or asymmetric. Asymmetric ripples form in environments where the current is in one direction, such as rivers. The longer flank of such ripples is on the upstream side of the current. Symmetric wave ripples occur in environments where

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is a structure where beds with a smaller grain size occur on top of beds with larger grains. This structure forms when fast flowing water stops flowing. Larger, heavier clasts in suspension settle first, then smaller clasts. Although graded bedding can form in many different environments, it is a

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In deep marine environments, the water current working the sea bottom is small. Only fine particles can be transported to such places. Typically sediments depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of micro-organisms. At 4 km depth, the solubility of carbonates increases

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As sediments accumulate in a depositional environment, older sediments are buried by younger sediments, and they undergo diagenesis. Diagenesis includes all the chemical, physical, and biological changes, exclusive of surface weathering, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition. This

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by sedimentologists. It can be a valuable indicator of the biological and ecological environment that existed after the sediment was deposited. On the other hand, the burrowing activity of organisms can destroy other (primary) structures in the sediment, making a reconstruction more difficult.

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Most authors presently use the term "mudrock" to refer to all rocks composed dominantly of mud. Mudrocks can be divided into siltstones, composed dominantly of silt-sized particles; mudstones with subequal mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles; and claystones, composed mostly of clay-sized

3539:. Sedimentary environments usually exist alongside each other in certain natural successions. A beach, where sand and gravel is deposited, is usually bounded by a deeper marine environment a little offshore, where finer sediments are deposited at the same time. Behind the beach, there can be 3880:

The rate at which sediment is deposited differs depending on the location. A channel in a tidal flat can see the deposition of a few metres of sediment in one day, while on the deep ocean floor each year only a few millimetres of sediment accumulate. A distinction can be made between normal

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Sedimentary dykes can also be formed in a cold climate where the soil is permanently frozen during a large part of the year. Frost weathering can form cracks in the soil that fill with rubble from above. Such structures can be used as climate indicators as well as way up structures.

3605:. In the subsurface, such geographic shifts of sedimentary environments of the past are recorded in shifts in sedimentary facies. This means that sedimentary facies can change either parallel or perpendicular to an imaginary layer of rock with a fixed age, a phenomenon described by 2540:

and gives the rock a reddish to brownish colour. In arid continental climates rocks are in direct contact with the atmosphere, and oxidation is an important process, giving the rock a red or orange colour. Thick sequences of red sedimentary rocks formed in arid climates are called

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Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation: clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical (biogenic) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for "other" sedimentary rocks formed by impacts,

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an ideal habitat for many small organisms that build carbonate skeletons. When these organisms die, their skeletons sink to the bottom, forming a thick layer of calcareous mud that may lithify into limestone. Warm shallow marine environments also are ideal environments for

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Among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. Often these fossils may only be visible under

2741:) of a carbonate sedimentary rock usually consist of carbonate minerals. The mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area, the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral. 3845:

In many cases facies changes and other lithological features in sequences of sedimentary rock have a cyclic nature. This cyclic nature was caused by cyclic changes in sediment supply and the sedimentary environment. Most of these cyclic changes are caused by

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Brime, Covadonga; García-López, Susana; Bastida, Fernando; Valín, M. Luz; Sanz-López, Javier; Aller, Jesús (May 2001). "Transition from Diagenesis to Metamorphism Near the Front of the Variscan Regional Metamorphism (Cantabrian Zone, Northwestern Spain)".

3445:. Turbidity currents are sudden disturbances of the normally quiet deep marine environment and can cause the near-instantaneous deposition of large amounts of sediment, such as sand and silt. The rock sequence formed by a turbidity current is called a 2821:

and erosion, but under exceptional circumstances, these natural processes are unable to take place, leading to fossilisation. The chance of fossilisation is higher when the sedimentation rate is high (so that a carcass is quickly buried), in

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Sandstone classification schemes vary widely, but most geologists have adopted the Dott scheme, which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains.

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Secondary sedimentary structures are those which formed after deposition. Such structures form by chemical, physical and biological processes within the sediment. They can be indicators of circumstances after deposition. Some can be used as

3120:. Sole markings, such as tool marks and flute casts, are grooves eroded on a surface that are preserved by renewed sedimentation. These are often elongated structures and can be used to establish the direction of the flow during deposition. 4036:

rocks) can be the source of sedimentary detritus. The purpose of sedimentary provenance studies is to reconstruct and interpret the history of sediment from the initial parent rocks at a source area to final detritus at a burial place.

3239:. Stylolites are irregular planes where material was dissolved into the pore fluids in the rock. This can result in the precipitation of a certain chemical species producing colouring and staining of the rock, or the formation of 3399:

diminishes with depth. This means that coarser sediment particles can be transported and the deposited sediment can be coarser than in deeper environments. When the sediment is transported from the continent, an alternation of

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of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called

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At the same time, the growing weight of the mountain belt can cause isostatic subsidence in the area of the overriding plate on the other side to the mountain belt. The basin type resulting from this subsidence is called a

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from Maui, Hawaii 5. Biogenic coral sand from Molokai, Hawaii 6. Coral pink sand dunes from Utah 7. Volcanic glass sand from California 8. Garnet sand from Emerald Creek, Idaho 9. Olivine sand from Papakolea, Hawaii.

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Wilkinson, Bruce H.; McElroy, Brandon J.; Kesler, Stephen E.; Peters, Shanan E.; Rothman, Edward D. (2008). "Global geologic maps are tectonic speedometers – Rates of rock cycling from area-age frequencies".

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is extensive (73% of the Earth's current land surface), but sedimentary rock is estimated to be only 8% of the volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of

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as does the host rock. For example, a shell consisting of calcite can dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by

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can form. These are large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front of the mouth of the river. Deltas are dominantly composed of clastic (rather than chemical) sediment.

3368:. Every environment has a characteristic combination of geologic processes, and circumstances. The type of sediment that is deposited is not only dependent on the sediment that is transported to a place ( 3301:, even while sedimentation progresses (synchronous-sedimentary faulting). Such faulting can also occur when large masses of non-lithified sediment are deposited on a slope, such as at the front side of a 3527:. The infilled sections formed vertical inclusions in the horizontally deposited layers, and thus provided evidence of the sequence of events during deposition of the forty-one layers of the formation. 1892: 3858:: cyclic changes in the orientation and/or position of the Earth's rotational axis and orbit around the Sun. There are a number of Milankovitch cycles known, lasting between 10,000 and 200,000 years. 1285:. Biological detritus was formed by bodies and parts (mainly shells) of dead aquatic organisms, as well as their fecal mass, suspended in water and slowly piling up on the floor of water bodies ( 5497:

Walker, Theodore R.; Waugh, Brian; Grone, Anthony J. (1 January 1978). "Diagenesis in first-cycle desert alluvium of Cenozoic age, southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico".

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Chemical sedimentary rocks have a non-clastic texture, consisting entirely of crystals. To describe such a texture, only the average size of the crystals and the fabric are necessary.

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in front of the overriding plate – an elongated, deep asymmetric basin. Fore-arc basins are filled with deep marine deposits and thick sequences of turbidites. Such infill is called

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of the rock. When all clasts are more or less of the same size, the rock is called 'well-sorted', and when there is a large spread in grain size, the rock is called 'poorly sorted'.

3387:. Often, a distinction is made between deep and shallow marine environments. Deep marine usually refers to environments more than 200 m below the water surface (including the 2867:

Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody

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The subdivision of these three broad categories is based on differences in clast shape (conglomerates and breccias), composition (sandstones), or grain size or texture (mudrocks).

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of existing rocks, or from the solidification of molten lava blobs erupted by volcanoes. The geological detritus is transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice or

3456:, dominantly denser sediment such as sand or gravel, often mingled with shell fragments, is deposited, while the silt and clay sized material is kept in mechanical suspension. 3766:, but sag basins can also be found in the interior of continents. In sag basins, the extra weight of the newly deposited sediments is enough to keep the subsidence going in a 3578:, for example, only lives in warm and shallow marine environments and fossils of coral are thus typical for shallow marine facies. Facies determined by lithology are called 3070:. Single beds can be a couple of centimetres to several meters thick. Finer, less pronounced layers are called laminae, and the structure a lamina forms in a rock is called 2430:, as the mineral dissolved from strained contact points is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. This further reduces porosity and makes the rock more compact and 3205: 2318:, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the 3255:

concretions are common, while terrestrial sandstones sometimes contain iron concretions. Calcite concretions in clay containing angular cavities or cracks are called

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in the overriding plate, from which large amounts of material are eroded and transported to the basin. Such erosional material of a growing mountain chain is called

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is the situation in which a coastline moves in the direction of the sea. With regression, shallower facies are deposited on top of deeper facies, a situation called

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in a sand layer surpasses a critical point, the sand can break through overlying clay layers and flow through, forming discordant bodies of sedimentary rock called

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the sediment, producing a third class of secondary structures. Density contrasts between different sedimentary layers, such as between sand and clay, can result in

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The presence of organic material can colour a rock black or grey. Organic material is formed from dead organisms, mostly plants. Normally, such material eventually

2845: 3425:). Calcareous sediment that sinks below the lysocline dissolves; as a result, no limestone can be formed below this depth. Skeletons of micro-organisms formed of 1907: 2826:

environments (where little bacterial activity occurs) or when the organism had a particularly hard skeleton. Larger, well-preserved fossils are relatively rare.

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surface water is not brought down, and the deposited sediment is normally a fine dark clay. Dark rocks, rich in organic material, are therefore often shales.

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Relatively small changes in the orientation of the Earth's axis or length of the seasons can be a major influence on the Earth's climate. An example are the

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Mudrocks are sedimentary rocks composed of at least 50% silt- and clay-sized particles. These relatively fine-grained particles are commonly transported by

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are a bed form caused by the dehydration of sediment that occasionally comes above the water surface. Such structures are commonly found at tidal flats or

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and texture. Beds form by the deposition of layers of sediment on top of each other. The sequence of beds that characterizes sedimentary rocks is called

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When sand-sized particles are deposited, the space between the grains either remains open or is filled with mud (silt and/or clay sized particle).

3987:. These represent periods where no new sediments were laid down, or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away. 574: 6361: 2640:, a rock composed of clasts of broken shells, can only form in energetic water. The form of a clast can be described by using four parameters: 3881:

sedimentation and sedimentation caused by catastrophic processes. The latter category includes all kinds of sudden exceptional processes like

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rises and heats the overlying rift basin. Apart from continental sediments, rift basins normally also have part of their infill consisting of

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Facies can be distinguished in a number of ways: the most common are by the lithology (for example: limestone, siltstone or sandstone) or by

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structures (formed after deposition). Unlike textures, structures are always large-scale features that can easily be studied in the field.

2675: 4975:. Washington, D.C.: Planetary Geology Program, Office of Space Science, National Aeoronautics and Space Administration. pp. 173–177. 1772:

Biochemical sedimentary rocks are created when organisms use materials dissolved in air or water to build their tissue. Examples include:

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is the collective name for processes that cause these particles to settle in place. The particles that form a sedimentary rock are called

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Sedimentary environments can shift their geographical positions through time. Coastlines can shift in the direction of the sea when the

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Provenance is the reconstruction of the origin of sediments. All rock exposed at Earth's surface is subjected to physical or chemical

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describes the amount of small-scale relief of the surface of a grain that is too small to influence the general shape. For example,

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A continental sedimentary environment is an environment in the interior of a continent. Examples of continental environments are

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For an overview over facies shifts and the relations in the sedimentary rock record by which they can be recognized, see

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Margolis, Stanley V.; Krinsley, David H. (1971). "Submicroscopic Frosting on Eolian and Subaqueous Quartz Sand Grains".

3235:) when a sediment is exposed above the water level. An example of a diagenetic structure common in carbonate rocks is a 3767: 5224: 5139:

Choquette, P.W.; Pray, L.C. (1970). "Geologic Nomenclature and Classification of Porosity in Sedimentary Carbonates".

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or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called

5487: 5437: 5414: 5372: 5272: 5213: 5169: 5033: 5014: 4980: 4959: 17: 3900:, for example, the wind deposits siliciclastic material (sand or silt) in some spots, or catastrophic flooding of a 5205: 5113: 2395:

from overlying sediments. Sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, grains of ductile minerals (such as

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Conglomerates are dominantly composed of rounded gravel, while breccias are composed of dominantly angular gravel.

2581:. The texture is a small-scale property of a rock, but determines many of its large-scale properties, such as the 1745:

mudrock (regardless of grain size) although some older literature uses the term "shale" as a synonym for mudrock.

1528: 1086: 2545:. However, a red colour does not necessarily mean the rock formed in a continental environment or arid climate. 5391: 5303: 2161: 1018: 3616:. In the case of transgression, deeper marine facies are deposited over shallower facies, a succession called 5518: 3395:. The water movements in such environments have a generally higher energy than that in deep environments, as 2590: 761: 569: 5526:

Weltje, G.J.; von Eynatten, H. (2004). "Quantitative provenance analysis of sediments: review and outlook".

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from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the

1688:"Clean" sandstones with open pore space (that may later be filled with matrix material) are called arenites. 1328:

The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for

3695:. The amount of sediment that can be deposited in a basin depends on the depth of the basin, the so-called 1388: 1384: 455: 5313:"Experimental diagenesis of organo-mineral structures formed by microaerophilic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria" 3635:. A sequence of maps for different ages can give an insight in the development of the regional geography. 3094:. When sedimentary rocks have no lamination at all, their structural character is called massive bedding. 1527:

Clastic sedimentary rocks are subdivided according to the dominant particle size. Most geologists use the

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Dott, R. H. (1964). "Wacke, graywacke and matrix – what approach to immature sandstone classification".

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Alternatively, sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into compositional groups based on their mineralogy:

6630: 3929: 3516: 3090:. Any sedimentary rock composed of millimeter or finer scale layers can be named with the general term 2955:. It is particularly important for plant fossils. The same process is responsible for the formation of 2947:

are expulsed. The fossil, in the end, consists of a thin layer of pure carbon or its mineralized form,

2745: 2610: 2441:, the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces the depth of burial, renewed exposure to 655: 268: 2785: 2098:

are composed of minerals formed from the evaporation of water. The most common evaporite minerals are

5429: 5364: 3933: 2497: 2423: 1551:(<1/256 mm diameter). The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this scheme; 1179: 3391:). Shallow marine environments exist adjacent to coastlines and can extend to the boundaries of the 2997: 1371:

The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for an understanding of the

3728:. Rift basins are elongated, narrow and deep basins. Due to divergent movement, the lithosphere is 3365: 3357: 3334: 1133: 766: 5686: 5666: 5626: 4071: – Geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or landmass 3729: 3697: 3613: 3598: 3559: 3433:) are not as soluble and are still deposited. An example of a rock formed of silica skeletons is 2936: 2823: 2719: 2272: 1066: 1061: 660: 5192: 5152: 3112:, can also be indicative of a particular sedimentary environment. Examples of bed forms include 2600:

of the rock. The size and form of clasts can be used to determine the velocity and direction of

6111: 5608:, by Bruce Perry, Department of Geological Sciences, California State University at Long Beach. 3854:

every two weeks. On a larger time-scale, cyclic changes in climate and sea level are caused by

3177:(also called ichnofossils). Such traces are relatively rare. Most trace fossils are burrows of 3044: 2613:

of grain sizes is different for different rock types and is described in a property called the

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Organic materials in a sediment can leave more traces than just fossils. Preserved tracks and

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are expelled. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via

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Although the Dott classification scheme is widely used by sedimentologists, common names like

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For an overview of major minerals in siliciclastic rocks and their relative stabilities, see

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Feldspathic sandstones have <90% quartz grains and more feldspar grains than lithic grains

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The facies of all rocks of a certain age can be plotted on a map to give an overview of the

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layers. Erosional cracks were later infilled with layers of soil material, especially from

3369: 3313:, producing fissures and folding. The resulting structures in the rock are syn-sedimentary 3071: 2577:, form and orientation of clasts (the original pieces of rock) in a sediment is called its 2431: 2426:

of cement that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to this process of

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Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten the

2353: 2291: 2166: 1827: 1711:, and quartz sandstone are still widely used by non-specialists and in popular literature. 1571:

are made mostly of mud. This tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of

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Picard, Aude; Kappler, Andreas; Schmid, Gregor; Quaroni, Luca; Obst, Martin (May 2015).

5295: 5080: 2651:, which are covered with small-scale fractures, are characteristic of eolian sandstones. 1671:

Lithic sandstones have <90% quartz grains and more lithic grains than feldspar grains

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formed by deposition and later cementation of lava fragments erupted by volcanoes, and

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The Channeled Scabland: A Guide to the Geomorphology of the Columbia Basin, Washington

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that makes up much of the famous prominent rock formations in protected areas such as

3417:, where the sediment consists mainly of the calcareous skeletons of larger organisms. 2259: 5862: 5483: 5456: 5433: 5410: 5406: 5387: 5368: 5342: 5268: 5209: 5165: 5125: 5096: 5052: 5029: 5010: 4976: 4955: 3945: 3941: 3692: 3663: 3621: 3594: 3563: 3524: 3512: 3497: 3442: 3438: 3392: 3353: 3349: 3340: 3306: 3193: 3102: 3078:. Cross-bedding is characteristic of deposition by a flowing medium (wind or water). 2979: 2901: 2578: 2456:

At sufficiently high temperature and pressure, the realm of diagenesis makes way for

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formed from the accumulation of siliceous skeletons of microscopic organisms such as

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A type of basin formed by the moving apart of two pieces of a continent is called a

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The swirls of tan, green, blue, and white are sediment in the shallow waters of the

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The situation in which coastlines move in the direction of the continent is called

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or seawater when originally deposited, and as pore space is reduced, much of these

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diagram showing convergence of an oceanic plate and a continental plate. Note the

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and faults, which can be difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed by

2472: 2399:) are deformed, and pore space is reduced. Sediments are typically saturated with 1631:

by both mechanical weathering and chemical weathering. Wind, sand, and water from

6371: 6131: 5984: 5599: 5547: 4112: 3820: 3710: 3672: 3632: 3329: 3310: 3298: 3267: 2897: 2528:) circumstances and gives the rock a grey or greenish colour. Iron(III) oxide (Fe 2521: 2481: 2368:

and mineralogical changes in the sediments, with only slight compaction. The red

2268: 2130: 2087: 1958: 1930: 1831: 1729:

in water or air, and deposited as the flow calms and the particles settle out of

1504:) that have been cemented together. The clasts are commonly individual grains of 1376: 1103: 1073: 943: 867: 782: 756: 588: 517: 423: 5384:

Sedimentary geology : an introduction to sedimentary rocks and stratigraphy

5121: 4986: 6640: 6564: 6406: 5999: 5922: 5452: 4103: – Movement of solid particles, typically by gravity and fluid entrainment 4062: 4054: 3850:

cycles. Short astronomic cycles can be the difference between the tides or the

3814: 3798: 3786: 3778: 3760: 3676: 3535:

The kind of rock formed in a particular depositional environment is called its

3352:. The blue-green cloud in this image roughly matches the extent of the shallow 3345: 3314: 3097: 3016: 2944: 2857: 2711: 2517: 2485: 2442: 2404: 2283: 2185: 2017: 1990: 1914: 1700:

lithic wacke would have abundant lithic grains and abundant muddy matrix, etc.

1361: 1242: 1234: 1140: 1028: 933: 833: 787: 777: 724: 428: 418: 401: 318: 5472: 3047:

can indicate something about the sedimentary environment or can serve to tell

2904:. The most common minerals involved in permineralization are various forms of 2604:

in the sedimentary environment that moved the clasts from their origin; fine,

2384:, can affect minerals in a rock and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis. 2330: 1802:

from the atmosphere and combined it with other elements to build their tissue.

1214:

marginal marine sequence of siltstones (reddish layers at the cliff base) and

6624: 6609: 6524: 6489: 6336: 5897: 5802: 5479: 5006: 3802: 3737: 3733: 3684: 3680: 3668: 3388: 3376: 3075: 3067: 3055: 2971: 2952: 2818: 2757: 2703: 2620: 2549: 2525: 2493: 2357: 2306:

break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then

1883: 1608: 1513: 1489: 1412: 1404: 1392: 1314: 1254: 1123: 1108: 848: 650: 635: 606: 564: 559: 539: 438: 391: 349: 249: 241: 4725: 4713: 4701: 3755:

subsidence. If this subsidence continues long enough, the basin is called a

3601:) due to tectonic forces in the Earth's crust or when a river forms a large 3511:

Aeolian deposits can be quite striking. The depositional environment of the

2314:(the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as 6534: 6514: 6386: 6033: 6011: 5952: 5852: 5797: 5782: 5648: 5346: 5234: 4083: 4029: 4016: 3984: 3974: 3882: 3747:

When a piece of lithosphere that was heated and stretched cools again, its

3740:. When the basin grows due to continued stretching of the lithosphere, the 3505: 3493: 3283: 3186: 3174: 3117: 3020: 3005: 2893: 2873: 2536:) in a richer oxygen environment is often found in the form of the mineral 2501: 2457: 2365: 2338: 1977: 1789: 1468: 1416: 1302: 1278: 1145: 1128: 1113: 954: 838: 734: 544: 522: 470: 433: 413: 406: 328: 299: 4595: 4521: 3437:. When the bottom of the sea has a small inclination, for example, at the 3309:. Instabilities in such sediments can result in the deposited material to 2780: 2744:

The resistance of rock-forming minerals to weathering is expressed by the

1875: 1531:

grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions:

6423: 6314: 6294: 6284: 6211: 6161: 6086: 5932: 5867: 5837: 5792: 5750: 5723: 5718: 5708: 5671: 4301: 3851: 3706: 3602: 3473: 3434: 3430: 3302: 3287: 3232: 2956: 2489: 2400: 2377: 2294:

out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in

2233: 2178: 1835: 1810: 1632: 1357: 1286: 1023: 896: 883: 862: 808: 797: 670: 623: 596: 500: 450: 338: 4676: 4115: – Geologic materials composed of broken fragments of volcanic rock 2636:

The form of the clasts can reflect the origin of the rock. For example,

2165:

have significant amounts of organic material, generally in excess of 3%

1879: 1691:

Muddy sandstones with abundant (>10%) muddy matrix are called wackes.

6589: 6574: 6549: 6544: 6454: 6439: 6356: 6324: 6289: 6279: 6261: 6241: 6186: 6166: 6121: 6043: 6028: 6004: 5964: 5937: 5917: 5887: 5847: 5822: 5812: 5807: 5787: 5696: 5337: 5312: 4643: 4607: 4562: 4131: 4028:

and broken down into finer grained sediment. All three types of rocks (

4025: 3886: 3866: 3833: 3782: 3725: 3489: 3457: 3414: 3240: 3224: 3001: 2975: 2909: 2888: 2841: 2803: 2789: 2697: 2663: 2629: 2574: 2346: 2299: 2238: 2210: 1962: 1954: 1758: 1726: 1492:. Note the very fine and flat bedding, common for deposits coming from 1289:). Sedimentation may also occur as dissolved minerals precipitate from 1282: 1270: 1215: 1118: 708: 532: 527: 313: 279: 111: 4289: 4277: 4048: 3554: 2967: 2561: 1620: 1391:

that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called

6604: 6594: 6584: 6569: 6539: 6519: 6504: 6499: 6464: 6459: 6418: 6411: 6376: 6346: 6331: 6309: 6251: 6231: 6226: 6216: 6201: 6181: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6136: 6126: 6101: 6066: 5979: 5947: 5892: 5882: 5857: 5832: 5827: 5767: 5728: 5691: 5577: 4412: 4388: 4175: 4173: 3847: 3829: 3702: 3590: 3583: 3548: 3520: 3446: 3422: 3396: 3356:

west of the peninsula. This is a perfect example of a shallow marine

3275: 3271: 3236: 3209: 3182: 3131: 3083: 3063: 3009: 2921: 2881: 2837: 2810: 2761: 2730: 2726: 2691: 2315: 2264: 2226: 2174: 2154: 2094: 2083: 2006: 1843: 1777: 1765: 1761: 1704: 1640: 1628: 1560: 1477: 1456: 1447: 1439: 1348:

or other structures. Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of

1246: 1008: 993: 977: 938: 703: 665: 601: 354: 3142: 2609:

value, since a rock is composed of clasts with different sizes. The

6579: 6554: 6479: 6449: 6444: 6366: 6351: 6319: 6299: 6196: 6171: 6048: 6023: 6016: 5994: 5989: 5942: 5877: 5762: 5713: 5703: 5661: 5088: 3917: 3752: 3519:, had intervening periods of aridity which resulted in a series of 3318: 3178: 3154: 3150: 3127: 2983: 2948: 2861: 2814: 2769: 2749: 2586: 2542: 2537: 2381: 2369: 2287: 2115: 1986: 1509: 1317:. Sedimentary rocks are often deposited in large structures called 1266: 1258: 1211: 928: 386: 227: 38: 4170: 3979:

That new rock layers are above older rock layers is stated in the

1753: 1520:. However, any type of mineral may be present. Clasts may also be 6599: 6529: 6494: 6469: 6401: 6236: 6176: 6116: 6081: 5974: 5902: 5817: 5777: 5745: 5740: 5656: 5611: 4804: 4767: 4509: 4352: 4328: 3913: 3806: 3748: 3714: 3469: 3109: 3059: 3028: 2987: 2707: 2637: 2582: 2416: 2373: 2303: 2149:). Evaporite rocks commonly include abundant halite (rock salt), 2022: 2010: 2002: 1966: 1950: 1851: 1785: 1720: 1576: 1568: 1556: 1485: 1396: 1310: 1274: 1238: 982: 972: 645: 618: 284: 167: 116: 5602:, by Lynn S. Fichter, James Madison University, Harrisonburg.VI; 1206: 6509: 6484: 6381: 6341: 6304: 6206: 6071: 5969: 5959: 5912: 5872: 5842: 5772: 5757: 5735: 5681: 5676: 3999: 3897: 3790: 3625: 3579: 3571: 3544: 3481: 3426: 3217: 3213: 3170: 3146: 2925: 2877: 2849: 2833: 2796: 2765: 2668: 2597: 2376:

sandstones their color is likely formed during eogenesis. Some

2150: 2134: 1946: 1859: 1855: 1847: 1839: 1814: 1799: 1708: 1580: 1572: 1532: 1505: 1341: 181: 132: 127: 4926: 4899: 3908: 3817:

and is usually filled by shallow marine deposits and molasse.

3691:

Places where large-scale sedimentation takes place are called

3421:

dramatically (the depth zone where this happens is called the

3051:

where tectonics have tilted or overturned sedimentary layers.

2512:

The color of a sedimentary rock is often mostly determined by

2237:

are composed of phosphate minerals and contain more than 6.5%

1780:

are formed from the calcareous skeletons of organisms such as

6474: 6396: 6391: 6256: 6221: 6141: 6096: 6091: 5359:

Press, F.; Siever, R.; Grotzinger, J.; Jordan, T. H. (2003).

5065: 4619: 4307: 4077: – classification system for carbonate sedimentary rocks 3995: 3890: 3617: 3575: 3485: 3461: 3453: 3384: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3201: 3197: 3087: 2940: 2917: 2913: 2445:

produces additional changes to the sedimentary rock, such as

2202: 1826:

Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral constituents in

1806: 1781: 1738: 1613: 1435: 1345: 1337: 1003: 998: 554: 549: 396: 186: 5554: 5403:

Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy

4424: 4265: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4137: 3793:. When the convergent movement of the two plates results in 3364:

The setting in which a sedimentary rock forms is called the

2829: 1985:. The sediment that makes up these rocks was transported as 6246: 6191: 6106: 6038: 5358: 4860: 4744: 4743:

For an overview of different sedimentary environments, see

4589: 4556: 4527: 4255: 4253: 3925: 3901: 3741: 3540: 3465: 3452:

The coast is an environment dominated by wave action. At a

3409: 3405: 3401: 3228: 3113: 2753: 2738: 2513: 2396: 2360:

of the sediments. Early stages of diagenesis, described as

2276: 2206: 2170: 1871: 1795: 1564: 1548: 1544: 1536: 1517: 1493: 1353: 1333: 1223: 906: 901: 495: 191: 162: 157: 152: 5310: 5304:

10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[3395:SFOEAS]2.0.CO;2

5241: 5202:

Sedimentary Basins, Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget

4295: 4283: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4143: 3990:

Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the

3023:

formed by a current in a sandstone that was later tilted (

2887:

As a part of a sedimentary rock, fossils undergo the same

2480:, a type of rock that consists of alternating layers with 1500:

Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of rock fragments (

1269:(organic matter). The geological detritus originated from 27:

Rock formed by the deposition and cementation of particles

5606:

Sedimentary Rocks Tour, introduction to sedimentary rocks

5159: 4792: 4731: 4719: 4707: 4695: 4682: 4670: 4601: 4185: 3994:. They contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient 3809:

and has either a shallow marine or a continental facies.

3543:(where the dominant deposition is well sorted sand) or a 3380: 3062:. A bed is defined as a layer of rock that has a uniform 2935:

of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which

2748:. In this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by 2659:

describes the general smoothness of the shape of a grain.

1543:(<1/16 mm diameter). Mud is further divided into 1540: 1473: 1365: 5519:

10.1130/0016-7606(1978)89<19:DIFDAO>2.0.CO;2

4916: 4914: 4828: 4816: 4461: 4376: 4250: 3717:

removes material. Where the lithosphere moves downward (

2809:

Dead organisms in nature are usually quickly removed by

2737:. Both the cement and the clasts (including fossils and 2221:

are composed of >15% iron; the most common forms are

1656:

used in the naming of the rock, regardless of abundance.

4229: 2437:

Unroofing of buried sedimentary rock is accompanied by

4887: 4497: 4318: 4316: 3744:

grows and the sea can enter, forming marine deposits.

3290:

on the surface where they broke through upper layers.

1997:. Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are subdivided into 1937: 1681:

Abundance of muddy matrix material between sand grains

4911: 4760:

For a definition of shallow marine environments, see

4485: 3983:. There are usually some gaps in the sequence called 3441:, the sedimentary cover can become unstable, causing 2667:

describes the degree to which the grain approaches a

1870:

This fourth miscellaneous category includes volcanic

1237:

that are formed by the accumulation or deposition of

5000: 4876:

For a short explanation of Milankovitch cycles, see

4649: 4613: 4568: 4552: 4533: 4418: 4394: 4340: 4179: 4079:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

4044: 3504:, while sediment transported by a glacier is called 3035:

Structures in sedimentary rocks can be divided into

2524:. Iron(II) oxide (FeO) only forms under low oxygen ( 2254: 1296:

The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the

4631: 4473: 4400: 4364: 4313: 4207: 4205: 4097: – List of rock types recognized by geologists 3840: 3652:

A regressive facies shown on a stratigraphic column

3137: 2679:

describes the three-dimensional shape of the grain.

5525: 5471: 5160:Collinson, J.; Mountney, N.; Thompson, D. (2006). 4932: 4436: 4160: 4158: 3797:, the basin becomes shallower and develops into a 3124:currents reverse directions, such as tidal flats. 2492:, when the atmosphere was not yet rich in oxygen. 1913:Steeply dipping sedimentary rock strata along the 1898:Sedimentary rocks on Mars, investigated by NASA's 1403:and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the 4785:For an overview of continental environments, see 3896:In many cases, sedimentation occurs slowly. In a 3701:. The depth, shape and size of a basin depend on 3551:(the type of rock) and facies eventually change. 3054:Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called 2962: 1426: 6622: 5496: 5281: 4859:For an overview of sedimentary basin types, see 4430: 4271: 4202: 4091: – List of minerals with Knowledge articles 3781:moves under another into the asthenosphere. The 3638: 3379:environment means that the rock was formed in a 2249: 1748: 4950:Andersen, B. G. & Borns, H. W. Jr. (1994). 4942: 4217: 4155: 3936:. From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the 3759:. Examples of sag basins are the regions along 2596:The 3D orientation of the clasts is called the 1309:. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as 5469: 5381: 4969:Baker, Victor R.; Nummedal, Dag, eds. (1978). 4877: 4810: 4773: 4661:For a short description of trace fossils, see 4625: 4585: 4515: 4358: 4334: 4196: 3721:), a basin forms and sediments are deposited. 2702:Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz ( 2325: 1496:beds further away from the source of sediment. 5627: 5267:(3rd ed.). Saunders College Publishing. 5138: 5103: 5001:Blatt, H.; Middleton, G.; Murray, R. (1980). 4968: 4949: 4905: 4798: 4580:For an explanation about graded bedding, see 4259: 4149: 3464:are places that sometimes dry because of the 3297:Density contrasts can also cause small-scale 2070:), and other carbonate minerals based on the 1821: 1589: 1187: 5470:Tarbuck, E. J. & Lutgens, F. K. (1999). 5045:Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy 5026:Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy 3801:. At the same time, tectonic uplift forms a 3324: 3149:crystal mold in dolomite, Paadla Formation ( 3108:The surface of a particular bed, called the 3008:on the base of a vertical layer of Triassic 1838:. Common chemical sedimentary rocks include 1665:Quartz sandstones have >90% quartz grains 1462: 1321:. Sedimentary rocks have also been found on 5193:10.1306/74D71109-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D 5153:10.1306/5D25C98B-16C1-11D7-8645000102C1865D 3558:Shifting sedimentary facies in the case of 3508:and is characterized by very poor sorting. 2488:(grey). BIFs were mostly formed during the 5634: 5620: 5474:Earth, an introduction to Physical Geology 5382:Prothero, Donald R.; Schwab, Fred (2004). 3039:structures (formed during deposition) and 2784:Fossil-rich layers in a sedimentary rock, 1865: 1194: 1180: 5336: 5244:"Heat, time, pressure, and coalification" 4109: – Limestone containing many fossils 3944:, cliff-forming, vertically jointed, red 3262:After deposition, physical processes can 2725:Carbonate rocks predominantly consist of 5386:(2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. 5047:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: 4015: 3907: 3819: 3667: 3553: 3339: 3328: 3192: 3141: 3015: 2996: 2966: 2828: 2779: 2690: 2619: 2560: 2471: 2329: 2258: 2189:are almost entirely composed of silica ( 1941: 1752: 1619: 1607: 1472: 1430: 1205: 5423: 5400: 5199: 4920: 4893: 4881: 4864: 4847: 4834: 4822: 4748: 4732:Collinson, Mountney & Thompson 2006 4720:Collinson, Mountney & Thompson 2006 4708:Collinson, Mountney & Thompson 2006 4696:Collinson, Mountney & Thompson 2006 4683:Collinson, Mountney & Thompson 2006 4671:Collinson, Mountney & Thompson 2006 4662: 4602:Collinson, Mountney & Thompson 2006 4551:For descriptions of cross-bedding, see 4491: 4467: 3372:), but also on the environment itself. 2951:. This form of fossilisation is called 2569:(left) and poorly sorted (right) grains 1798:, formed from plants that have removed 14: 6623: 5558:Geological Society of America Bulletin 5284:Geological Society of America Bulletin 4065: – Geophysical analysis technique 3875: 3863:ice ages of the past 2.6 million years 3709:. Where the lithosphere moves upward ( 3223:Secondary structures can also form by 2931:At high pressure and temperature, the 5615: 5593:Basic Sedimentary Rock Classification 5262: 5104:Buchner, K. & Grapes, R. (2011). 5042: 5023: 4786: 4761: 4666: 4637: 4581: 4539: 4503: 4479: 4406: 4382: 4370: 4346: 4322: 4244: 4211: 3657: 3530: 2298:. This sediment is often formed when 2245:, bone beds, and phosphatic mudrocks. 1583:, respectively, in older literature. 1547:(1/16 to 1/256 mm diameter) and 1332:, for example in the construction of 5446: 5248:Earth Resources -- Our Common Wealth 5222: 5178: 4455: 4442: 4223: 4164: 3962:Glen Canyon National Recreation Area 2516:, an element with two major oxides: 2320:sedimentary depositional environment 5242:Kentucky Geological Survey (2020). 3773:A third type of basin exists along 3582:; facies determined by fossils are 1938:Classification based on composition 1612:Sedimentary rock with sandstone in 1524:composed of more than one mineral. 24: 5641: 5164:(3rd ed.). Terra Publishing. 4650:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 4614:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 4569:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 4553:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 4419:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 4395:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 4180:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 3321:forces acting on lithified rocks. 2263:Cross-bedding and scour in a fine 1635:are the primary weathering agents. 1627:was carved out of the surrounding 1539:(1/16 to 2 mm diameter), and 25: 6652: 5586: 5110:Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks 4954:. Scandinavian University Press. 2449:of some of the cement to produce 2393:overburden (lithostatic) pressure 2255:Sediment transport and deposition 5181:Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 4047: 3841:Influence of astronomical cycles 3645: 3138:Secondary sedimentary structures 2387:Deeper burial is accompanied by 2380:processes, like the activity of 2213:or other microcrystalline forms. 1922: 1906: 1891: 1395:. Sedimentology is part of both 1161: 1160: 45: 4870: 4853: 4840: 4779: 4754: 4737: 4688: 4655: 4574: 4545: 4448: 4296:Kentucky Geological Survey 2020 3968: 3828:and less competent beds in the 3705:, movements within the Earth's 2241:; examples include deposits of 1978:Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks 1651:Composition of framework grains 575:Microbial calcite precipitation 5449:Sedimentary Rocks in the Field 5226:Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks 4933:Weltje & von Eynatten 2004 4272:Walker, Waugh & Grone 1978 3468:. They are often cross-cut by 3049:which side originally faced up 2963:Primary sedimentary structures 2162:Organic-rich sedimentary rocks 1427:Classification based on origin 13: 1: 4119: 4005: 3732:and thinned, so that the hot 3639:Gallery of sedimentary facies 3082:seasonal changes (similar to 2686: 2467: 2250:Deposition and transformation 2102:(calcite and others based on 2082:ion. Common examples include 1981:, are dominantly composed of 1749:Biochemical sedimentary rocks 1737:particles. Most authors use " 1603: 1459:, and other minor processes. 1313:, forming a structure called 1281:, which are called agents of 290:Aeolian (windborne) transport 5548:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2004.05.007 4943:General and cited references 4431:Margolis & Krinsley 1971 4124: 3286:. The same process can form 2234:Phosphatic sedimentary rocks 2118:(halite and others built on 7: 5122:10.1007/978-3-540-74169-5_2 5003:Origin of Sedimentary Rocks 4040: 3775:convergent plate boundaries 3597:), when the surface rises ( 3185:. This burrowing is called 2326:Transformation (Diagenesis) 2218:Iron-rich sedimentary rocks 2186:Siliceous sedimentary rocks 2095:Evaporite sedimentary rocks 2037:), aragonite (orthorhombic 2018:Carbonate sedimentary rocks 1714: 1559:are made mostly of gravel, 1082:cross-cutting relationships 631:Amorphous calcium carbonate 10: 6657: 4878:Tarbuck & Lutgens 1999 4811:Tarbuck & Lutgens 1999 4774:Tarbuck & Lutgens 1999 4626:Tarbuck & Lutgens 1999 4586:Tarbuck & Lutgens 1999 4516:Tarbuck & Lutgens 1999 4359:Tarbuck & Lutgens 1999 4335:Tarbuck & Lutgens 1999 4197:Prothero & Schwab 2004 4009: 3981:principle of superposition 3972: 3948:, slope-forming, purplish 3930:Capitol Reef National Park 3905:shortly after deposition. 3661: 3517:Northwestern United States 2924:(especially calcite), and 2794: 2775: 2746:Goldich dissolution series 2729:minerals such as calcite, 2556: 2344: 2169:. Common examples include 1822:Chemical sedimentary rocks 1718: 1638: 1593: 1590:Conglomerates and breccias 1535:(>2 mm diameter), 1466: 656:Coastal sediment transport 6432: 6270: 6057: 5647: 5430:W. H. Freeman and Company 5365:W. H. Freeman and Company 5028:(1st ed.). Merrill. 4906:Andersen & Borns 1994 4799:Baker & Nummedal 1978 4555:, pp. 128, 135–136; 4260:Choquette & Pray 1970 4150:Buchner & Grapes 2011 3934:Canyonlands National Park 3335:depositional environments 3325:Depositional environments 2498:Barberton Greenstone Belt 2460:, the process that forms 1463:Clastic sedimentary rocks 1261:, and may be composed of 466:Soft-sediment deformation 63:Terrigenous (lithogenous) 5250:. University of Kentucky 4020:Distribution of detritus 3960:sandstone. Picture from 3785:plate bends and forms a 3366:depositional environment 3358:depositional environment 3206:Middle Lefkara Formation 2980:Middle Old Red Sandstone 2876:, examples of which are 2611:statistical distribution 2507: 2181:for oil and natural gas. 1438:(Ayers Rock) is a large 767:calcareous nannoplankton 456:Sediment–water interface 5687:Basaltic trachyandesite 5667:Alkali feldspar granite 5447:Stow, D. A. V. (2005). 5424:Stanley, S. M. (1999). 5401:Reading, H. G. (1996). 3952:, layered, lighter-red 2786:Año Nuevo State Reserve 2720:petrographic microscope 1965:) age, in limestone in 1931:Puʻu Mahana cinder cone 1866:Other sedimentary rocks 661:Coastal sediment supply 434:Paleocurrent indicators 5265:The Earth through time 5162:Sedimentary Structures 5069:The Journal of Geology 5043:Boggs, S. Jr. (2006). 5024:Boggs, S. Jr. (1987). 4669:, pp. 93–95; and 4021: 3965: 3837: 3824:Cyclic alternation of 3688: 3567: 3361: 3337: 3227:or the formation of a 3220: 3158: 3045:Sedimentary structures 3032: 3013: 2994: 2959:like lignite or coal. 2864: 2846:San Vincente Formation 2792: 2699: 2633: 2570: 2504: 2342: 2279: 2223:banded iron formations 1995:sediment gravity flows 1969: 1929:Stratified remains of 1842:and rocks composed of 1769: 1636: 1617: 1596:Conglomerate (geology) 1497: 1451: 1227: 1092:original horizontality 762:biogenic calcification 612:oolitic aragonite sand 382:Sedimentary structures 223:Oolitic aragonite sand 6077:Banded iron formation 5317:Nature Communications 5263:Levin, H. L. (1987). 5049:Pearson Prentice Hall 4694:For concretions, see 4138:Wilkinson et al. 2008 4075:Dunham classification 4019: 3956:, and white, layered 3924:area of southeastern 3911: 3823: 3795:continental collision 3671: 3557: 3500:and is almost always 3343: 3332: 3274:, formed by inverted 3257:septarian concretions 3196: 3145: 3019: 3000: 2970: 2832: 2783: 2694: 2623: 2564: 2478:banded iron formation 2475: 2333: 2275:) of Jackson County, 2262: 1945: 1756: 1625:Lower Antelope Canyon 1623: 1611: 1482:Glacial Lake Missoula 1476: 1434: 1389:scientific discipline 1218:(brown rocks above), 1209: 5426:Earth System History 5223:Folk, R. L. (1965). 5200:Einsele, G. (2000). 4880:, pp. 322–323; 4863:, pp. 187–189; 4584:, pp. 143–144; 4069:Deposition (geology) 4012:Provenance (geology) 3992:history of the Earth 3920:stratigraphy of the 2889:diagenetic processes 2624:Diagram showing the 2322:in which it formed. 2167:total organic carbon 2137:and others built on 1900:Curiosity Mars rover 5570:2009GSAB..121..760W 5540:2004SedG..171....1W 5528:Sedimentary Geology 5511:1978GSAB...89...19W 5361:Understanding Earth 5329:2015NatCo...6.6277P 5296:1971GSAB...82.3395M 5106:"Metamorphic Rocks" 5081:2001JG....109..363B 4813:, pp. 158–160. 4776:, pp. 452–453. 4734:, pp. 202–203. 4722:, pp. 193–194. 4710:, pp. 183–185. 4698:, pp. 206–215. 4673:, pp. 216–232. 4652:, pp. 136–154. 4616:, pp. 155–157. 4571:, pp. 133–135. 4559:, pp. 171–172. 4518:, pp. 160–161. 4385:, pp. 112–115. 4361:, pp. 156–157. 4337:, pp. 145–146. 4247:, pp. 147–154. 3876:Sedimentation rates 3856:Milankovitch cycles 3777:– places where one 3764:continental margins 3719:tectonic subsidence 3698:accommodation space 3280:pore fluid pressure 1768:), northern Estonia 1563:are made mostly of 1267:biological detritus 1263:geological detritus 892:Soil carbon storage 827:Sedimentary ecology 749:Biogenous sediments 33:Part of a series on 6433:Specific varieties 5598:2011-07-23 at the 5451:. Burlington, MA: 5338:10.1038/ncomms7277 5116:. pp. 21–56. 4284:Picard et al. 2015 4101:Sediment transport 4095:List of rock types 4032:, sedimentary and 4022: 3966: 3954:Moenkopi Formation 3838: 3836:, southern England 3693:sedimentary basins 3689: 3658:Sedimentary basins 3568: 3566:of the sea (below) 3537:sedimentary facies 3531:Sedimentary facies 3443:turbidity currents 3439:continental slopes 3362: 3338: 3221: 3159: 3103:turbidity currents 3101:characteristic of 3033: 3014: 2995: 2865: 2793: 2716:optical mineralogy 2700: 2634: 2571: 2505: 2451:secondary porosity 2343: 2280: 1970: 1846:minerals, such as 1834:and inorganically 1770: 1741:" as a term for a 1637: 1618: 1498: 1452: 1444:Northern Territory 1421:structural geology 1401:physical geography 1319:sedimentary basins 1228: 1134:carbonate-silicate 1104:Sedimentary record 1087:lateral continuity 884:Sedimentary carbon 814:Reverse weathering 793:diatomaceous earth 476:Vegetation-induced 360:Turbidity currents 334:ice-sheet dynamics 264:Sediment transport 255:Sedimentary budget 6631:Sedimentary rocks 6618: 6617: 5863:Nepheline syenite 5462:978-1-874545-69-9 5407:Blackwell Science 5131:978-3-540-74168-8 5058:978-0-13-154728-5 4952:The Ice Age World 4908:, pp. 29=32. 4884:, pp. 14–15. 4861:Press et al. 2003 4850:, pp. 22–33. 4837:, pp. 20–21. 4825:, pp. 19–20. 4745:Press et al. 2003 4604:, pp. 46–52. 4590:Press et al. 2003 4557:Press et al. 2003 4528:Press et al. 2003 4506:, pp. 92–93. 4470:, pp. 60–61. 4458:, pp. 62–64. 4421:, pp. 75–80. 4397:, pp. 55–58. 4308:Brime et al. 2001 3946:Wingate Sandstone 3942:Kayenta Formation 3738:volcanic deposits 3664:Sedimentary basin 3525:aeolian processes 3515:, located in the 3513:Touchet Formation 3393:continental shelf 3354:continental shelf 3350:Yucatan Peninsula 3307:continental slope 3284:sedimentary dykes 2902:permineralization 2409:pressure solution 2335:Pressure solution 2243:phosphate nodules 1983:silicate minerals 1876:volcanic breccias 1840:oolitic limestone 1616:, southern Europe 1350:natural resources 1330:civil engineering 1307:metamorphic rocks 1231:Sedimentary rocks 1204: 1203: 854:Soil biodiversity 730:Sedimentary basin 683:Marine regression 461:Sedimentary basin 324:Fluvial processes 295:Biomineralization 214:Manganese nodules 18:Sedimentary rocks 16:(Redirected from 6648: 6560:Rapakivi granite 6272:Metamorphic rock 6059:Sedimentary rock 5928:Quartz monzonite 5636: 5629: 5622: 5613: 5612: 5581: 5578:10.1130/B26457.1 5564:(5–6): 760–779. 5551: 5522: 5493: 5478:(6th ed.). 5477: 5466: 5443: 5420: 5405:(3rd ed.). 5397: 5378: 5363:(4th ed.). 5350: 5340: 5307: 5278: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5238: 5233:. Archived from 5219: 5204:(2nd ed.). 5196: 5175: 5156: 5135: 5100: 5062: 5039: 5020: 4997: 4995: 4994: 4985:. Archived from 4965: 4936: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4909: 4903: 4897: 4891: 4885: 4874: 4868: 4857: 4851: 4844: 4838: 4832: 4826: 4820: 4814: 4808: 4802: 4796: 4790: 4789:, pp. 67–68 4783: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4758: 4752: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4711: 4705: 4699: 4692: 4686: 4680: 4674: 4659: 4653: 4647: 4641: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4593: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4560: 4549: 4543: 4537: 4531: 4525: 4519: 4513: 4507: 4501: 4495: 4489: 4483: 4477: 4471: 4465: 4459: 4452: 4446: 4440: 4434: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4320: 4311: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4287: 4281: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4257: 4248: 4242: 4227: 4221: 4215: 4209: 4200: 4194: 4183: 4177: 4168: 4162: 4153: 4147: 4141: 4135: 4107:Shelly limestone 4089:List of minerals 4080: 4057: 4052: 4051: 3958:Cutler Formation 3950:Chinle Formation 3938:Navajo Sandstone 3922:Colorado Plateau 3649: 3502:very well sorted 3333:Common types of 3268:flame structures 3173:are examples of 2992:Shetland Islands 2933:organic material 2906:amorphous silica 2565:Diagram showing 2462:metamorphic rock 2413:organic material 2286:are formed when 2201:), typically as 2200: 2199: 2198: 2148: 2147: 2146: 2128: 2127: 2126: 2113: 2112: 2111: 2081: 2080: 2079: 2069: 2068: 2067: 2059: 2058: 2048: 2047: 2046: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2021:are composed of 1926: 1917:in northern Iran 1910: 1895: 1522:lithic fragments 1381:paleoclimatology 1220:Virgin Formation 1196: 1189: 1182: 1169: 1164: 1163: 921:Sedimentary rock 676:pelagic red clay 641:Continental rise 49: 30: 29: 21: 6656: 6655: 6651: 6650: 6649: 6647: 6646: 6645: 6621: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6428: 6372:Pseudotachylite 6266: 6053: 5985:Tephriphonolite 5643: 5640: 5600:Wayback Machine 5589: 5584: 5490: 5463: 5440: 5417: 5394: 5375: 5275: 5253: 5251: 5216: 5172: 5132: 5059: 5036: 5017: 4992: 4990: 4983: 4962: 4945: 4940: 4939: 4931: 4927: 4919: 4912: 4904: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4875: 4871: 4867:, pp. 3–9. 4858: 4854: 4845: 4841: 4833: 4829: 4821: 4817: 4809: 4805: 4797: 4793: 4784: 4780: 4772: 4768: 4759: 4755: 4742: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4718: 4714: 4706: 4702: 4693: 4689: 4681: 4677: 4660: 4656: 4648: 4644: 4636: 4632: 4624: 4620: 4612: 4608: 4600: 4596: 4588:, p. 161; 4579: 4575: 4567: 4563: 4550: 4546: 4538: 4534: 4526: 4522: 4514: 4510: 4502: 4498: 4490: 4486: 4478: 4474: 4466: 4462: 4453: 4449: 4441: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4381: 4377: 4369: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4345: 4341: 4333: 4329: 4321: 4314: 4306: 4302: 4294: 4290: 4282: 4278: 4270: 4266: 4258: 4251: 4243: 4230: 4222: 4218: 4210: 4203: 4195: 4186: 4178: 4171: 4163: 4156: 4148: 4144: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4113:Volcaniclastics 4078: 4053: 4046: 4043: 4014: 4008: 3977: 3971: 3878: 3843: 3751:rises, causing 3711:tectonic uplift 3673:Plate tectonics 3666: 3660: 3653: 3650: 3641: 3633:palaeogeography 3533: 3327: 3200:concretions in 3164:way up criteria 3140: 2965: 2898:vascular tissue 2799: 2778: 2712:carbonate rocks 2689: 2645:Surface texture 2559: 2535: 2531: 2522:iron(III) oxide 2510: 2482:iron(III) oxide 2470: 2349: 2328: 2269:Logan Formation 2257: 2252: 2197: 2194: 2193: 2192: 2190: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2140: 2138: 2125: 2123: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2110: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2103: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2073: 2071: 2066: 2063: 2062: 2061: 2057: 2054: 2053: 2052: 2050: 2045: 2042: 2041: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2028: 2026: 1959:Late Cretaceous 1940: 1933: 1927: 1918: 1911: 1902: 1896: 1880:impact breccias 1868: 1824: 1751: 1723: 1717: 1643: 1606: 1598: 1592: 1529:Udden-Wentworth 1471: 1465: 1429: 1385:history of life 1377:palaeogeography 1373:Earth's history 1247:Earth's surface 1222:, southwestern 1200: 1159: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1074:Legacy sediment 1043: 1035: 1034: 1033: 989: 966: 950: 923: 913: 912: 911: 886: 876: 875: 874: 868:root microbiome 858: 828: 820: 819: 818: 804: 783:biogenic silica 773: 757:Calcareous ooze 751: 741: 740: 739: 720: 694: 591: 589:Marine sediment 581: 580: 579: 490: 482: 481: 480: 376: 366: 365: 364: 345: 304: 275: 259: 244: 234: 233: 232: 218: 208: 200: 199: 198: 174: 146: 124: 107: 92: 84: 83: 82: 72: 57: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6654: 6644: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6616: 6615: 6613: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6565:Rhomb porphyry 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6436: 6434: 6430: 6429: 6427: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6415: 6414: 6407:Talc carbonate 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6328: 6327: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6276: 6274: 6268: 6267: 6265: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6063: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6020: 6019: 6009: 6008: 6007: 6000:Trachyandesite 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5950: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5923:Quartz diorite 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5754: 5753: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5732: 5731: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5700: 5699: 5694: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5653: 5651: 5645: 5644: 5642:Types of rocks 5639: 5638: 5631: 5624: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5603: 5588: 5587:External links 5585: 5583: 5582: 5552: 5523: 5494: 5488: 5467: 5461: 5453:Academic Press 5444: 5438: 5421: 5415: 5398: 5392: 5379: 5373: 5352: 5351: 5308: 5279: 5273: 5260: 5239: 5237:on 2011-03-25. 5220: 5214: 5197: 5187:(3): 625–632. 5176: 5170: 5157: 5136: 5130: 5101: 5089:10.1086/319978 5075:(3): 363–379. 5063: 5057: 5040: 5034: 5021: 5015: 4998: 4981: 4966: 4960: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4925: 4910: 4898: 4896:, p. 536. 4886: 4869: 4852: 4839: 4827: 4815: 4803: 4791: 4778: 4766: 4753: 4736: 4724: 4712: 4700: 4687: 4685:, p. 215. 4675: 4665:, p. 62; 4654: 4642: 4630: 4628:, p. 162. 4618: 4606: 4594: 4592:, p. 172. 4573: 4561: 4544: 4542:, p. 138. 4532: 4530:, p. 171. 4520: 4508: 4496: 4484: 4472: 4460: 4447: 4435: 4423: 4411: 4399: 4387: 4375: 4363: 4351: 4349:, p. 105. 4339: 4327: 4312: 4300: 4288: 4276: 4264: 4249: 4228: 4216: 4201: 4184: 4182:, p. 782. 4169: 4154: 4142: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4117: 4116: 4110: 4104: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4081: 4072: 4066: 4063:Back-stripping 4059: 4058: 4055:Geology portal 4042: 4039: 4010:Main article: 4007: 4004: 3985:unconformities 3973:Main article: 3970: 3967: 3940:, layered red 3883:mass movements 3877: 3874: 3842: 3839: 3815:back-arc basin 3799:foreland basin 3787:fore-arc basin 3779:tectonic plate 3768:vicious circle 3677:back-arc basin 3662:Main article: 3659: 3656: 3655: 3654: 3651: 3644: 3640: 3637: 3532: 3529: 3346:Gulf of Mexico 3326: 3323: 3139: 3136: 3134:along rivers. 3098:Graded bedding 2964: 2961: 2945:carbon dioxide 2795:Main article: 2777: 2774: 2688: 2685: 2681: 2680: 2672: 2660: 2652: 2649:frosted grains 2606:calcareous mud 2558: 2555: 2533: 2529: 2518:iron(II) oxide 2509: 2506: 2486:iron(II) oxide 2469: 2466: 2443:meteoric water 2405:connate fluids 2345:Main article: 2327: 2324: 2256: 2253: 2251: 2248: 2247: 2246: 2230: 2214: 2195: 2182: 2158: 2143: 2124: 2108: 2091: 2076: 2064: 2055: 2043: 2031: 2025:(rhombohedral 2014: 1991:suspended load 1939: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1928: 1921: 1919: 1912: 1905: 1903: 1897: 1890: 1867: 1864: 1832:supersaturated 1823: 1820: 1819: 1818: 1803: 1793: 1776:Most types of 1750: 1747: 1727:turbulent flow 1719:Main article: 1716: 1713: 1697: 1696: 1695: 1694: 1693: 1692: 1689: 1677: 1676: 1675: 1674: 1673: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1658: 1657: 1653: 1639:Main article: 1633:flash flooding 1605: 1602: 1594:Main article: 1591: 1588: 1467:Main article: 1464: 1461: 1428: 1425: 1405:Earth sciences 1362:drinking water 1291:water solution 1265:(minerals) or 1249:, followed by 1202: 1201: 1199: 1198: 1191: 1184: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1141:Paleolimnology 1138: 1137: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1076: 1071: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1045: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 990: 988: 987: 986: 985: 980: 975: 967: 965: 964: 963: 962: 951: 949: 948: 947: 946: 941: 931: 925: 924: 919: 918: 915: 914: 910: 909: 904: 899: 894: 888: 887: 882: 881: 878: 877: 873: 872: 871: 870: 859: 857: 856: 851: 846: 844:soil pathogens 841: 836: 834:Soil biomantle 830: 829: 826: 825: 822: 821: 817: 816: 811: 805: 803: 802: 801: 800: 795: 790: 788:silicification 785: 778:Siliceous ooze 774: 772: 771: 770: 769: 764: 753: 752: 747: 746: 743: 742: 738: 737: 732: 727: 725:Salt tectonics 721: 719: 718: 717: 716: 711: 706: 695: 693: 692: 691: 690: 680: 679: 678: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 633: 628: 627: 626: 616: 615: 614: 609: 599: 593: 592: 587: 586: 583: 582: 578: 577: 572: 570:Mineralization 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 537: 536: 535: 530: 525: 515: 514: 513: 508: 503: 492: 491: 488: 487: 484: 483: 479: 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 447: 446: 441: 431: 426: 421: 419:Alluvial river 416: 411: 410: 409: 404: 402:graded bedding 399: 394: 384: 378: 377: 372: 371: 368: 367: 363: 362: 357: 352: 346: 344: 343: 342: 341: 336: 326: 321: 319:Exner equation 316: 311: 305: 303: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 276: 274: 273: 272: 271: 260: 258: 257: 252: 246: 245: 240: 239: 236: 235: 231: 230: 225: 219: 217: 216: 210: 209: 207:By composition 206: 205: 202: 201: 197: 196: 195: 194: 189: 184: 175: 173: 172: 171: 170: 165: 160: 155: 147: 145: 144: 143: 142: 141: 140: 135: 125: 119: 108: 106: 105: 100: 94: 93: 90: 89: 86: 85: 81: 80: 77: 73: 71: 70: 65: 59: 58: 55: 54: 51: 50: 42: 41: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6653: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6525:Litchfieldite 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6490:Hyaloclastite 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6437: 6435: 6431: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6413: 6410: 6409: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6337:Litchfieldite 6335: 6333: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6277: 6275: 6273: 6269: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6062: 6060: 6056: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6003: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5898:Phonotephrite 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5803:Hyaloclastite 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5752: 5749: 5748: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5730: 5727: 5726: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5637: 5632: 5630: 5625: 5623: 5618: 5617: 5614: 5607: 5604: 5601: 5597: 5594: 5591: 5590: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5534:(1–4): 1–11. 5533: 5529: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5495: 5491: 5489:0-13-011201-1 5485: 5481: 5480:Prentice Hall 5476: 5475: 5468: 5464: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5445: 5441: 5439:0-7167-2882-6 5435: 5431: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5416:0-632-03627-3 5412: 5408: 5404: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5374:0-7167-9617-1 5370: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5356: 5355: 5354:</ref> 5348: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5280: 5276: 5274:0-03-008912-3 5270: 5266: 5261: 5249: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5227: 5221: 5217: 5215:3-540-66193-X 5211: 5207: 5203: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5177: 5173: 5171:1-903544-19-X 5167: 5163: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5141:AAPG Bulletin 5137: 5133: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5060: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5041: 5037: 5035:0-675-20487-9 5031: 5027: 5022: 5018: 5016:0-13-642710-3 5012: 5008: 5007:Prentice-Hall 5004: 4999: 4989:on 2016-08-18 4988: 4984: 4982:0-88192-590-X 4978: 4974: 4973: 4967: 4963: 4961:82-00-37683-4 4957: 4953: 4948: 4947: 4934: 4929: 4923:, p. 17. 4922: 4917: 4915: 4907: 4902: 4895: 4890: 4883: 4879: 4873: 4866: 4862: 4856: 4849: 4843: 4836: 4831: 4824: 4819: 4812: 4807: 4800: 4795: 4788: 4782: 4775: 4770: 4763: 4757: 4750: 4746: 4740: 4733: 4728: 4721: 4716: 4709: 4704: 4697: 4691: 4684: 4679: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4658: 4651: 4646: 4640:, p. 62. 4639: 4634: 4627: 4622: 4615: 4610: 4603: 4598: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4577: 4570: 4565: 4558: 4554: 4548: 4541: 4536: 4529: 4524: 4517: 4512: 4505: 4500: 4494:, p. 61. 4493: 4488: 4482:, p. 92. 4481: 4476: 4469: 4464: 4457: 4451: 4445:, p. 62. 4444: 4439: 4432: 4427: 4420: 4415: 4409:, p. 60. 4408: 4403: 4396: 4391: 4384: 4379: 4373:, p. 58. 4372: 4367: 4360: 4355: 4348: 4343: 4336: 4331: 4325:, p. 57. 4324: 4319: 4317: 4309: 4304: 4297: 4292: 4285: 4280: 4273: 4268: 4261: 4256: 4254: 4246: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4225: 4220: 4213: 4208: 4206: 4198: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4181: 4176: 4174: 4166: 4161: 4159: 4152:, p. 24. 4151: 4146: 4139: 4134: 4130: 4114: 4111: 4108: 4105: 4102: 4099: 4096: 4093: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4076: 4073: 4070: 4067: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4045: 4038: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4018: 4013: 4003: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3988: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3910: 3906: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3864: 3859: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3822: 3818: 3816: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3803:mountain belt 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3769: 3765: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3734:asthenosphere 3731: 3727: 3722: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3699: 3694: 3686: 3685:oceanic basin 3682: 3681:forearc basin 3678: 3674: 3670: 3665: 3648: 3643: 3642: 3636: 3634: 3629: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3614:transgression 3610: 3608: 3607:Walther's Law 3604: 3600: 3599:transgression 3596: 3592: 3587: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3565: 3561: 3560:transgression 3556: 3552: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3528: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3494:alluvial fans 3491: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3418: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3397:wave activity 3394: 3390: 3389:abyssal plain 3386: 3382: 3378: 3373: 3371: 3367: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3336: 3331: 3322: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3289: 3288:mud volcanoes 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3175:trace fossils 3172: 3167: 3165: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3135: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3106: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3093: 3089: 3086:) are called 3085: 3079: 3077: 3076:cross-bedding 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2972:Cross-bedding 2969: 2960: 2958: 2954: 2953:carbonisation 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2929: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2894:blood vessels 2890: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2874:trace fossils 2870: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2805: 2804:magnification 2798: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2773: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2758:clay minerals 2755: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2704:siliciclastic 2698: 2693: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2673: 2670: 2666: 2665: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2650: 2646: 2643: 2642: 2641: 2639: 2631: 2627: 2622: 2618: 2616: 2612: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2568: 2563: 2554: 2551: 2546: 2544: 2539: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2494:Moodies Group 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2476:A piece of a 2474: 2465: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2424:precipitation 2420: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2358:lithification 2355: 2348: 2340: 2337:at work in a 2336: 2332: 2323: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2278: 2274: 2273:Mississippian 2270: 2266: 2261: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2235: 2231: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2219: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2188: 2187: 2183: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2156: 2152: 2136: 2132: 2117: 2101: 2097: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2086:and the rock 2085: 2049:), dolomite ( 2024: 2020: 2019: 2015: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1999:conglomerates 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1974: 1973: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1932: 1925: 1920: 1916: 1909: 1904: 1901: 1894: 1889: 1888: 1887: 1885: 1884:impact events 1882:formed after 1881: 1877: 1873: 1863: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1850:(rock salt), 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1801: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1767: 1763: 1760: 1755: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1722: 1712: 1710: 1706: 1701: 1690: 1687: 1686: 1684: 1683: 1682: 1679: 1678: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1648: 1647: 1642: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1615: 1610: 1601: 1597: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1553:conglomerates 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1514:clay minerals 1511: 1507: 1503: 1495: 1491: 1490:United States 1487: 1483: 1480:deposited in 1479: 1475: 1470: 1460: 1458: 1449: 1445: 1442:formation in 1441: 1437: 1433: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1413:geomorphology 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1393:sedimentology 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1298:Earth's crust 1294: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1279:mass movement 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1255:Sedimentation 1252: 1248: 1245:particles at 1244: 1240: 1236: 1233:are types of 1232: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1185: 1183: 1178: 1177: 1175: 1174: 1168: 1158: 1157: 1156: 1155: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1110: 1109:Sedimentology 1107: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1047: 1046: 1039: 1038: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 991: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 970: 969: 968: 961: 958: 957: 956: 953: 952: 945: 942: 940: 937: 936: 935: 932: 930: 927: 926: 922: 917: 916: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 889: 885: 880: 879: 869: 866: 865: 864: 861: 860: 855: 852: 850: 849:Pedodiversity 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 831: 824: 823: 815: 812: 810: 807: 806: 799: 796: 794: 791: 789: 786: 784: 781: 780: 779: 776: 775: 768: 765: 763: 760: 759: 758: 755: 754: 750: 745: 744: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 723: 722: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 701: 700: 697: 696: 689: 688:transgression 686: 685: 684: 681: 677: 674: 673: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 651:Bioirrigation 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 637: 636:Calcification 634: 632: 629: 625: 622: 621: 620: 617: 613: 610: 608: 607:aragonite sea 605: 604: 603: 600: 598: 595: 594: 590: 585: 584: 576: 573: 571: 568: 566: 565:Hydropedology 563: 561: 560:Soil salinity 558: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 520: 519: 516: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 498: 497: 494: 493: 489:Soil sediment 486: 485: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 445: 442: 440: 439:sole markings 437: 436: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 392:cross-bedding 390: 389: 388: 385: 383: 380: 379: 375: 370: 369: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 350:Lithification 348: 347: 340: 337: 335: 332: 331: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 306: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 277: 270: 267: 266: 265: 262: 261: 256: 253: 251: 250:Sedimentation 248: 247: 243: 238: 237: 229: 226: 224: 221: 220: 215: 212: 211: 204: 203: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 179: 177: 176: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 150: 149: 148: 139: 136: 134: 131: 130: 129: 126: 123: 120: 118: 115: 114: 113: 110: 109: 104: 101: 99: 96: 95: 88: 87: 78: 75: 74: 69: 66: 64: 61: 60: 53: 52: 48: 44: 43: 40: 37: 36: 32: 31: 19: 6535:Luxullianite 6515:Lapis lazuli 6460:Blue Granite 6387:Serpentinite 6362:Metapsammite 6112:Conglomerate 6058: 6034:Trondhjemite 6012:Trachybasalt 5953:Pantellerite 5853:Monzogranite 5798:Hornblendite 5783:Granodiorite 5649:Igneous rock 5561: 5557: 5531: 5527: 5505:(1): 19–32. 5502: 5499:GSA Bulletin 5498: 5473: 5448: 5425: 5402: 5383: 5360: 5353: 5320: 5316: 5290:(12): 3395. 5287: 5283: 5264: 5252:. Retrieved 5247: 5235:the original 5225: 5201: 5184: 5180: 5161: 5144: 5140: 5109: 5072: 5068: 5044: 5025: 5002: 4991:. Retrieved 4987:the original 4971: 4951: 4928: 4921:Reading 1996 4901: 4894:Stanley 1999 4889: 4882:Reading 1996 4872: 4865:Einsele 2000 4855: 4848:Reading 1996 4842: 4835:Reading 1996 4830: 4823:Reading 1996 4818: 4806: 4794: 4781: 4769: 4764:, p. 63 4756: 4749:Einsele 2000 4739: 4727: 4715: 4703: 4690: 4678: 4663:Stanley 1999 4657: 4645: 4633: 4621: 4609: 4597: 4576: 4564: 4547: 4535: 4523: 4511: 4499: 4492:Stanley 1999 4487: 4475: 4468:Stanley 1999 4463: 4450: 4438: 4426: 4414: 4402: 4390: 4378: 4366: 4354: 4342: 4330: 4303: 4291: 4279: 4267: 4219: 4145: 4133: 4084:Growth fault 4023: 3989: 3978: 3975:Stratigraphy 3969:Stratigraphy 3895: 3879: 3860: 3844: 3811: 3772: 3746: 3723: 3696: 3690: 3630: 3611: 3588: 3569: 3562:(above) and 3534: 3510: 3506:glacial till 3479: 3451: 3431:radiolarians 3419: 3374: 3363: 3296: 3292: 3261: 3222: 3187:bioturbation 3168: 3160: 3126: 3122: 3118:ripple marks 3107: 3096: 3091: 3080: 3053: 3040: 3036: 3034: 3021:Ripple marks 3006:sole marking 3004:, a type of 2957:fossil fuels 2930: 2886: 2866: 2808: 2800: 2743: 2724: 2701: 2682: 2674: 2662: 2654: 2648: 2644: 2635: 2595: 2591:permeability 2572: 2547: 2511: 2502:South Africa 2458:metamorphism 2455: 2438: 2436: 2421: 2388: 2386: 2366:bioturbation 2361: 2350: 2339:clastic rock 2282:Sedimentary 2281: 2232: 2216: 2184: 2179:source rocks 2160: 2093: 2016: 1976: 1971: 1915:Chalous Road 1869: 1825: 1805:Deposits of 1790:foraminifera 1771: 1735: 1724: 1702: 1698: 1680: 1650: 1644: 1599: 1585: 1526: 1521: 1501: 1499: 1469:Clastic rock 1453: 1417:geochemistry 1375:, including 1370: 1358:fossil fuels 1327: 1295: 1230: 1229: 1146:Biosignature 1114:Stratigraphy 1067:soil science 1062:paleontology 1019:Organic-rich 960:conglomerate 920: 839:Soil zoology 735:Tidal bundle 714:hemipelagite 545:Soil horizon 511:permeability 471:Unconformity 414:Alluvial fan 407:ripple marks 374:By structure 329:Glacier flow 300:Bioturbation 6424:Whiteschist 6315:Greenschist 6295:Cataclasite 6285:Amphibolite 6212:Phosphorite 6162:Itacolumite 6087:Calcarenite 5933:Quartzolite 5868:Nephelinite 5838:Lamprophyre 5793:Harzburgite 5751:Napoleonite 5724:Charnockite 5719:Carbonatite 5709:Blairmorite 5672:Anorthosite 5323:(1): 6277. 5254:28 November 4034:metamorphic 3887:rock slides 3852:spring tide 3707:lithosphere 3580:lithofacies 3490:floodplains 3458:Tidal flats 3435:radiolarite 3415:coral reefs 3241:concretions 3233:pedogenesis 3002:Flute casts 2978:sandstone, 2856:, southern 2854:Ainsa Basin 2842:crustaceans 2567:well-sorted 2490:Precambrian 2439:telogenesis 2428:cementation 2401:groundwater 2389:mesogenesis 2378:biochemical 2372:that gives 2308:transported 2177:as well as 1836:precipitate 1757:Outcrop of 1287:marine snow 1251:cementation 1078:Principles 1024:Phosphorite 897:Soil carbon 863:Rhizosphere 809:Microfossil 798:radiolarite 671:Marine clay 624:calcite sea 597:Abyssal fan 451:River delta 444:imbrication 339:ice rafting 79:Hydrogenous 76:Cosmogenous 6625:Categories 6590:Teschenite 6575:Shonkinite 6550:Pietersite 6545:Novaculite 6455:Borolanite 6440:Adamellite 6357:Metapelite 6325:Calcflinta 6290:Blueschist 6280:Anthracite 6262:Wackestone 6242:Travertine 6187:Lumachelle 6167:Jaspillite 6122:Diamictite 6044:Websterite 6029:Troctolite 6005:Benmoreite 5965:Shonkinite 5938:Rhyodacite 5918:Pyroxenite 5888:Peridotite 5848:Lherzolite 5823:Kimberlite 5813:Ignimbrite 5808:Icelandite 5788:Granophyre 5697:Shoshonite 5393:0716739054 4993:2014-05-02 4787:Levin 1987 4762:Levin 1987 4751:, part II. 4667:Levin 1987 4638:Levin 1987 4582:Boggs 1987 4540:Boggs 1987 4504:Levin 1987 4480:Levin 1987 4407:Levin 1987 4383:Boggs 1987 4371:Levin 1987 4347:Boggs 1987 4323:Levin 1987 4245:Boggs 2006 4212:Boggs 2006 4120:References 4026:weathering 4006:Provenance 3867:Quaternary 3848:astronomic 3834:Lyme Regis 3783:subducting 3726:rift basin 3622:Regression 3595:regression 3564:regression 3370:provenance 3272:load casts 3225:diagenesis 3212:to middle 3183:arthropods 3132:point bars 3084:tree rings 3072:lamination 2976:fluviatile 2922:carbonates 2910:chalcedony 2882:footprints 2840:, made by 2811:scavengers 2790:California 2718:, using a 2706:rocks) or 2687:Mineralogy 2676:Grain form 2664:Sphericity 2630:sphericity 2484:(red) and 2468:Properties 2354:compaction 2347:Diagenesis 2316:evaporites 2312:hinterland 2300:weathering 2296:suspension 2239:phosphorus 2227:ironstones 2211:chalcedony 2100:carbonates 1963:Cenomanian 1955:gastropods 1811:radiolaria 1759:Ordovician 1731:suspension 1604:Sandstones 1561:sandstones 1407:, such as 1352:including 1283:denudation 1271:weathering 1216:limestones 1119:Rock cycle 1099:Provenance 1057:geological 934:Carbonates 709:contourite 666:Evaporites 518:morphology 506:pore space 314:Concretion 309:Compaction 280:Weathering 242:By process 112:Grain size 91:By texture 6636:Petrology 6605:Variolite 6595:Theralite 6585:Tachylite 6570:Rodingite 6540:Mangerite 6520:Larvikite 6505:Jasperoid 6500:Jadeitite 6465:Epidosite 6419:Tectonite 6412:Soapstone 6377:Quartzite 6347:Migmatite 6332:Itabirite 6310:Granulite 6252:Turbidite 6232:Sylvinite 6227:Siltstone 6217:Sandstone 6202:Oil shale 6182:Limestone 6157:Gritstone 6152:Greywacke 6147:Geyserite 6137:Evaporite 6127:Diatomite 6102:Claystone 6067:Argillite 5980:Tachylyte 5948:Comendite 5893:Phonolite 5883:Pegmatite 5858:Monzonite 5833:Lamproite 5828:Komatiite 5768:Foidolite 5729:Enderbite 5692:Mugearite 5097:129514579 4456:Folk 1965 4443:Folk 1965 4224:Stow 2005 4165:Dott 1964 4125:Citations 3830:Blue Lias 3826:competent 3757:sag basin 3753:isostatic 3730:stretched 3703:tectonics 3591:sea level 3584:biofacies 3574:content. 3549:lithology 3521:rhythmite 3484:, lakes, 3447:turbidite 3429:(such as 3423:lysocline 3276:diapirism 3237:stylolite 3210:Paleocene 3157:, Estonia 3128:Mudcracks 3064:lithology 3041:secondary 3010:sandstone 2937:volatiles 2852:) of the 2838:turbidite 2762:kaolinite 2731:aragonite 2727:carbonate 2632:of grains 2432:competent 2419:or coal. 2362:eogenesis 2352:includes 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