283:" that society is willing to acknowledge in a particular piece of property, any interference by the government with regard to that property is not considered a search for Fourth Amendment purposes, and a warrant is never required. For example, courts have found that a person does not possess a reasonable expectation of privacy in information transferred to a third party, such as writing on the outside of an envelope sent through the mail or left for pick-up in an area where others might view it. While that does not mean that the person has no reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of that envelope, the Court has held that one does not possess a reasonable expectation of privacy that society is willing to acknowledge in the contents of garbage left outside the
348:
qualifying doctrines are reasonableness, probable cause, judicial authority, and particularity. While police judgment just before or during the course of a search or arrest usually provides the factors that determine reasonableness, matters of probable cause, judicial authority, and particularity requirements are commonly met through police procedures that are overseen by a court judge or magistrate prior to any search or arrest being conducted. Probable cause requires an acceptable degree of justified suspicion. Particularity requirements are spelled out in the constitution text itself. Law enforcement compliance with those requirements is scrutinized prior to the issuance of a warrant being granted or denied by an officiating judicial authority.
24:
1190:
339:
two different lower courts will reach different interpretations. Second, virtually all state constitutions also contain provisions regarding search and seizure. Those provisions cannot reduce the protections offered by the U.S. Constitution, but they can provide additional protections such that a search deemed "reasonable" under the U.S. Constitution might nonetheless be unreasonable under the law of a particular state.
360:". This means that any evidence obtained through an illegal search is excluded and cannot be used against the defendant at his or her trial. There are some narrow exceptions to this rule. For instance, if police officers acted in good faith—perhaps pursuant to a warrant that turned out to be invalid, but that the officers had believed valid at the time of the search—evidence may be admitted.
291:
857: (2000) (" the concept of the 'reasonable man' has never been more than a way of explaining the law to a jury; an anthropomorphic image to convey to them, with a suitable degree of vividness, the legal principle that even under provocation, people must conform to an objective standard of behaviour that society is entitled to expect").
106:"The home is inviolable. Home inspections, searches, or seizures shall not be admissible save in the cases and manners complying with measures to safeguard personal liberty. Controls and inspections for reason of public health and safety, or for economic and fiscal purposes, shall be regulated by appropriate laws."
216:
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no
Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the
338:
are binding on all federal courts interpreting the U.S. Constitution, there is some variance in the specifics from state to state, for two reasons. First, if an issue has not been decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, then a lower court makes a ruling of "first impression" on the issue, and sometimes
347:
There are several areas of analysis that courts use to determine whether a search has encroached upon constitutional protections. Only those searches that meet with certainty each of the minimal measured requirements of the following four doctrines are likely to stand unchallenged in court. Those
269:
technically required to advise a suspect that he may refuse, however this policy depends on the specific rules of the department. There are also some circumstances in which a third party who has equal control, i.e. common authority, over the property may consent to a search. Another example of
323:
requirement. Exigent circumstances may also exist where there is a continuing danger, or where officers have a reasonable belief that people in need of assistance are present. This includes when the police are in "hot pursuit of a fleeing felon." In this circumstance, so long as there is
319:" exception to the warrant requirement. "Exigent circumstances" simply means that the officers must act quickly. Typically, this is because police have a reasonable belief that evidence is in imminent danger of being removed or destroyed, but there is still a
253:
is that a valid warrant is required for a search. There are, however, several exceptions to this rule, based on the language of the fourth amendment that the people are to be "secure ... against unreasonable searches and seizures".
221:
The text of the amendment is brief, and most of the law determining what constitutes an unlawful search and seizure is found in court rulings. The brief definitions of the terms "search" and "seizure" was concisely summarized in
608:
583:
79:
or consent of the owner before engaging in any form of search and seizure. In cases where evidence is seized in a search, that evidence might be rejected by court procedures, such as with a
174:, often described as "stop and search". The United Kingdom has several different legal systems and the powers and procedure for stop and search varies depending on the jurisdiction:
64:
that provide the public with the right to be free from "unreasonable searches and seizures". This right is generally based on the premise that everyone is entitled to a reasonable
399:, there was a distinction made between a "figurative or constructive search" and an actual search and seizure. The court held that constructive searches are limited by the
1068:
224:
128:, stating that: "Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure, whether of the person, property, or correspondence or otherwise."
1030:
1007:
872:
665:
481:
178:
416:
400:
331:
Certain limited searches are also allowed during an investigatory stop or incident to an arrest. These searches may be referenced as refined searches.
203:
1061:
157:
provided for the seizure of goods when it was found likely they would not be properly cared for during a court case to settle ownership. A writ of
469:
115:
30:
police search the vehicle of a suspected drug smuggler in
Wentworth, in the state of New South Wales, Australia, near the border with Victoria.
187:
120:
The right to be free from unreasonable search and seizure is well recognized by the international human rights community. Section 21 of the
641:
1054:
528:
1459:
802:
1403:
712:
261:. The consent must be voluntary, but there is no clear test to determine whether or not it is; rather, a court will consider the "
1454:
518:
508:
170:
In relation to criminal investigations, the police have a range of powers to search people and places without first making an
487:
297:
investigators found $ 5.6 million hidden in a ceiling compartment of a truck during a seizure (Operations
Reciprocity, 1997).
916:
A Balancing Act: Fourth
Amendment Protections and the Reasonable Scope of Government Investigatory Access to E-Mail Accounts
1322:
307:
dictates that "the word 'automobile' is not a talisman in whose presence the Fourth
Amendment fades away and disappears."
240:
of property occurs where there is some meaningful interference with an individual's possessory interests in that property.
502:
121:
381:
373:
335:
423:
are not entitled to all the constitutional protections created in order to protect the rights of private individuals.
1380:
897:
833:
280:
1349:
153:
132:
492:
294:
1464:
854:
534:
1418:
262:
633:
609:"History of Science: Cyclopædia, or, An universal dictionary of arts and sciences – Attachiamenta – azymus"
539:
384:
ruled that the FTC, while having been granted a broad subpoena power, did not have the right to a general "
1423:
523:
388:" into the private papers, to search both relevant and irrelevant, hoping that something would come up.
131:
While the NZBORA 1990 establishes the overall right to be free from unreasonable search and seizure the
250:
236:
occurs when an expectation of privacy that society is prepared to consider reasonable is infringed. A
209:
135:
provides the statutory framework for the practical application of the law in this area in New
Zealand.
1398:
584:"History of Science: Cyclopædia, or, An universal dictionary of arts and sciences – Arboreus – artery"
867:
389:
303:
735:
1281:
929:
Loewenthal, Milton A. (October 1, 1980). "Evaluating the
Exclusionary Rule in Search and Seizure".
38:
27:
685:
783:
1291:
1086:
1413:
1449:
1229:
1034:
1011:
876:
669:
316:
159:
290:
1269:
1234:
1146:
1121:
672:
100:
8:
1286:
412:
415:
where the records and papers sought are of corporate character, the court held that the
1214:
1206:
1126:
1116:
1077:
1037:
1014:
973:
946:
879:
758:
448:
385:
369:
328:, police may follow the suspect into a residence and seize any evidence in plain view.
232:
protects two types of expectations, one involving "searches", the other "seizures". A
125:
80:
392:
ruled that this would go against "the spirit and the letter" of the Fourth
Amendment.
1365:
1239:
1224:
1161:
1046:
950:
762:
453:
376:
interpretation in favor of stronger government in regards to investigatory power. In
357:
182:
164:
84:
1151:
938:
750:
513:
258:
65:
301:
There is also a lowered expectation of privacy inside of motor vehicles. However,
1334:
1328:
1136:
1131:
901:
713:"Defining the reasonable expectation of privacy: an emerging tripartite analysis"
72:
23:
1375:
1275:
1166:
1141:
1111:
1106:
942:
459:
408:
404:
325:
320:
76:
1428:
1443:
1258:
754:
560:
1370:
1344:
736:"Traffic stops, minority motorists, and the future of the Fourth Amendment"
464:
420:
272:
61:
54:
1408:
894:
1385:
1312:
1307:
1247:
144:
977:
1317:
1264:
1252:
1195:
1176:
42:
964:
179:
Powers of the police in
England and Wales § Search without arrest
71:
Though specific interpretation may vary, this right can often require
284:
99:
protection from search and seizure is enshrined in Article 14 of the
1189:
438:
433:
191:
835:
Criminal Procedure: An Analysis of Cases and Concepts. / Edition 5
265:" in assessing whether consent was voluntary. Police officers are
1171:
1095:
563:. The official website of the Presidency of the Italian Republic.
53:
has been committed, commence a search of a person's property and
188:
Powers of the police in Scotland § Search without a warrant
1101:
573:
International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, Art 17.
171:
151:
to effect seizures for various reasons. For example, a writ of
46:
49:
or other authorities and their agents, who, suspecting that a
803:"The Development of Search and Seizure Law in Public Schools"
96:
50:
356:
The primary remedy in illegal search cases is known as the "
1339:
1219:
148:
497:
443:
310:
257:
For instance, the owner of the property in question may
57:
any relevant evidence found in connection to the crime.
994:(Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers), 122.
342:
1076:
690:, 367 US 643, 81 S. Ct. 1684, 6 L. Ed. 2d 1081 (1961)"
270:
unreasonable search and seizure is in the court case
1185:
838:. MN: Foundation Press/ West Academic. p. 1019.
482:
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives
807:Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal
204:Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution
147:made use of a number of different types of legal
1441:
1004:Federal Trade Commission v. American Tobacco Co.
638:Official Bill of Rights in the National Archives
378:Federal Trade Commission v. American Tobacco Co.
60:Some countries have certain provisions in their
890:
888:
992:The legal foundations of public administration
470:Unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand
116:Unreasonable search and seizure in New Zealand
1062:
895:AO 93 (Rev. 12/09) Search and Seizure Warrant
403:, where actual search and seizure requires a
885:
529:United States Customs and Border Protection
124:(NZBoRA 1990) incorporates this right into
1069:
1055:
990:Barry, Donald D., and Howard R. Whitcomb,
928:
831:
363:
733:
289:
228:, which said that the Fourth Amendment:
22:
710:
279:When an individual does not possess a "
1442:
963:
913:
734:Sklansky, David A. (January 1, 1997).
519:Search and seizure law in Pennsylvania
509:Minimally intrusive warrantless search
244:
1050:
800:
488:Civil forfeiture in the United States
311:Exceptions to the warrant requirement
351:
343:Violation of the warrant requirement
503:Immigration and Customs Enforcement
122:New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990
13:
1027:Oklahoma Press Pub. Co. v. Walling
397:Oklahoma Press Pub. Co. v. Walling
14:
1476:
1381:Evidence law in the United States
372:, there has been an evolution of
334:While the interpretations of the
315:Courts have also established an "
281:reasonable expectation of privacy
138:
1460:Privacy law in the United States
1188:
197:
154:arrestandis bonis ne dissipentur
133:Search and Surveillance Act 2012
1020:
997:
984:
957:
922:
907:
860:
842:
832:Whitebread, Charles H. (2000).
825:
794:
776:
217:persons or things to be seized.
1235:Deferred prosecution agreement
727:
704:
678:
655:
626:
601:
576:
567:
553:
535:United States Marshals Service
109:
1:
1455:Law enforcement agency powers
546:
263:totality of the circumstances
711:Wilkins, Richard G. (1987).
540:United States Secret Service
208:The Fourth Amendment of the
37:is a procedure used in many
7:
524:United States Border Patrol
426:
249:The general rule under the
163:allowed for the seizure of
10:
1481:
943:10.1177/147377958000900403
914:Gryzlo, Joseph P. (2016).
561:"The Italian Constitution"
251:United States Constitution
210:United States Constitution
201:
113:
1394:
1358:
1350:Presentence investigation
1300:
1205:
1183:
1085:
931:Anglo-American Law Review
868:Brinegar v. United States
786:Coolidge v. New Hampshire
662:Jacobson v. United States
613:digicoll.library.wisc.edu
588:digicoll.library.wisc.edu
304:Coolidge v. New Hampshire
225:United States v. Jacobsen
918:. John's L. p. 495.
755:10.1086/scr.1997.3109744
743:The Supreme Court Review
90:
801:Heder, Bill O. (1999).
634:"U.S. Const. amend. IV"
364:Administrative searches
83:the evidence under the
45:legal systems by which
1292:Statute of limitations
1087:Criminal investigation
900:April 7, 2010, at the
788:, 403 U.S. 443 (1971)"
642:U.S. National Archives
419:does not apply, since
298:
242:
219:
31:
1465:Searches and seizures
1230:Criminal jurisdiction
717:Vanderbilt Law Review
317:exigent circumstances
293:
259:consent to the search
230:
214:
160:attachiamenta bonorum
26:
1270:Inquisitorial system
1207:Criminal prosecution
1147:Reasonable suspicion
1122:Exigent circumstance
411:”. In the case of a
395:In the 1946 case of
1287:Preliminary hearing
966:Columbia Law Review
413:constructive search
245:Warrant requirement
167:to recover a debt.
1215:Adversarial system
1157:Search and seizure
1127:Knock-and-announce
1078:Criminal procedure
449:Proactive policing
386:fishing expedition
370:administrative law
336:U.S. Supreme Court
299:
145:English common law
81:motion to suppress
35:Search and seizure
32:
1437:
1436:
1419:Wikimedia Commons
1366:Criminal defenses
1301:Charges and pleas
1225:Bill of attainder
1162:Search of persons
855:4 AER 289
454:Search of persons
368:In corporate and
358:exclusionary rule
352:Exclusionary rule
183:England and Wales
165:personal property
85:exclusionary rule
1472:
1198:
1193:
1192:
1152:Right to silence
1071:
1064:
1057:
1048:
1047:
1041:
1024:
1018:
1001:
995:
988:
982:
981:
961:
955:
954:
926:
920:
919:
911:
905:
892:
883:
864:
858:
852:
846:
840:
839:
829:
823:
822:
820:
818:
798:
792:
791:
780:
774:
773:
771:
769:
740:
731:
725:
724:
708:
702:
701:
699:
697:
692:. Google Scholar
682:
676:
659:
653:
652:
650:
648:
630:
624:
623:
621:
619:
605:
599:
598:
596:
594:
580:
574:
571:
565:
564:
557:
514:No-knock warrant
417:Fourth Amendment
401:Fourth Amendment
103:, which states:
66:right to privacy
1480:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1390:
1354:
1335:Peremptory plea
1329:Nolo contendere
1296:
1201:
1194:
1187:
1181:
1137:Pretextual stop
1132:Miranda warning
1081:
1080:(investigation)
1075:
1045:
1044:
1025:
1021:
1002:
998:
989:
985:
962:
958:
927:
923:
912:
908:
904:. Uscourts.gov.
902:Wayback Machine
893:
886:
865:
861:
848:
847:
843:
830:
826:
816:
814:
799:
795:
782:
781:
777:
767:
765:
738:
732:
728:
709:
705:
695:
693:
684:
683:
679:
660:
656:
646:
644:
632:
631:
627:
617:
615:
607:
606:
602:
592:
590:
582:
581:
577:
572:
568:
559:
558:
554:
549:
544:
429:
366:
354:
345:
313:
247:
206:
200:
141:
126:New Zealand law
118:
112:
93:
73:law enforcement
19:
12:
11:
5:
1478:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1276:Nolle prosequi
1272:
1267:
1262:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1211:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1167:Search warrant
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1142:Probable cause
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1112:Consent search
1109:
1107:Arrest warrant
1104:
1099:
1091:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1074:
1073:
1066:
1059:
1051:
1043:
1042:
1019:
996:
983:
972:(2): 254–312.
956:
921:
906:
884:
859:
850:Regina v Smith
841:
824:
793:
775:
726:
703:
677:
654:
625:
600:
575:
566:
551:
550:
548:
545:
543:
542:
537:
532:
526:
521:
516:
511:
506:
500:
495:
490:
485:
473:
472:
467:
462:
460:Search warrant
457:
451:
446:
441:
436:
430:
428:
425:
409:probable cause
390:Justice Holmes
365:
362:
353:
350:
344:
341:
326:probable cause
321:probable cause
312:
309:
246:
243:
202:Main article:
199:
196:
195:
194:
185:
143:Historically,
140:
139:United Kingdom
137:
114:Main article:
111:
108:
92:
89:
77:search warrant
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1477:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1359:Related areas
1357:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1259:Habeas corpus
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1241:Ex post facto
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1191:
1186:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1072:
1067:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1000:
993:
987:
979:
975:
971:
967:
960:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
925:
917:
910:
903:
899:
896:
891:
889:
881:
878:
874:
870:
869:
863:
856:
851:
845:
837:
836:
828:
817:September 11,
812:
808:
804:
797:
789:
787:
779:
768:September 11,
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
737:
730:
722:
718:
714:
707:
696:September 11,
691:
689:
681:
674:
671:
667:
663:
658:
643:
639:
635:
629:
614:
610:
604:
589:
585:
579:
570:
562:
556:
552:
541:
538:
536:
533:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
483:
480:
479:
478:
477:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
431:
424:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
393:
391:
387:
383:
382:Supreme Court
379:
375:
374:Supreme Court
371:
361:
359:
349:
340:
337:
332:
329:
327:
322:
318:
308:
306:
305:
296:
292:
288:
286:
282:
277:
275:
274:
268:
264:
260:
255:
252:
241:
239:
235:
229:
227:
226:
218:
213:
212:states that:
211:
205:
198:United States
193:
189:
186:
184:
180:
177:
176:
175:
173:
168:
166:
162:
161:
156:
155:
150:
146:
136:
134:
129:
127:
123:
117:
107:
104:
102:
98:
88:
86:
82:
78:
74:
69:
67:
63:
62:constitutions
58:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
29:
25:
21:
18:Police powers
16:
1450:Evidence law
1371:Criminal law
1345:Plea bargain
1327:
1282:Precognition
1274:
1257:
1240:
1156:
1094:
1026:
1022:
1003:
999:
991:
986:
969:
965:
959:
934:
930:
924:
915:
909:
882: (1949).
866:
862:
849:
844:
834:
827:
815:. Retrieved
810:
806:
796:
785:
778:
766:. Retrieved
746:
742:
729:
720:
716:
706:
694:. Retrieved
688:Mapp v. Ohio
687:
680:
661:
657:
647:November 23,
645:. Retrieved
637:
628:
616:. Retrieved
612:
603:
591:. Retrieved
587:
578:
569:
555:
476:US specific:
475:
474:
465:Strip search
421:corporations
396:
394:
377:
367:
355:
346:
333:
330:
314:
302:
300:
278:
273:Mapp v. Ohio
271:
266:
256:
248:
237:
233:
231:
223:
220:
215:
207:
169:
158:
152:
142:
130:
119:
105:
101:Constitution
94:
75:to obtain a
70:
59:
34:
33:
20:
15:
1429:Wikiversity
1386:Legal abuse
1323:Information
1313:Arraignment
1308:Alford plea
1248:Extradition
1040: (1946)
1017: (1924)
675: (1984)
287:of a home.
110:New Zealand
1444:Categories
1414:WikiSource
1399:Wiktionary
1318:Indictment
1265:Indictment
1253:Grand jury
1196:Law portal
1177:Terry stop
937:(4): 238.
547:References
407:based on “
55:confiscate
43:common law
1409:Wikiquote
1404:Wikibooks
1117:Detention
951:157351521
763:142595666
285:curtilage
39:civil law
1424:Wikinews
1376:Evidence
978:29777196
898:Archived
673:109, 113
618:April 6,
593:April 6,
439:INTERPOL
434:Frisking
427:See also
192:Scotland
1172:Suspect
1096:Arguido
749:: 271.
723:: 1077.
405:warrant
238:seizure
28:Dareton
1102:Arrest
976:
949:
853:,
761:
380:, the
234:search
172:arrest
47:police
1033:
1010:
974:JSTOR
947:S2CID
875:
759:S2CID
739:(PDF)
668:
531:(CBP)
505:(ICE)
484:(ATF)
149:writs
97:Italy
91:Italy
51:crime
1340:Plea
1220:Bail
1035:U.S.
1012:U.S.
877:U.S.
819:2017
813:: 71
811:1999
770:2017
747:1997
698:2017
670:U.S.
649:2012
620:2017
595:2017
456:(UK)
41:and
1243:law
1038:186
1031:327
1015:298
1008:264
970:111
939:doi
880:160
873:338
751:doi
666:466
498:FBI
493:DEA
444:KGB
295:DEA
267:not
190:in
181:in
95:In
68:.
1446::
1029:,
1006:,
968:.
945:.
933:.
887:^
871:,
809:.
805:.
757:.
745:.
741:.
721:40
719:.
715:.
664:,
640:.
636:.
611:.
586:.
276:.
87:.
1070:e
1063:t
1056:v
980:.
953:.
941::
935:9
821:.
790:.
784:"
772:.
753::
700:.
686:"
651:.
622:.
597:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
