620:
36:
503:
229:
726:
581:, and appointed counts, both Saxon and Frank. The laws were severe on religious issues, namely the native paganism of the Saxons. This stirred a renewal of the old conflict. That year, in autumn, Widukind returned and led a revolt that resulted in many assaults on the church. The Saxons invaded the area of the
672:
The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the
Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one
659:
Saxons, killing 2,800–4,000 of them. The last insurrection of the
Engrian people occurred in 804, more than thirty years after Charlemagne's first campaign against them. This time, the most unruly tribe of them all, the Nordalbingians, found themselves effectively disempowered to rebel. Charlemagne
607:, some historians have stated the massacre did not happen, or that it was actually a battle, but according to Alessandro Barbero, none of these claims are credible. The action led to two straight years of constant warfare (783–785), with Charlemagne wintering in central Saxony, at
744:
which asserted, "If any one of the race of the Saxons hereafter concealed among them shall have wished to hide himself unbaptized, and shall have scorned to come to baptism and shall have wished to remain a pagan, let him be punished by death."
615:
to
Charlemagne. It was with the conclusion of this war that Charlemagne could have claimed to have conquered Saxony, and the land had peace for the next seven years, though revolts continued sporadically until 804.
481:
before the Saxons knew he left Italy) for the third time in 776, when a rebellion destroyed his fortress at
Eresburg. The Saxons were once again brought to heel, though Widukind fled to the
419:
for the first war waged by
Charlemagne against the Saxons. It began with a Frankish invasion of Saxon territory and the subjugation of the Engrians and destruction of their sacred symbol
443:
River and destroyed several major Saxon strongholds. After negotiating with some Saxon nobles and obtaining hostages, Charlemagne turned his attention to his war against the
737:
praises terror as a means of conversion: "What the contrary mind and perverse soul refuse to do with persuasion, / Let them leap to accomplish when compelled by fear."
399:. Despite repeated setbacks, the Saxons resisted steadfastly, returning to raid Charlemagne's domains as soon as he turned his attention elsewhere. Their main leader,
534:
practices or disrespecting the king's peace. His severe and uncompromising position, which earned him the title "butcher of Saxons", caused his close adviser
968:
636:. The Eastphalians and Nordalbingians joined them in 793, but the insurrection did not catch on as previous ones and was completely put down by 794.
565:. He himself assisted in several mass baptisms (780). He then returned to Italy, and there was no Saxon revolt. From 780 to 782, the land had peace.
293:
677:
Towards the end of the wars, Charlemagne had begun to place more emphasis on reconciliation. In 797, he eased the special laws, and in 802, Saxon
929:
König, Daniel G.. Charlemagne's Jihad
Revisited. Debating the Islamic Contribution to an Epochal Change in the History of Christianization, in:
740:
One of
Charlemagne's famed capitularies outlined part of the religious intent of his interactions with the Saxons. In 785, he issued the
323:
963:
973:
639:
An
Engrian rebellion followed closely in 796, but Charlemagne's personal presence and the presence of loyal Christian Saxons and
467:
819:
870:
829:
611:. Gradually, the Franks gained the upper hand. The turning point came in 785, when Widukind had himself baptized and swore
286:
489:. In 777, he called a national diet at Paderborn to integrate Saxony fully into the Frankish kingdom. Many Saxons were
431:. Irminsul may have been a hollow tree trunk, presumably representing the pillar supporting the skies — similar to the
466:, and crossed Engria, where he defeated the Saxons again. Finally, in Eastphalia, he defeated them, and their leader
741:
557:
In summer 779, Charlemagne again went into Saxony and conquered
Eastphalia, Engria, and Westphalia. At a diet near
474:. All of Saxony except Nordalbingia was under his control, but the recalcitrant Saxons would not submit for long.
1023:
993:
988:
279:
632:
In 792, the
Westphalians rose up against their masters in response to forcible recruitment for wars against the
1013:
953:
948:
462:
Charlemagne's second campaign came in the year 775. Then he marched through Westphalia, conquering the fort of
495:
644:
328:
439:
and apparently a common belief among the Germanic peoples. Charlemagne's campaign led all the way to the
20:
375:
The Saxons were divided into four subgroups in four regions. Nearest to the ancient Frankish kingdom of
1018:
844:
Mary Garrison, "The Emergence of Carolingian Latin Literature and the Court of Charlemagne (780–814),"
757:
652:
917:
1008:
1003:
998:
983:
543:
482:
470:
converted to Christianity. He returned through Westphalia, leaving encampments at Sigiburg and
403:, was a resilient and resourceful opponent, but eventually was defeated and baptized (in 785).
854:
Quod mens laeva vetat suadendo animusque sinister, / Hoc saltim cupiant implere timore coacti
801:
598:
248:
725:
978:
931:
849:
8:
958:
590:
313:
815:
762:
527:
318:
136:
866:
865:
Munro, Dana Carleton (Trans.) (2004). Selections from the Laws of Charles the Great.
825:
619:
554:'s word should be spread not by the sword but by persuasion; but the wars continued.
531:
486:
365:
908:
924:
777:
711:) that secured the conversion of the Saxon people. The last Saxon uprising was the
432:
353:
211:
201:
191:
181:
356:
was defeated. In all, 18 campaigns were fought, primarily in what is now northern
228:
772:
633:
104:
35:
884:
734:
640:
535:
65:
344:
were the campaigns and insurrections of the thirty-three years from 772, when
942:
700:
589:
and firmly in Charlemagne's empire. Widukind won over a Frankish army at the
578:
502:
894:
688:
656:
515:
511:
396:
369:
113:
708:
510:
The chief purpose of the diet was to bring Saxony closer to Christianity.
683:
603:
574:
558:
477:
After warring in Italy, he returned very rapidly to Saxony (making it to
416:
345:
175:
522:, were recruited to carry out this task. Charlemagne issued a number of
678:
384:
380:
349:
108:
61:
696:
713:
436:
424:
376:
141:
73:
664:
and gave their now vacant lands to the loyal king of the Obotrites.
601:, ordered the beheading of 4,500 Saxons who had rebelled. Upon this
805:
record battles in the years 772–780, 782–785, 793–799, 802 and 804.
661:
648:
586:
471:
463:
452:
444:
428:
420:
412:
400:
223:
157:
904:
692:
668:, Charlemagne's biographer, said on the closing of the conflict:
665:
519:
490:
392:
357:
767:
704:
612:
608:
582:
523:
388:
361:
352:
with the intent to conquer, to 804, when the last rebellion of
152:
69:
729:
Charlemagne fighting the Saxons, from a 13th century miniature
597:. It was in response to this setback that Charlemagne, at the
594:
562:
561:, he divided the land into missionary districts and Frankish
547:
539:
478:
456:
448:
440:
411:
In mid-January 772, the sacking and burning of the church of
271:
459:
region. Armed confrontations continued unabated for years.
551:
391:(or Engern), and north of the three, at the base of the
360:. They resulted in the incorporation of Saxony into the
573:
Charlemagne returned in 782 to Saxony and instituted a
455:, continued to resist and raided Frankish lands in the
799:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 179. The
733:
Alluding to the Saxons, the contemporary poet of the
506:
Charlemagne and the Saxons, A. de Neuville, c. 1869
526:designed to break Saxon resistance and to inflict
623:Conversion of the Saxons, A. de Neuville, c. 1869
940:
889:Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056
687:. This was accompanied by the establishment of
824:. University of California Press. p. 46.
585:, a Germanic tribe already converted by Saint
846:Carolingian Culture: Emulation and Innovation
287:
969:Military history of the Carolingian Empire
593:while Charles was campaigning against the
387:. In between the two kingdoms was that of
294:
280:
643:immediately crushed it. In the battle of
364:realm and their forcible conversion from
724:
618:
501:
89:Conversion of the Saxons to Christianity
814:
941:
717:, which occurred between 841 and 845.
16:Campaigns and insurrections of 772–804
275:
907:, translated by Samuel Epes Turner.
720:
13:
821:Charlemagne: father of a continent
485:. Charlemagne built a new camp at
40:Frankish expansion from 481 to 814
14:
1035:
964:History of North Rhine-Westphalia
451:; but Saxon free tenants, led by
116:given to the Obotrite Confederacy
797:Charlemagne's Practice of Empire
742:Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae
227:
34:
974:Wars involving Germanic peoples
919:The Longevity of the Saxon Wars
568:
859:
838:
808:
789:
627:
415:by a Saxon expedition was the
406:
301:
1:
783:
496:Carmen de conversione Saxonum
651:allies of Charlemagne under
180:Chamberlain Adalgisile
7:
899:The Dark Ages 476–918
751:
660:deported 10,000 of them to
21:Saxon Wars (disambiguation)
10:
1040:
891:. New York: Longman, 1991.
878:
795:Jennifer R. Davis (2015),
200:Count Palatine Worad
18:
852:(Cambridge, 1994), 133.:
309:
254:2,800–4,000 killed in 798
235:
166:
127:
66:Polabian Slav territories
44:
33:
28:
935:3 (2016), p. 3-40.
910:The Life of Charlemagne
550:, to urge leniency, as
499:celebrates this event.
1024:Wars involving Francia
994:8th century in Germany
989:8th century in Francia
730:
691:structures (including
675:
624:
507:
263:10,000 deported in 804
167:Commanders and leaders
1014:Persecution of Pagans
954:9th-century conflicts
949:8th-century conflicts
802:Royal Frankish Annals
758:Frisian–Frankish wars
728:
670:
622:
599:Blood court of Verden
505:
260:1,600 deported in 798
257:7,070 deported in 795
236:Casualties and losses
210:Count Theodoric
190:Constable Geilo
850:Rosamond McKitterick
681:was codified as the
530:on anyone observing
142:Obotrite Confederacy
19:For other uses, see
816:Barbero, Alessandro
383:, and farthest was
105:Frankish annexation
916:McGrath, Freddie.
763:Massacre of Verden
731:
625:
528:capital punishment
508:
137:Carolingian Empire
1019:Germanic paganism
913:. New York, 1880.
871:978-1-4179-6511-3
831:978-0-520-23943-2
427:in 772 or 773 at
366:Germanic paganism
337:
336:
270:
269:
123:
122:
85:Frankish victory
1031:
925:Leeds University
873:
863:
857:
842:
836:
835:
812:
806:
793:
778:Germanic peoples
721:Religious nature
591:Battle of SĂĽntel
544:Marmoutier Abbey
304:
296:
289:
282:
273:
272:
231:
216:
206:
196:
186:
46:
45:
38:
26:
25:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1028:
939:
938:
932:Medieval Worlds
901:. London, 1914.
885:Reuter, Timothy
881:
876:
864:
860:
843:
839:
832:
813:
809:
794:
790:
786:
773:Duchy of Saxony
754:
748:
723:
630:
571:
409:
395:peninsula, was
338:
333:
305:
302:
300:
266:
220:
212:
202:
192:
182:
162:
146:
119:
97:
76:
39:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1037:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1009:800s conflicts
1006:
1004:780s conflicts
1001:
999:770s conflicts
996:
991:
986:
984:790s conflicts
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
937:
936:
927:
914:
902:
892:
880:
877:
875:
874:
858:
837:
830:
807:
787:
785:
782:
781:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
753:
750:
735:Paderborn Epic
722:
719:
695:in Paderborn,
629:
626:
570:
567:
536:Alcuin of York
408:
405:
348:first entered
335:
334:
332:
331:
326:
321:
316:
310:
307:
306:
299:
298:
291:
284:
276:
268:
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221:
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139:
133:
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125:
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120:
118:
117:
111:
101:
99:
93:
92:
91:
90:
82:
78:
77:
60:
58:
54:
53:
50:
42:
41:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1036:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
946:
944:
934:
933:
928:
926:
922:
920:
915:
912:
911:
906:
903:
900:
896:
895:Oman, Charles
893:
890:
886:
883:
882:
872:
868:
862:
855:
851:
847:
841:
833:
827:
823:
822:
817:
811:
804:
803:
798:
792:
788:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
755:
749:
746:
743:
738:
736:
727:
718:
716:
715:
710:
707:, Verden and
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
685:
680:
674:
669:
667:
663:
658:
657:Nordalbingian
655:defeated the
654:
650:
646:
642:
637:
635:
621:
617:
614:
610:
606:
605:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
579:Lex Frisionum
576:
566:
564:
560:
555:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
504:
500:
498:
497:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
473:
469:
465:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
308:
297:
292:
290:
285:
283:
278:
277:
274:
262:
259:
256:
253:
250:
246:
245:
243:
240:
239:
234:
230:
225:
222:
217:
215:
209:
207:
205:
199:
197:
195:
189:
187:
185:
179:
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174:
173:
171:
170:
165:
159:
156:
154:
151:
150:
148:
143:
140:
138:
135:
134:
132:
131:
126:
115:
112:
110:
106:
103:
102:
100:
95:
94:
88:
87:
86:
83:
80:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
56:
55:
51:
48:
47:
43:
37:
32:
27:
22:
930:
918:
909:
898:
888:
861:
853:
845:
840:
820:
810:
800:
796:
791:
747:
739:
732:
712:
689:ecclesiastic
682:
676:
671:
647:in 798, the
638:
631:
602:
572:
569:Middle phase
556:
516:Anglo-Saxons
512:Missionaries
509:
494:
476:
461:
447:in northern
410:
397:Nordalbingia
374:
370:Christianity
341:
339:
213:
203:
193:
183:
128:Belligerents
114:Nordalbingia
84:
979:Charlemagne
684:Lex Saxonum
628:Final phase
604:Blutgericht
575:code of law
559:Lippspringe
417:casus belli
407:First phase
346:Charlemagne
176:Charlemagne
96:Territorial
959:Old Saxony
943:Categories
784:References
693:bishoprics
679:common law
563:countships
385:Eastphalia
381:Westphalia
342:Saxon Wars
303:Saxon Wars
29:Saxon Wars
714:Stellinga
709:OsnabrĂĽck
645:Bornhöved
514:, mainly
487:Karlstadt
437:Yggdrasil
425:Paderborn
377:Austrasia
354:tribesmen
329:Bornhöved
74:Austrasia
818:(2004).
752:See also
662:Neustria
649:Obotrite
587:Boniface
538:, later
491:baptised
472:Eresburg
464:Sigiburg
453:Widukind
445:Lombards
429:Eresburg
421:Irminsul
413:Deventer
401:Widukind
362:Frankish
249:executed
224:Widukind
158:Frisians
57:Location
905:Einhard
879:Sources
697:MĂĽnster
673:people.
666:Einhard
653:Thrasco
532:heathen
524:decrees
520:England
393:Jutland
358:Germany
241:Unknown
214:†
204:†
194:†
184:†
98:changes
52:772–804
869:
848:, ed.
828:
768:Saxony
705:Minden
701:Bremen
613:fealty
609:Minden
583:Chatti
577:, the
493:. The
433:Nordic
389:Engria
350:Saxony
319:Verden
314:SĂĽntel
251:in 782
247:4,500
226:
153:Saxons
109:Saxony
81:Result
70:Frisia
62:Saxony
641:Slavs
634:Avars
595:Sorbs
548:Tours
540:abbot
518:from
483:Danes
479:Lippe
468:Hessi
457:Rhine
449:Italy
441:Weser
435:tree
423:near
867:ISBN
826:ISBN
379:was
340:The
324:Elbe
49:Date
923:at
552:God
542:of
368:to
107:of
945::
897:.
887:.
703:,
699:,
546:,
372:.
72:,
68:,
64:,
921:.
856:.
834:.
295:e
288:t
281:v
23:.
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