993:
876:). Neither of these locations is certain. Dio does not mention the port of departure, and although Suetonius says that the secondary force under Claudius sailed from Boulogne, it does not necessarily follow that the entire invasion force did. Richborough had a large natural harbour which would have been suitable, and archaeology shows Roman military occupation at about the right time. However, Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, and a journey from Boulogne to Richborough is south to north. Some historians suggest a sailing from Boulogne to the
1838:
985:
42:
1731:
853:
550:
1571:
1301:
1858:
1447:
2298:
950:
Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. Plautius halted and sent word for
Claudius to join him for the final push. Cassius Dio presents this as Plautius needing the emperor's assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to avenge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no
1433:
In 2019 a marching camp dating to the 1st century AD, used by Roman legions during the invasion of
Agricola. Clay-domed ovens and 26 fire pits dated to AD 77–90 were found loaded with burn and charcoal contents. The fire pits were 30 m apart in two parallel lines. Archaeologists suggested that this
1769:
tactics before having to withdraw to
Hadrian's Wall. He repaired and reinforced the wall with a degree of thoroughness that led most subsequent Roman authors to attribute the construction of the wall to him. During the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the
1760:
tribes of the north of
Britain. He used the three legions of the British garrison (augmented by the recently formed 2nd Parthica legion), 9000 imperial guards with cavalry support, and numerous auxiliaries supplied from the sea by the British fleet, the Rhine fleet and two fleets transferred from
968:
and heavy armaments which would have overawed any remaining native resistance. Eleven tribes of South East
Britain surrendered to Claudius and the Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his
1778:, a Caledonian chief, replied: "We consort openly with the best of men while you allow yourselves to be debauched in private by the worst". This is the first recorded utterance confidently attributable to a native of the area now known as Scotland. The emperor Septimius Severus died at
1512:
The years 87–117 were of consolidation and only a few sites north of the
Stanegate line were maintained, while the signs are that an orderly withdrawal to the Solway-Tyne line was made. There does not seem to have been any rout caused as a result of battles with various tribes.
1516:
Modifications to the
Stanegate line, with the reduction in the size of the forts and the addition of fortlets and watchtowers between them, seem to have taken place from the mid-90s onwards. Apart from the Stanegate line, other forts existed along the Solway Coast at Beckfoot,
1308:
The new governor was
Agricola, returning to Britain, and made famous through the highly laudatory biography of him written by his son-in-law, Tacitus. Arriving in mid-summer of 78, Agricola completed the conquest of Wales in defeating the Ordovices who had destroyed a cavalry
963:
says that
Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed. It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Cassius Dio relates that he brought
1077:
who brought what are now the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because
Claudius was keen to avoid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the mountainous terrain of upland Britain. When
692:
for engineers' huts and Caligula himself was very familiar with the Empire's soldiers. In any case this readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius' invasion possible three years later. For example, Caligula built a lighthouse at Bononia (modern
1243:
and Plumpton Head. Signal- or watch-towers are also in evidence across the Stainmore area: Maiden Castle, Bowes Moor and Roper Castle, for example. The two forces then moved up from the vicinity of Penrith to Carlisle, establishing the fort there in AD 72–73.
1721:
Roman troops, however, penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times. Indeed, there is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue the area.
1234:
may also have featured early on. At some point between 72 and 73, part of Cerialis's force moved across the Stainmore Pass from Corbridge westwards to join Agricola, as evidenced by campaign camps (which may have been previously set up by Bolanus) at
1354:, or to both. In 83 and 84, he moved north along Scotland's eastern and northern coasts using both land and naval forces, campaigning successfully against the inhabitants and winning a significant victory over the northern British peoples led by
1797:. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later
3443:
Hanson, William S. "The Roman Presence: Brief Interludes", in Edwards, Kevin J. & Ralston, Ian B.M. (Eds) (2003) Scotland After the Ice Age: Environment, Archaeology and History, 8000 BC – AD 1000. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University
1175:(governor AD 69–71), and of Cerialis. From other sources, it seems that Bolanus had possibly dealt with Venutius and penetrated into Scotland, and evidence from the carbon-dating of the gateway timbers of the Roman fort at Carlisle (
3143:
Mason, David J. P. (2002a). "The Foundation of the Legionary Fortress: The Flavians and Imperial Symbolism". In Carrington, Peter (ed.). Deva Victrix: Roman Chester Re-assessed. Chester: Chester Archaeological Society. pp. 33–52.
1476:, were abandoned within the space of a few years. It is equally likely that the costs of a drawn-out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was more profitable to leave the Caledonians alone and only under
1041:
has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is unlikely that the border between Roman and Iron Age Britain was fixed with modern precision during this period.
588:
prepared invasions in 34 BC, 27 BC and 25 BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms. According to Augustus's
1816:
in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the
1695:. The Romans, who were well versed in warfare on hilly terrain since their founding, moved quickly to occupy strategic points and high ground, some of which had already been fortified by the Caledonians with
1336:
Tacitus says that after a combination of force and diplomacy quieted discontent among the Britons who had been conquered previously, Agricola built forts in their territories in 79. In 80, he marched to the
1345:
in that year), not returning south until 81, at which time he consolidated his gains in the new lands that he had conquered, and in the rebellious lands that he had re-conquered. In 82, he sailed to either
1061:
of southeast Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended their border country. Caratacus himself led this guerilla campaign but was defeated when he finally chose to offer a
1718:
was constructed. After two decades this was abandoned in 162 and only subsequently re-occupied on an occasional basis. Meanwhile, the Romans retreated to the earlier and stronger Hadrian's Wall.
535:
was established as the northern border, tribes in the region repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and forts continued to be maintained across northern Britain to protect against these attacks.
2801:
217:
3069:. Occasional paper / Centre for North-West Regional Studies, University of Lancaster (3 ed.). Lancaster: Centre for North-West Regional Studies, University of Lancaster.
1313:
of Roman auxiliaries stationed in their territory. Knowing the terrain from his prior military service in Britain, he was able to move quickly to subdue them. He then invaded
1377:
Agricola built a network of military roads and forts to secure the Roman occupation. Existing forts were strengthened and new ones planted in northeastern Scotland along the
3990:
972:
After the invasion, Verica may have been restored as king of the Atrebates although by this time he would have been very elderly. In any case a new ruler for their region,
3027:
2769:
1073:
was unable or unwilling to protect him however, given her own accommodation with the Romans, and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced by
1401:) were heavily planted with forts, not only establishing effective control there, but also completing a military enclosure of south-central Scotland (most of the
2680:
2326:
2932:
1793:
came to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, after the provincial defences had been rebuilt following the
826:. He wrote that Sabinus was Vespasian's lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the older brother and preceded Vespasian into public life, he could hardly have been a
1525:(near Whitehaven). Other forts in the region were built to consolidate Roman presence (Beckfoot for example may date from the late 1st century). A fort at
3338:
2783:
2645:
1460:
Agricola's successors are not named in any surviving source, but it seems they were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at
210:
1703:
which was strategically located commanding the western route north further into Caledonia and where significant evidence of the battle has been found.
1485:
With the decline of imperial ambitions in Scotland (and Ireland) by AD 87 (the withdrawal of the 20th legion), consolidation based on the line of the
1153:.) Cartimandua was forced to ask for Roman aid following a rebellion by Venutius in 69. The Romans evacuated Cartimandua leaving Venutius in power.
2706:
1137:
and may therefore have been responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into a Brigantian federation whose territory straddled Britain along the
2827:
2731:
203:
1280:) in 75 and a network of smaller forts 15–20 kilometres apart for his auxiliary units. During his tenure, he probably established the fort at
557:
In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with the Romans in the century since
2911:
1691:
immediately northwest of Hadrian's Wall, were amongst the first of the Caledonian tribes to face Lollius Urbicus's legions together with the
1210:, where there is evidence of a Cerialian foundation, and followed the line of the Lune and Eden river valleys through Low Borrow Bridge and
3677:
1149:, Yorkshire), while Venutius was the chief of the Brigantes (or Carvetii) west of the Pennines in Cumbria (with a possible centre based at
1644:, and to push the frontier further north. Lollius Urbicus moved three legions into position initially establishing his supply routes from
1425:
were not planted with forts, and there is nothing to indicate that the Romans were at war with them. Agricola was recalled to Rome in 84.
976:, soon appeared as his heir and as king of a number of territories following the first stage of the conquest as a reward as a Roman ally.
613:, written during this period, says Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered.
2319:
2104:
2000:
4111:
1916:
2798:
860:
The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Bononia (
3312:
1735:
1608:
rose to the throne, he moved quickly to reverse the empire limit system put in place by his predecessor. Following his defeat of the
310:
3286:
4116:
4096:
1892:
847:
3933:
3825:
3686:
2058:
1676:
into the theatre between 139 and 140 AD, and thereafter moved his army, a force of at least 16,500 men, north of Hadrian's Wall.
544:
416:
363:
20:
3980:
3694:
2312:
1978:
1314:
4091:
3074:
835:
3024:
2929:
2766:
823:
4019:
810:
Three other men of appropriate rank to command legions are known from the sources to have been involved in the invasion.
1765:, he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50,000 of his own men to the attrition of
1617:
956:
3550:
3431:
3180:
3149:
3009:
2460:
2433:
2406:
1866:
2677:
952:
4066:
4054:
3670:
2204:
1882:
1565:
1146:
581:
577:
562:
420:
241:
3455:
1960:
4126:
4086:
3582:
The Great Invasion, Leonard Cottrell, Coward–McCann, New York, 1962, hardback. Was published in the UK in 1958.
2074:
2035:
1986:
969:
victory. Caratacus escaped with his family, retainers, and treasure, to continue his resistance further west.
4121:
3724:
2824:
2780:
2728:
2657:
2653:
2642:
2190:
2123:
1911:
1493:(or district commissioner). When the Stanegate became the new frontier it was augmented by large forts as at
1385:. The line of military communication and supply along southeastern Scotland and northeastern England (i.e.,
947:. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain.
2360:
4131:
4049:
3663:
3612:
2961:
1553:
1145:
line. Cartimandua may have ruled the Brigantian peoples east of the Pennines (possibly with a centre at
2350:
2009:
1251:
1157:
1099:
478:
268:
658:
may have planned a campaign against the Britons in AD 40, but its execution was unclear: according to
624:
as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of
4106:
4024:
3749:
2703:
1062:
466:
345:
263:
1706:
By 142 the Romans had pacified the entire area and had successfully moved the frontier north to the
1328:
along the southern coast of Scotland, using overwhelming military power to establish Roman control.
4034:
4000:
3953:
3704:
2345:
2219:
1874:
1812:
Later excursions into Scotland by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions of
1669:
1115:
1091:
1046:
838:, although as a former consul he may have been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later.
785:
519:
conquered much of northern Britain during the following seven years. In AD 84, Agricola defeated a
127:
3171:
Shotter, David (30 June 2014). "Roman Cumbria: Rome's "wild west"?". In Stringer, Keith J. (ed.).
2978:
1540:
98–117) onwards. Other forts that may have been established during this period include Ambleside (
4039:
3938:
3729:
3709:
3106:
2673:
1613:
1359:
1165:
1122:'s uprising in 60 or 61, a number of new Roman governors continued the conquest by edging north.
933:
591:
565:, and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman
528:
298:
286:
281:
1179:) suggest that they were felled in AD 72, during the governorship of Cerialis. Lead ingots from
992:
943:. They were pursued by the Romans across the river, causing some Roman losses in the marshes of
4136:
4044:
3916:
3815:
2086:
1935:
1750:
1188:
928:
was almost captured, but recovered and turned the battle so decisively that he was awarded the
516:
505:
258:
135:
3563:
3004:
Anne Johnson, Roman Forts of the 1st and 2nd Centuries Ad in Britain and the German Provinces
2423:
2396:
959:
in Rome says he received the surrender of eleven British kings with no losses, and Suetonius'
4029:
3943:
3921:
3911:
3808:
3798:
3756:
3734:
3173:
North-West England from the Romans to the Tudors : essays in memory of John Macnair Todd
2904:
2450:
2185:
1921:
1798:
1696:
1207:
831:
19:
This article is about the conquest begun in AD 43. For other Roman invasions of Britain, see
3364:
46:
Roman conquest of Britain, showing the dominant local tribes/kingdoms conquered in each area
3901:
3803:
3793:
3719:
2687:. The name of the second king is defaced, but Tincomarus is the most likely reconstruction.
2175:
2117:
1549:
1310:
925:
921:
881:
815:
454:
253:
1226:
were probably involved from evidence of one of the earliest Roman occupations in Cumbria.
195:
8:
3590:
2845:
2370:
2302:
2026:
1790:
1590:
1506:
1074:
652:
conquered the entire kingdom some time after AD 40 and Verica was expelled from Britain.
3882:
3714:
2271:
1818:
1684:
1398:
1382:
1367:
865:
664:
445:
304:
1082:
became emperor in 54, he seems to have decided to continue the invasion and appointed
807:
was flexible, with cohorts and auxiliary units being moved around whenever necessary.
3895:
3887:
3877:
3783:
3546:
3427:
3176:
3145:
3126:
3070:
3005:
2456:
2429:
2402:
2278:
2144:
2133:
1806:
1766:
1742:
1645:
1625:
1621:
1598:
1518:
1502:
1371:
1261:
interrupted years before and with steady and successful progress finally subdued the
1211:
1200:
532:
397:
357:
291:
3175:. Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. pp. 1–28.
1171:
Much of the conquest of the north may have been achieved under the governorships of
912:. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near
3995:
3906:
3830:
3771:
3596:
3118:
2255:
2244:
2159:
1878:
1794:
1754:
1661:
1653:
1522:
1489:
road (between Carlisle and Corbridge) was settled upon. Carlisle was the seat of a
1402:
1270:
1083:
1018:
1014:
984:
827:
767:
757:
740:
694:
351:
333:
315:
144:
41:
24:
1837:
1730:
1187:, indicate that construction there was probably under way by AD 74. Nevertheless,
684:". Alternatively, he may have actually told them to gather "huts", since the word
4012:
3850:
3788:
3776:
3766:
3602:
3031:
2805:
2787:
2773:
2710:
2684:
2649:
2340:
2249:
2227:
2170:
1801:) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the
1526:
1192:
1172:
913:
852:
800:
677:
669:
482:
275:
156:
1013:, which became a base for the Roman legion, Legio II Augusta, from 55 until 75.
3959:
3862:
3835:
3538:
3122:
2851:
2264:
2234:
2195:
1782:
while planning to renew hostilities, and these plans were abandoned by his son
1700:
1605:
1342:
1054:
1034:
1022:
718:
616:
By the 40s AD, the political situation within Britain was in ferment. The
596:
450:
389:
339:
123:
107:
3652:
George Shipway – Imperial Governor. 2002. London: Cassell Military Paperbacks.
1955:
1292:. He left the post in 78, and was later appointed water commissioner in Rome.
1086:
as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of
549:
4080:
3970:
3948:
3845:
3840:
3646:
3631:
3625:
3130:
2936:
2891:
2871:
2831:
2735:
2239:
2211:
2139:
1715:
1688:
1570:
1545:
1473:
1413:). In contrast to Roman actions against the Selgovae, the territories of the
1394:
1378:
1223:
1150:
1102:
in 60. Final occupation of Wales was postponed however when the rebellion of
1037:
was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the
929:
681:
558:
405:
385:
67:
1472:, erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of
453:, the Romans pushed inland from the southeast, defeating the Britons in the
3965:
3872:
3867:
3820:
3739:
2365:
2355:
1775:
1673:
1594:
1362:. Archaeology has shown the Romans built military camps in the north along
1338:
1300:
1277:
1240:
1180:
1138:
965:
940:
917:
733:
649:
617:
381:
327:
102:
1446:
1381:, consolidating control of the glens that provided access to and from the
4101:
3928:
3857:
3744:
2962:"Battle of Medway – Vespasian and the Roman Conquest of Southern England"
2721:
2635:
2149:
2040:
1771:
1762:
1711:
1707:
1589:
117–138), Roman occupation was withdrawn to a defendable frontier in the
1544:), positioned to take advantage of ship-borne supply to the forts of the
1464:
was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the
1386:
1196:
1126:
1070:
889:
869:
811:
625:
621:
609:
520:
490:
432:
131:
1094:
mounted a successful campaign across North Wales, famously killing many
3761:
2180:
1945:
1901:
1494:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1434:
site had been chosen as a strategic location for the Roman conquest of
1406:
1363:
1289:
1219:
1176:
1142:
973:
909:
901:
885:
804:
672:
and, once his forces had become quite confused, ordered them to gather
637:
629:
600:
494:
428:
321:
140:
1552:. A road between Ambleside to Old Penrith and/or Brougham, going over
1065:; he fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the
803:
of 60–61, and were probably there since the initial invasion, but the
721:, a distinguished senator. A pretext of the invasion was to reinstate
3655:
2759:
2375:
2165:
1783:
1649:
1609:
1498:
1486:
1410:
1321:
1247:
1236:
1161:
1038:
1000:
905:
747:
726:
659:
645:
633:
498:
462:
458:
409:
401:
396:, and was largely completed in the southern half of Britain (most of
152:
3480:^ Encyclopaedia Romana. University of Chicago. accessed 1 March 2007
2425:
The Making Of The British Landscape: From the Ice Age to the Present
1774:, criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women; the wife of
2668:
1822:
1680:
1665:
1657:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1435:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1390:
1355:
1325:
1281:
1266:
1231:
1227:
1215:
1134:
1130:
1087:
1066:
861:
714:
673:
655:
585:
566:
524:
470:
436:
393:
175:
119:
3339:"Lost Roman marching camp sheds new light on invasion of Scotland"
1548:. From here, a road was constructed during the Trajanic period to
1497:
and additional forts at half-day marching intervals were built at
1389:) was well-fortified. In southernmost Caledonia, the lands of the
3585:
3559:
2599:
The Roman Conquest Of Scotland: The Battle Of Mons Graupius AD 84
1930:
1826:
1757:
1746:
1692:
1629:
1579:
1478:
1347:
1265:(around 76) and other hostile tribes, establishing a new base at
1262:
1184:
1119:
1103:
1058:
1005:
531:. However, the Romans soon withdrew from northern Britain. After
486:
167:
163:
3391:
Die Statthalter der germanischen Provinzen vom 1.-3. Jahrhundert
187:
Boudican revolt: 30,000–40,000 killed (including 7,000 soldiers)
3287:"Archaeologists find remains of the Roman invasion of Ayrshire"
2696:
2020:
1842:
1541:
1530:
1351:
1030:
1029:) and by 47 it is likely that an area south of a line from the
1010:
1009:
settlements as he went. The force proceeded at least as far as
877:
722:
702:
641:
604:
424:
1741:
The most notable later expedition was in 209 when the emperor
1203:
sailed from Chester up river estuaries to surprise the enemy.
3545:(3rd, revised ed.), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul,
1802:
1366:, controlling the glens that provided access to and from the
1285:
1258:
1095:
1050:
944:
689:
474:
2850:
1846:
1779:
1106:
forced the Romans to return to the south east in 60 or 61.
1079:
873:
713:
In 43, possibly by reassembling Caligula's troops from 40,
440:
225:
1191:
played his part in the west as commander of the legion XX
676:, referring to them as "plunder from the ocean due to the
404:
was established. The conquered territory became the Roman
2890:
2870:
2560:
Britannia: The Roman Conquest & Occupation of Britain
1829:) is still unresolved amongst archaeologists in Ireland.
1521:, Burrow Walls (near the present town of Workington) and
1250:
was sent into Roman Britain in 74 to succeed Cerialis as
2921:
2919:
701:, that provided a model for the one built soon after at
640:) had friendly trade and diplomatic links with Rome and
3570:, vol. II, London: Henry G. Bohn, pp. 343–389
3313:"New evidence uncovered for Roman conquest of Scotland"
1160:(governor AD 71–74) waged a successful war against the
668:, he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the
457:. By AD 47, the Romans held the lands southeast of the
3568:
The Works of Tacitus (The Oxford Translation, Revised)
1003:
took a force westwards, subduing tribes and capturing
2916:
1745:, claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of the
1529:
may have been established from the period of Emperor
856:
Campaigns under Aulus Plautius and the British tribes
419:
in 54 BC, some southern British chiefdoms had become
2799:
Caligula: Mad, bad, and maybe a little misunderstood
1049:, began a campaign against the tribes of modern-day
603:, fled to Rome as supplicants during his reign, and
2541:
2539:
1295:
1620:, was ordered by Antoninus Pius to march north of
1164:. Tacitus praises both Cerialis and his successor
955:accompanied Emperor Claudius to Britain in AD 43.
936:troops swam across the river as a separate force.
717:mounted an invasion force under overall charge of
412:) in the following centuries were not successful.
16:First century AD invasion of Britain by the Romans
553:Southern British tribes before the Roman invasion
4078:
2536:
1341:(some historians hold that he stopped along the
1683:, having settled in the regions of present-day
1133:; one speculation is that he might have been a
3060:
3058:
3056:
3054:
3052:
636:tribe whose capital was at Calleva Atrebatum (
461:. British resistance was led by the chieftain
3671:
3456:"In Photos: 1,800-Year-Old Roman Battle Site"
2320:
996:Forts of the conquest period of Roman Britain
908:, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni,
580:without direct military occupation, begun by
392:. It began in earnest in AD 43 under Emperor
211:
4055:Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire
3558:
3447:
3255:
3240:
3225:
3210:
3195:
3089:
2989:
2501:
1317:, forcing the inhabitants to sue for peace.
750:, was directly attested to have taken part.
572:Between 55 BC and the 40s AD, the
427:gave the Romans a pretext for invasion. The
3049:
793:
783:
775:
765:
755:
738:
3678:
3664:
2327:
2313:
1288:, largely to exploit the gold deposits at
644:was recognised by Rome as their king, but
218:
204:
3397:Band 14, Cologne/Bonn, 1985, p. 168.
2624:A History of the English-Speaking Peoples
2611:A History of the English-Speaking Peoples
2547:A History of the English-Speaking Peoples
2531:A History of the English-Speaking Peoples
2477:A History of the English-Speaking Peoples
2394:
1761:the Danube for the purpose. According to
1450:Roman military organisation in the north
892:, in territory formerly ruled by Verica.
3453:
3107:"Petillius Cerialis in Northern Britain"
3067:Romans and Britons in North-West England
2748:Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain
2448:
2421:
1836:
1729:
1725:
1569:
1445:
1331:
1320:The following year he moved against the
1299:
1045:Late in 47 the new governor of Britain,
991:
983:
851:
848:Site of the Claudian invasion of Britain
708:
548:
408:. Attempts to conquer northern Britain (
3826:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
3170:
3104:
3064:
2398:Boudica: Warrior Woman of Roman Britain
1574:Levels of Romanisation by area and date
841:
157:
4079:
3685:
3523:Mattingly, 233–34; Southern, 170, 341.
1125:The leader of the Brigantes was queen
799:) are known to have served during the
501:. The Romans put down the rebellion.
3659:
3543:Britannia: A History of Roman Britain
3537:
3510:, 39; Odahl, 77–78, 309; Pohlsander,
3270:
1736:Roman invasion of Caledonia (208–211)
1597:frontier area by the construction of
1296:Campaigns of Agricola (AD 78–84)
988:Roman campaigns from AD 43 to 60
932:. At least one division of auxiliary
384:'s conquest of most of the island of
199:
3934:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
3564:"The Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola"
3105:Shotter, D. C. A. (September 2000).
1206:The western thrust was started from
939:The British were pushed back to the
545:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
417:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
21:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
3426:. Oxford University Press. p. 508.
2884:
2864:
2842:
13:
3624:Miles Russel – Ruling Britannia –
3603:De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae
3576:
2452:Life in a Roman Legionary Fortress
1556:, may also date from this period.
14:
4148:
4112:Military history of Roman Britain
3161:Caruana (1997), pp. 1-168, 40-51.
824:Titus Flavius Sabinus the Younger
489:, in which the Britons destroyed
4067:Military history of ancient Rome
3317:HeritageDaily - Archaeology News
2296:
1856:
1770:wall, Septimius Severus's wife,
1566:Scotland during the Roman Empire
1195:(71–73), while Cerialis led the
895:
563:expeditions in 55 and 54 BC
443:and used the newly-formed fleet
40:
4117:Wars involving the Roman Empire
4097:1st century in the Roman Empire
4050:Civil wars of the Third Century
3517:
3496:
3483:
3474:
3437:
3416:
3400:
3383:
3365:"Roman Timeline 2nd Century AD"
3357:
3331:
3305:
3279:
3264:
3249:
3234:
3219:
3204:
3189:
3164:
3155:
3137:
3098:
3083:
3036:
3014:
2998:
2983:
2972:
2954:
2941:
2898:
2878:
2858:
2836:
2814:
2792:
2753:
2740:
2715:
2690:
2662:
2629:
2616:
2603:
2591:
2578:
2565:
2552:
2455:. Amberley Publishing Limited.
1841:A monument to the conquest, in
1584:
1535:
1257:He returned to the conquest of
88:Most of Britain annexed by Rome
3454:Metcalfe, Tom (13 June 2016).
2523:
2510:
2495:
2482:
2469:
2442:
2415:
2395:Gillespie, Caitlin C. (2018).
2388:
1749:tribe, campaigned against the
1559:
1428:
1199:in the east. In addition, the
1100:invaded the island of Anglesey
900:British resistance was led by
746:, commanded by future emperor
1:
3530:
3065:Shotter, David C. A. (2004).
2191:Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes
1652:and moved three legions, the
1451:
1090:. Veranius and his successor
880:, landing in the vicinity of
582:Caesar's invasions of Britain
538:
509:
388:, which was inhabited by the
364:Usurpation of Constantine III
4092:1st century in Great Britain
3638:. New York: HarperPerennial.
3621:, Peter Salway, Oxford, 1986
2909:Abridgement of Roman History
2750:, Cambridge University Press
2381:
2361:Roman sites in Great Britain
2105:Frontiers and fortifications
1441:
1324:of northern England and the
340:Usurpation of Magnus Maximus
7:
3508:Christianity of Constantine
2401:. Oxford University Press.
1917:Decorations and punishments
1832:
1618:Roman Governor of Britannia
1109:
979:
864:), and the main landing at
584:, largely remained intact.
569:, especially in the south.
282:Defeat of Petilius Cerealis
10:
4153:
3123:10.1179/007817200790177879
2947:For example, John Manley,
2351:Roman governors of Britain
1809:in the summer and autumn.
1628:which were settled by the
1624:to conquer the Caledonian
1563:
1399:Stewartry of Kirkcudbright
1374:in northeastern Scotland.
1370:, and also throughout the
1218:). On the Cumbrian coast,
1158:Quintus Petillius Cerialis
845:
822:, and Vespasian's brother
576:of tribute, hostages, and
542:
481:. This was interrupted by
423:. The exile of their ally
18:
4063:
4008:Roman conquest of Britain
3979:
3693:
3539:Frere, Sheppad Sunderland
1393:(approximating to modern
1114:Following the successful
836:Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus
725:, the exiled king of the
378:Roman conquest of Britain
237:
181:
113:
96:
50:
39:
35:Roman conquest of Britain
34:
3504:Constantine and Eusebius
3422:Freeman, Charles (1999)
2422:Nicholas, Crane (2016).
2346:British military history
2220:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum
2205:Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes
1875:Military of ancient Rome
1670:Legio XX Valeria Victrix
1183:, the Roman fortress at
1156:Tacitus says that in 71
1092:Gaius Suetonius Paulinus
1047:Publius Ostorius Scapula
322:Usurpation of Magnentius
128:Gaius Suetonius Paulinus
3705:Roman conquest of Italy
3424:Egypt, Greece, and Rome
2786:2 November 2022 at the
2746:John Creighton (2000),
2709:2 November 2022 at the
2683:2 November 2022 at the
2674:Res Gestae Divi Augusti
2648:2 November 2022 at the
2303:Ancient Rome portal
1614:Quintus Lollius Urbicus
1360:Battle of Mons Graupius
1017:was sent north towards
872:, on the east coast of
818:, who probably led the
732:It is unclear how many
529:Battle of Mons Graupius
2966:www.britishbattles.com
2449:Copeland, Tim (2014).
1850:
1751:Caledonian Confederacy
1738:
1575:
1457:
1305:
1189:Gnaeus Julius Agricola
1026:
997:
989:
857:
794:
784:
776:
766:
756:
739:
554:
517:Gnaeus Julius Agricola
473:, a stronghold of the
469:in AD 50. The isle of
449:. Under their general
346:Stilicho's Pictish War
311:Caledonia (AD 208–210)
264:Caratacus' last battle
259:Capture of Camulodunon
190:100,000–250,000 killed
136:Gnaeus Julius Agricola
114:Commanders and leaders
4127:Invasions of Scotland
4087:1st-century conflicts
4035:Domitian's Dacian War
3954:Liberators' civil war
3641:Francis Pryor. 2004.
3395:Epigraphische Studien
2186:Neckar-Odenwald Limes
2001:Technological history
1840:
1799:Constantine the Great
1733:
1726:3rd and 4th centuries
1573:
1449:
1332:Agricola in Caledonia
1304:Agricola's campaigns.
1303:
995:
987:
855:
709:Claudian preparations
595:, two British kings,
552:
543:Further information:
406:province of Britannia
400:) by AD 87, when the
358:Usurpation of Gratian
230:occupation of Britain
182:Casualties and losses
4122:Invasions of England
4040:Trajan's Dacian Wars
3725:Roman–Hernician wars
3506:, 27, 298; Elliott,
3030:13 July 2021 at the
2949:AD43: a Reassessment
2804:30 July 2018 at the
2772:13 July 2021 at the
2176:Lower Germanic Limes
2075:Strategy and tactics
2010:Military engineering
1912:Unit types and ranks
1821:-speaking island of
1550:Hardknott Roman Fort
1491:centurio regionarius
957:The Arch of Claudius
926:Gnaeus Hosidius Geta
924:raged for two days.
922:Battle of the Medway
842:Crossing and landing
816:Gnaeus Hosidius Geta
736:were sent: only the
455:Battle of the Medway
421:allies of the Romans
352:Usurpation of Marcus
3939:Roman–Parthian Wars
3730:Roman–Volscian wars
3710:Roman–Etruscan Wars
3512:Emperor Constantine
2586:The Enemies of Rome
2371:Pugnaces Britanniae
2171:Lauter Valley Limes
1507:Brampton Old Church
1075:Aulus Didius Gallus
688:was also soldier's
248:Conquest of Britain
4132:Invasions of Wales
4045:Roman–Persian Wars
3944:Caesar's civil war
3816:Roman–Seleucid war
3715:Roman-Aequian wars
3687:Ancient Roman wars
3560:Tacitus, Cornelius
2272:Limes Tripolitanus
1893:Structural history
1851:
1739:
1685:Kirkcudbrightshire
1576:
1458:
1383:Scottish Highlands
1368:Scottish Highlands
1306:
1168:(governor 75–78).
1129:. Her husband was
998:
990:
961:The Twelve Caesars
953:Praetorian cohorts
951:military man. The
858:
665:The Twelve Caesars
620:had displaced the
555:
446:Classis Britannica
305:Siege of Burnswark
242:Caesar's invasions
228:Roman invasion and
4074:
4073:
4030:Jewish–Roman wars
3902:Sulla's civil war
3896:Bellum Octavianum
3784:Illyro-Roman Wars
3757:Roman–Gallic wars
3735:Roman–Sabine wars
3076:978-1-86220-152-1
2337:
2336:
2288:
2287:
2279:Limes Mauretaniae
2134:Limes Britannicus
2095:
2094:
2059:Political history
2049:
2048:
1969:
1968:
1753:, a coalition of
1743:Septimius Severus
1601:from around 122.
1372:Scottish Lowlands
1350:or the shores of
1239:, Crackenthorpe,
1201:Legio II Adiutrix
506:conquest of Wales
479:attacked in AD 60
431:was recruited in
398:England and Wales
373:
372:
292:Defeat of Boudica
194:
193:
92:
91:
4144:
4107:Iron Age Britain
3996:Marcomannic Wars
3907:Mithridatic Wars
3831:Celtiberian Wars
3720:Roman–Latin wars
3680:
3673:
3666:
3657:
3656:
3571:
3555:
3524:
3521:
3515:
3500:
3494:
3487:
3481:
3478:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3451:
3445:
3441:
3435:
3420:
3414:
3407:Historia Augusta
3404:
3398:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3343:www.scotsman.com
3335:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3283:
3277:
3268:
3262:
3253:
3247:
3238:
3232:
3223:
3217:
3208:
3202:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3168:
3162:
3159:
3153:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3111:Northern History
3102:
3096:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3062:
3047:
3040:
3034:
3018:
3012:
3002:
2996:
2987:
2981:
2979:Arch of Claudius
2976:
2970:
2969:
2958:
2952:
2945:
2939:
2935:30 June 2012 at
2923:
2914:
2902:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2840:
2834:
2830:17 July 2012 at
2818:
2812:
2796:
2790:
2757:
2751:
2744:
2738:
2734:17 July 2012 at
2719:
2713:
2694:
2688:
2666:
2660:
2633:
2627:
2620:
2614:
2607:
2601:
2595:
2589:
2582:
2576:
2569:
2563:
2556:
2550:
2543:
2534:
2527:
2521:
2514:
2508:
2499:
2493:
2486:
2480:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2392:
2329:
2322:
2315:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2160:Limes Germanicus
2110:
2109:
2087:Infantry tactics
2080:
2079:
2036:Triumphal arches
2006:
2005:
1987:Wars and battles
1979:Campaign history
1898:
1897:
1860:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1795:Carausian Revolt
1662:Legio VI Victrix
1654:Legio II Augusta
1588:
1586:
1539:
1537:
1456:
1453:
1403:Southern Uplands
1166:Julius Frontinus
1084:Quintus Veranius
1015:Legio IX Hispana
828:military tribune
797:
789:
779:
771:
761:
744:
741:Legio II Augusta
695:Boulogne-sur-Mer
515:. Roman general
514:
511:
334:Great Conspiracy
316:Carausian Revolt
232:
220:
213:
206:
197:
196:
172:
159:
149:
52:
51:
44:
32:
31:
25:Carausian revolt
4152:
4151:
4147:
4146:
4145:
4143:
4142:
4141:
4077:
4076:
4075:
4070:
4059:
4025:Civil war of 69
4013:Boudican revolt
3982:
3975:
3851:Cantabrian Wars
3789:Macedonian Wars
3696:
3689:
3684:
3615:, Tempus, 2002.
3579:
3577:Further reading
3574:
3553:
3533:
3528:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3501:
3497:
3488:
3484:
3479:
3475:
3465:
3463:
3460:livescience.com
3452:
3448:
3442:
3438:
3421:
3417:
3405:
3401:
3388:
3384:
3374:
3372:
3363:
3362:
3358:
3348:
3346:
3337:
3336:
3332:
3322:
3320:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3296:
3294:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3269:
3265:
3254:
3250:
3239:
3235:
3224:
3220:
3209:
3205:
3194:
3190:
3183:
3169:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3142:
3138:
3103:
3099:
3088:
3084:
3077:
3063:
3050:
3041:
3037:
3032:Wayback Machine
3019:
3015:
3003:
2999:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2973:
2960:
2959:
2955:
2946:
2942:
2924:
2917:
2903:
2899:
2883:
2879:
2863:
2859:
2841:
2837:
2819:
2815:
2806:Wayback Machine
2797:
2793:
2788:Wayback Machine
2776:; Dio Cassius,
2774:Wayback Machine
2758:
2754:
2745:
2741:
2720:
2716:
2711:Wayback Machine
2695:
2691:
2685:Wayback Machine
2667:
2663:
2650:Wayback Machine
2634:
2630:
2621:
2617:
2608:
2604:
2596:
2592:
2583:
2579:
2570:
2566:
2557:
2553:
2544:
2537:
2528:
2524:
2515:
2511:
2500:
2496:
2487:
2483:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2447:
2443:
2436:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2341:Ancient Britain
2333:
2297:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2256:Limes Sarmatiae
2250:Anastasian Wall
2228:Pannonian Limes
2107:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2077:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2051:
2050:
2045:
2031:
2003:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1981:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1940:
1926:
1895:
1885:
1857:
1835:
1728:
1699:. One such was
1583:
1568:
1562:
1534:
1505:(Carvoran) and
1454:
1444:
1431:
1334:
1298:
1193:Valeria Victrix
1173:Vettius Bolanus
1112:
1063:decisive battle
982:
898:
850:
844:
801:Boudican revolt
795:Valeria Victrix
711:
670:English Channel
547:
541:
512:
374:
369:
276:Boudican revolt
233:
229:
226:
224:
174:
168:
162:
151:
145:
134:
130:
126:
122:
84:
70:
45:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4150:
4140:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4072:
4071:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4016:
4015:
4005:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3987:
3985:
3977:
3976:
3974:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3960:Bellum Siculum
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3925:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3904:
3899:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3870:
3865:
3863:Jugurthine War
3860:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3836:Lusitanian War
3833:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3812:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3786:
3781:
3780:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3759:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3701:
3699:
3697:Roman Republic
3691:
3690:
3683:
3682:
3675:
3668:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3639:
3629:
3622:
3616:
3606:
3583:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3556:
3551:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3516:
3495:
3482:
3473:
3462:. Live Science
3446:
3436:
3415:
3411:Antoninus Pius
3399:
3382:
3356:
3330:
3304:
3291:HeraldScotland
3278:
3263:
3248:
3233:
3218:
3203:
3188:
3181:
3163:
3154:
3136:
3117:(2): 189–198.
3097:
3082:
3075:
3048:
3035:
3013:
2997:
2982:
2971:
2953:
2940:
2915:
2897:
2877:
2857:
2835:
2813:
2791:
2752:
2739:
2714:
2689:
2661:
2628:
2615:
2602:
2590:
2577:
2564:
2562:, 1963, p. 107
2551:
2535:
2522:
2509:
2494:
2481:
2468:
2461:
2441:
2434:
2414:
2407:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2331:
2324:
2317:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2265:Limes Arabicus
2260:
2259:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2235:Limes Alutanus
2231:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2215:
2214:
2208:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2196:Wetterau Limes
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2147:
2145:Hadrian's Wall
2142:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2092:
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2089:
2083:
2078:
2073:
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2063:
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2047:
2046:
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2038:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2004:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1896:
1891:
1890:
1887:
1886:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1862:
1861:
1834:
1831:
1807:Hadrian's Wall
1727:
1724:
1714:area when the
1701:Burnswark Hill
1622:Hadrian's Wall
1606:Antoninus Pius
1599:Hadrian's Wall
1564:Main article:
1561:
1558:
1443:
1442:AD 84–117
1440:
1430:
1427:
1409:, and western
1343:Firth of Forth
1333:
1330:
1297:
1294:
1111:
1108:
1069:. Their queen
1035:Severn Estuary
1027:Lindum Colonia
981:
978:
897:
894:
846:Main article:
843:
840:
791:(later styled
777:Martia Victrix
773:(later styled
719:Aulus Plautius
710:
707:
597:Dubnovellaunus
540:
537:
533:Hadrian's Wall
451:Aulus Plautius
390:Celtic Britons
371:
370:
368:
367:
361:
355:
349:
343:
337:
331:
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319:
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296:
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223:
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188:
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179:
178:
138:
124:Aulus Plautius
116:
115:
111:
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108:Celtic Britons
105:
99:
98:
94:
93:
90:
89:
86:
80:
79:
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71:
66:
64:
60:
59:
56:
48:
47:
37:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4149:
4138:
4137:Roman Britain
4135:
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4130:
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4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
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4110:
4108:
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4033:
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4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4006:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3991:Germanic wars
3989:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3978:
3972:
3971:War of Actium
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3949:War of Mutina
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3923:
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3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3846:Sertorian War
3844:
3842:
3841:Numantine War
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3828:
3827:
3824:
3822:
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3698:
3692:
3688:
3681:
3676:
3674:
3669:
3667:
3662:
3661:
3658:
3651:
3648:
3647:HarperCollins
3644:
3640:
3637:
3633:
3632:Francis Pryor
3630:
3628:8/2005 pp 5–6
3627:
3626:History Today
3623:
3620:
3619:Roman Britain
3617:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3598:
3593:
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3581:
3580:
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3561:
3557:
3554:
3552:0-7102-1215-1
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3535:
3520:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3499:
3492:
3491:Roman History
3489:Cassius Dio,
3486:
3477:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3440:
3433:
3432:0-19-872194-3
3429:
3425:
3419:
3412:
3408:
3403:
3396:
3392:
3386:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3345:. 28 May 2019
3344:
3340:
3334:
3319:. 24 May 2019
3318:
3314:
3308:
3293:. 24 May 2019
3292:
3288:
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3214:
3207:
3200:
3199:
3192:
3184:
3182:9781873124659
3178:
3174:
3167:
3158:
3151:
3150:0-9507074-9-X
3147:
3140:
3132:
3128:
3124:
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3108:
3101:
3094:
3093:
3086:
3078:
3072:
3068:
3061:
3059:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3046:, 3.45, Rome.
3045:
3039:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3017:
3011:
3010:0-312-68981-0
3007:
3001:
2994:
2993:
2986:
2980:
2975:
2967:
2963:
2957:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2937:archive.today
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2893:
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2848:
2847:
2839:
2833:
2832:archive.today
2829:
2826:
2823:
2822:Roman History
2820:Dio Cassius,
2817:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2800:
2795:
2789:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2778:Roman History
2775:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2761:
2756:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2736:archive.today
2733:
2730:
2727:
2726:Roman History
2723:
2718:
2712:
2708:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2675:
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2665:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2640:Roman History
2637:
2632:
2625:
2619:
2612:
2606:
2600:
2594:
2587:
2581:
2574:
2568:
2561:
2555:
2548:
2542:
2540:
2532:
2526:
2519:
2518:Roman History
2516:Dio Cassius,
2513:
2506:
2505:
2498:
2491:
2485:
2478:
2472:
2464:
2462:9781445643939
2458:
2454:
2453:
2445:
2437:
2435:9780297857358
2431:
2427:
2426:
2418:
2410:
2408:9780190875589
2404:
2400:
2399:
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2269:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2245:Trajan's Wall
2243:
2241:
2240:Limes Moesiae
2238:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2216:
2213:
2212:Norican Limes
2210:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2140:Antonine Wall
2138:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2100:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2070:
2060:
2055:
2054:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2027:Siege engines
2025:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1996:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1974:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1906:
1903:
1900:
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1773:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1732:
1723:
1719:
1717:
1716:Antonine Wall
1713:
1709:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1689:Dumfriesshire
1686:
1682:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1581:
1572:
1567:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1546:Lake District
1543:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1481:
1480:
1475:
1474:Mons Graupius
1471:
1467:
1463:
1448:
1439:
1437:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1395:Dumfriesshire
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1379:Highland Line
1375:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1302:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1274:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1224:Blennerhasset
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1151:Clifton Dykes
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1110:AD 60–78
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
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1043:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1007:
1002:
994:
986:
980:AD 44–60
977:
975:
970:
967:
966:war elephants
962:
958:
954:
948:
946:
942:
937:
935:
931:
930:Roman triumph
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
896:River battles
893:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
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863:
854:
849:
839:
837:
833:
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745:
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742:
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724:
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716:
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704:
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691:
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683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
666:
661:
657:
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651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
614:
612:
611:
606:
602:
598:
594:
593:
587:
583:
579:
578:client states
575:
570:
568:
564:
560:
559:Julius Caesar
551:
546:
536:
534:
530:
526:
523:army, led by
522:
518:
508:lasted until
507:
502:
500:
496:
492:
488:
485:led by queen
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
447:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
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411:
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403:
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391:
387:
383:
379:
365:
362:
359:
356:
353:
350:
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344:
341:
338:
335:
332:
329:
326:
323:
320:
317:
314:
312:
309:
306:
303:
300:
299:Mons Graupius
297:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
279:
277:
274:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
251:
249:
246:
243:
240:
239:
236:
231:
221:
216:
214:
209:
207:
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201:
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189:
186:
185:
180:
177:
173:
171:
165:
160:
154:
150:
148:
142:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
118:
117:
112:
109:
106:
104:
101:
100:
95:
87:
82:
81:
78:Roman victory
77:
74:
73:
69:
68:Great Britain
65:
62:
61:
57:
54:
53:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
26:
22:
4065:
4020:Armenian War
4007:
3983:Roman Empire
3966:Perusine War
3958:
3894:
3873:Servile Wars
3868:Cimbrian War
3821:Galatian War
3740:Samnite Wars
3645:. New York:
3642:
3635:
3618:
3608:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3567:
3542:
3519:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3498:
3490:
3485:
3476:
3464:. Retrieved
3459:
3449:
3439:
3423:
3418:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3394:
3390:
3385:
3373:. Retrieved
3368:
3359:
3349:13 September
3347:. Retrieved
3342:
3333:
3323:13 September
3321:. Retrieved
3316:
3307:
3297:13 September
3295:. Retrieved
3290:
3281:
3274:
3266:
3257:
3251:
3242:
3236:
3227:
3221:
3212:
3206:
3197:
3191:
3172:
3166:
3157:
3139:
3114:
3110:
3100:
3091:
3085:
3066:
3043:
3038:
3021:
3016:
3000:
2991:
2985:
2974:
2965:
2956:
2948:
2943:
2926:
2908:
2900:
2886:
2880:
2866:
2860:
2844:
2838:
2821:
2816:
2809:
2794:
2777:
2763:
2755:
2747:
2742:
2725:
2717:
2700:
2692:
2672:
2664:
2639:
2631:
2623:
2618:
2610:
2605:
2598:
2593:
2585:
2580:
2572:
2567:
2559:
2554:
2546:
2530:
2525:
2517:
2512:
2503:
2497:
2489:
2484:
2476:
2471:
2451:
2444:
2424:
2417:
2397:
2390:
2366:Itius Portus
2356:Roman mining
2277:
2270:
2263:
2254:
2218:
2158:
2132:
2116:
2019:
1814:exploratores
1813:
1811:
1788:
1776:Argentocoxos
1740:
1720:
1705:
1678:
1674:Deva Victrix
1603:
1595:Solway Firth
1577:
1515:
1511:
1490:
1484:
1482:submission.
1477:
1459:
1455: 84 AD
1432:
1376:
1339:Firth of Tay
1335:
1319:
1307:
1278:Isca Augusta
1272:
1256:
1246:
1241:Kirkby Thore
1205:
1181:Deva Victrix
1170:
1155:
1124:
1113:
1055:Cheshire Gap
1044:
1004:
999:
971:
960:
949:
938:
918:River Medway
899:
859:
819:
809:
792:
782:
774:
764:
754:
752:
737:
731:
712:
699:Tour d'Ordre
698:
685:
663:
654:
650:Catuvellauni
618:Catuvellauni
615:
608:
590:
573:
571:
556:
513: AD 77
503:
444:
414:
382:Roman Empire
377:
375:
366:(AD 407–411)
354:(AD 406–407)
342:(AD 383–388)
336:(AD 367–368)
330:(AD 354–358)
328:Carausius II
324:(AD 350–353)
318:(AD 286–296)
247:
227:
169:
146:
103:Roman Empire
97:Belligerents
29:
3981:Wars of the
3929:Gallic Wars
3858:Achaean War
3745:Pyrrhic War
3695:Wars of the
3613:John Manley
3020:Suetonius,
2925:Suetonius,
2892:14.34
2872:14.32
2722:Dio Cassius
2636:Dio Cassius
2622:Churchill,
2609:Churchill,
2545:Churchill,
2529:Churchill,
2475:Churchill,
2150:Saxon Shore
1791:Constantius
1772:Julia Domna
1763:Dio Cassius
1712:River Forth
1708:River Clyde
1612:in 139 AD,
1560:From AD 117
1554:High Street
1429:Archaeology
1387:Dere Street
1197:IX Hispania
1127:Cartimandua
1116:suppression
1071:Cartimandua
890:Southampton
870:Richborough
812:Cassius Dio
626:Camulodunum
622:Trinovantes
610:Geographica
491:Camulodunum
483:an uprising
278:(60–61 AD)
250:(43–76 AD)
132:Vespasianus
83:Territorial
4081:Categories
4001:Gothic War
3762:Punic Wars
3750:Social War
3643:Britain AD
3636:Britain BC
3531:References
3271:Frere 1987
2852:3.44
2584:Matyszak,
2181:Main Limes
1734:The brief
1697:hill forts
1668:, and the
1591:River Tyne
1495:Vindolanda
1470:Perthshire
1466:Gask Ridge
1462:Inchtuthil
1407:Teviotdale
1364:Gask Ridge
1290:Dolaucothi
1220:Ravenglass
1177:Luguvalium
1053:, and the
974:Cogidubnus
910:Cunobeline
902:Togodumnus
886:Chichester
882:Noviomagus
820:IX Hispana
805:Roman army
781:) and the
768:XIV Gemina
758:IX Hispana
638:Silchester
630:Colchester
601:Tincomarus
592:Res Gestae
574:status quo
539:Background
521:Caledonian
495:Verulamium
467:his defeat
429:Roman army
415:Following
244:(55–54 BC)
141:Togodumnus
3591:Histories
3562:(1854) ,
3275:Britannia
3131:0078-172X
3044:Histories
3042:Tacitus,
3022:Vespasian
2905:Eutropius
2885:Tacitus,
2865:Tacitus,
2846:Histories
2843:Tacitus,
2810:Telegraph
2760:Suetonius
2701:Geography
2571:Tacitus,
2520:, 62.1–12
2488:Tacitus,
2428:. Orion.
2382:Citations
2376:Esunertos
2166:Alb Limes
1784:Caracalla
1767:guerrilla
1755:Brittonic
1650:Bremenium
1610:Brigantes
1527:Troutbeck
1499:Newbrough
1487:Stanegate
1411:Tweeddale
1322:Brigantes
1271:Legio II
1248:Frontinus
1237:Rey Cross
1208:Lancaster
1162:Brigantes
1135:Carvetian
1039:Fosse Way
1001:Vespasian
914:Rochester
906:Caratacus
834:mentions
832:Eutropius
814:mentions
748:Vespasian
727:Atrebates
705:(Dover).
674:seashells
660:Suetonius
646:Caratacus
634:Atrebates
527:, at the
499:Londinium
463:Caratacus
459:Fosse Way
410:Caledonia
402:Stanegate
287:Londinium
153:Caratacus
3634:. 2004.
3541:(1987),
3514:, 15–16.
3502:Barnes,
3389:W. Eck,
3369:unrv.com
3273::88–89,
3258:Agricola
3256:Tacitus
3243:Agricola
3241:Tacitus
3228:Agricola
3226:Tacitus
3213:Agricola
3211:Tacitus
3198:Agricola
3196:Tacitus
3092:Agricola
3090:Tacitus
3028:Archived
2992:Agricola
2990:Tacitus
2933:Archived
2927:Claudius
2828:Archived
2825:60.19–22
2802:Archived
2784:Archived
2770:Archived
2764:Caligula
2732:Archived
2707:Archived
2681:Archived
2669:Augustus
2646:Archived
2597:Fraser,
2588:, p. 189
2504:Agricola
2502:Tacitus
2492:14.29–39
1961:Admirals
1936:Generals
1867:a series
1865:Part of
1833:See also
1825:(modern
1823:Hibernia
1819:Goidelic
1789:Emperor
1681:Selgovae
1666:Eboracum
1658:Caerleon
1642:Novantae
1640:and the
1638:Damnonii
1634:Selgovae
1626:Lowlands
1519:Maryport
1436:Ayrshire
1423:Votadini
1419:Damnonii
1415:Novantae
1397:and the
1391:Selgovae
1356:Calgacus
1326:Selgovae
1315:Anglesey
1284:in west
1282:Pumsaint
1267:Caerleon
1252:governor
1232:Maryport
1228:Beckfoot
1216:Brocavum
1212:Brougham
1147:Stanwick
1131:Venutius
1098:when he
1088:Anatolia
1067:Pennines
934:Batavian
866:Rutupiae
862:Boulogne
715:Claudius
680:and the
656:Caligula
586:Augustus
567:Iron Age
525:Calgacus
437:Hispania
394:Claudius
380:was the
360:(AD 407)
348:(AD 398)
307:(AD 140)
269:Anglesey
176:Calgacus
120:Claudius
63:Location
58:AD 43–84
3609:A.D. 43
3586:Tacitus
3261:, 24–38
3246:, 19–23
3231:, 20-21
2626:, p. 10
2575:, 14.37
2558:Welch,
2507:, 14–16
1931:Auxilia
1922:Legions
1827:Ireland
1805:beyond
1758:Pictish
1747:Maeatae
1693:Otadini
1630:Otadini
1587:
1580:Hadrian
1538:
1523:Moresby
1479:de jure
1358:at the
1348:Kintyre
1273:Augusta
1263:Silures
1185:Chester
1120:Boudica
1104:Boudica
1059:Silures
1033:to the
1019:Lincoln
916:on the
734:legions
697:), the
686:musculi
678:Capitol
632:). The
487:Boudica
386:Britain
301:(AD 83)
170:†
164:Boudica
155: (
147:†
85:changes
3917:Second
3883:Second
3809:Fourth
3799:Second
3772:Second
3597:Annals
3549:
3466:2 June
3444:Press.
3430:
3375:1 June
3371:. UNRV
3179:
3152:. p.33
3148:
3129:
3073:
3008:
2887:Annals
2867:Annals
2697:Strabo
2613:, p. 9
2573:Annals
2549:, p. 7
2533:, p. 6
2490:Annals
2479:, p. 5
2459:
2432:
2405:
2064:
2021:Castra
1956:Fleets
1883:AD 476
1879:753 BC
1869:on the
1843:Walmer
1660:, the
1616:, the
1578:Under
1542:Galava
1531:Trajan
1503:Magnis
1421:, and
1352:Argyll
1139:Solway
1096:druids
1057:. The
1031:Humber
1011:Exeter
1006:oppida
941:Thames
920:. The
878:Solent
763:, the
723:Verica
703:Dubris
682:Palace
642:Verica
605:Strabo
477:, was
475:druids
465:until
439:, and
433:Italia
425:Verica
254:Medway
166:
143:
75:Result
3922:Third
3912:First
3888:Third
3878:First
3804:Third
3794:First
3777:Third
3767:First
3493:77.16
2781:59.25
2767:44–46
2729:60:19
2658:53.25
2654:53.22
2643:49.38
2124:Walls
2118:Limes
2041:Roads
1803:Picts
1672:from
1664:from
1656:from
1646:Coria
1604:When
1286:Wales
1259:Wales
1051:Wales
1023:Latin
945:Essex
888:) or
690:slang
3600:and
3547:ISBN
3468:2017
3428:ISBN
3413:5.4.
3377:2017
3351:2020
3325:2020
3299:2020
3216:, 18
3201:, 18
3177:ISBN
3146:ISBN
3127:ISSN
3095:, 17
3071:ISBN
3006:ISBN
2995:, 14
2912:7:13
2457:ISBN
2430:ISBN
2403:ISBN
1946:Navy
1902:Army
1847:Kent
1780:York
1687:and
1679:The
1648:and
1269:for
1230:and
1222:and
1143:Tyne
1080:Nero
904:and
874:Kent
753:The
599:and
504:The
497:and
471:Mona
441:Gaul
376:The
55:Date
23:and
3119:doi
2704:4.5
1468:in
1311:ala
1118:of
607:'s
561:'s
158:POW
4102:43
4083::
3611:,
3594:,
3588:,
3566:,
3458:.
3409:,
3367:.
3341:.
3315:.
3289:.
3125:.
3115:36
3113:.
3109:.
3051:^
2964:.
2930:17
2918:^
2907:,
2889:,
2869:,
2849:,
2808:,
2762:,
2724:,
2699:,
2678:32
2671:,
2656:,
2652:,
2638:,
2538:^
1881:–
1845:,
1786:.
1636:,
1632:,
1585:r.
1536:r.
1509:.
1501:,
1452:c.
1438:.
1417:,
1405:,
1254:.
1025::
830:.
786:XX
729:.
662:'
648:'
510:c.
493:,
435:,
3679:e
3672:t
3665:v
3649:.
3470:.
3434:.
3393:(
3379:.
3353:.
3327:.
3301:.
3185:.
3133:.
3121::
3079:.
3025:4
2968:.
2951:.
2465:.
2438:.
2411:.
2328:e
2321:t
2314:v
1849:.
1710:-
1593:-
1582:(
1533:(
1276:(
1214:(
1141:-
1021:(
884:(
868:(
628:(
219:e
212:t
205:v
161:)
27:.
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