1855:
arbitrary king. "Both natural law and
English constitutional doctrine gave the colonists a right to revolt against the sovereign's oppression." But these understandings about the right of revolution on the eve of the American Revolution rested on a traditional model of government. That model posited the existence of a hypothetical bargain struck in the mists of antiquity between a king and a people. "In this bargain, the people were protected by the monarch in exchange for the people giving the king allegiance. This was a contractual relationship. American revolutionaries accused George III of breaching his implied duty of protection under that contract, thereby releasing the people in the colonies from their allegiance. The sovereign's breach of the hypothetical contract gave rise to the subjects' right of revolution – grounded on both natural law and English constitutional doctrine."
1703:, Locke discusses the pro-monarchy philosopher William Barclay's notions about the preconditions for the right of revolution against a monarch: "First. He says it must be with reverence. Secondly. It must be without retribution or punishment; and the reason he gives is, 'because an inferior cannot punish a superior'." Locke disagreed with both these preconditions, explaining that it is impossible to strike against any opposition 'with reverence' and that an oppressor loses his superiority by being an oppressor. Elsewhere Barclay insists that a king must be dethroned as a precondition for the right of revolution against a monarchy: "The people, therefore, can never come by a power over him unless he does something that makes him cease to be a king", which may only happen if the king tries to overturn his kingdom or make his rule dependent on force provided by another country.
2147:
provisions that mirrored the traditional right of revolution. ... Other state constitutions adopted different versions of this right to "alter or abolish" government that did not sound like the traditional right of revolution. In these provisions, the ability of the people to revise constitutions existed regardless of the traditional preconditions for the right of revolution. ... Increasingly, as
Americans included it in their constitutions, the right of revolution came to be seen as a constitutional principle permitting the people as the sovereign to control government and revise their constitutions without limit. In this way, the right broke loose from its traditional moorings of resistance to oppression. The alter or abolish provisions could now be interpreted consistent with the constitutional principle that in America, the sovereign was the people.
37:
2746:, which all admit. Whenever the burdens of the Government under which it acts become so onerous that it cannot bear them, or if anticipated evil shall be so great that the State believes it would be better off – even risking the perils of secession – out of the Union than in it, then that State, in my opinion, like all people upon earth, has the right to exercise the great fundamental principle of self-preservation, and go out of the Union – though, of course, at its own peril – and bear the risk of the consequences. And while no State may have the constitutional right to secede from the Union, the President may not be wrong when he says the Federal Government has no power under the Constitution to compel the State to come back into the Union. It may be a
1194:
institutions that act "as guards and fences to the properties of all society". In other writings, he used the analogy of a robber to explain why tyrannical infringement on property makes for unjust law: "Should a robber break into my house, and, with a dagger at my throat, make me seal deeds to convey my estate to him, would this give him any title? Just such a title by his sword has an unjust conqueror who forces me into submission. The injury and the crime is equal, whether committed by the wearer of a crown or some petty villain." Thus, according to Locke, if a government acts against a citizen's right of property, that citizen may exercise his right of revolution against that government.
829:
1734:
1275:
1348:
982:, he observed that contemporary monarchs pretend to reign "by the grace of God", but the pretense was "a mere cheat" so that they could "reign without control". He believed that "Earthly princes depose themselves while they rise up against God", so "it behooves us to spit upon their heads than to obey them". When ordinary citizens are confronted with tyranny, he wrote, ordinary citizens have to suffer it. But magistrates have the duty to "curb the tyranny of kings", as had the
622:
1427:
1086:
908:. He considers a law not to be a law at all, but an act of violence, if it contradicts either human or Divine good, overextends the power of the lawgiver, or hampers different parts of society unequally. For Aquinas, overthrowing a tyrant does not make a population seditious. Rather, the tyranny of tyrants means they commit "sedition", by which Aquinas means disturbance of those who work together lawfully for the good of the multitude:
746:
1335:, he gave an account of the historical limitation of kingly power by the multitude, a conflict he termed "liberty". This progress was sought "by obtaining a recognition of certain immunities, called political liberties or rights, which it was to be regarded as a breach of duty in the ruler to infringe, and which if he did infringe, specific resistance, or general rebellion, was held to be justifiable". On the question of
1234:
2160:
1842:
opposed with force. This right implied a duty on the part of the people to resist unconstitutional acts. As
Alexander Hamilton noted in 1775, government exercised powers to protect "the absolute rights" of the people and government forfeited those powers and the people could reclaim them if government breached this constitutional contract.
1339:, Mill came down firmly in favour of the virtue of "the act of a private citizen in striking down a criminal, who, by raising himself above the law, has placed himself beyond the reach of legal punishment or control, has been accounted by whole nations, and by some of the best and wisest of men, not a crime, but an act of exalted virtue".
3131:. In Chapter 2, "Revolutionary Constitutionalism", Professor Fritz notes that after the Revolution, "ncreasingly, as Americans included it in their constitutions, the right of revolution came to be seen as a constitutional principle permitting the people as the sovereign to control government and revise their constitutions without limit."
1201:'s rebellion against the King of Assyria to make the case that God supported any people rebelling against unrighteous rule, saying that "it is plain that shaking off a power which force, and not right, hath set over any one, though it hath the name of rebellion, yet it is no offence before God, but that which He allows and countenances".
1310:, stating that "there is no right of sedition, and still less of revolution", the reason being that "it is only by submission to the universal legislative will, that a condition of law and order is possible." Moreover, Kant believed that any "forcible compulsion of , on the part of the people, cannot be justified under the pretext of a
796:. Believing they had the right to violently rebel to get better treatment and greater appreciation from the state, he rhetorically asked the common soldiery why they submitted to the centurions while military life entailed such low pay and so many years in service. Many soldiers shared his feelings. According to the historian
1379:
long. Mankind will not bear it. If a sovereign oppresses his people to a great degree, they will rise and cut off his head. There is a remedy in human nature against tyranny, that will keep us safe under every form of government. Had not the people of France thought themselves honoured as sharing in the brilliant actions of
3275:, I:111 (identifying the collective right of the people “to preserve their rights by force and even rebellion against constituted authority”), III:427n31 (quoting Viscount Bolingbroke that the "collective Body of the People" had the right to "break the Bargain between the King and the Nation"); Pauline Maier,
1547:. This preface from 24 June 1793 contained a declaration of the rights of man and citizen including right to rebellion in §35: "When the government violates the rights of the people, insurrection is for the people, and for every portion thereof, the most sacred of rights and the most indispensable of duties."
678:) is the right or duty of a people to "alter or abolish" a government that acts against their common interests or threatens the safety of the people without justifiable cause. Stated throughout history in one form or another, the belief in this right has been used to justify various revolutions, including the
2775:, 1986–1993), I:111 (identifying the collective right of the people "to preserve their rights by force and even rebellion against constituted authority"), III:427n31 (quoting Viscount Bolingbroke that the "collective Body of the People" had the right to "break the Bargain between the King and the Nation").
2031:
Articles 33–35: Resistance to oppression is the consequence of the other rights of man. There is oppression against the social body when a single one of its members is oppressed. There is oppression against every member when the social body is oppressed. When the government violates the rights of the
1972:
That all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and instituted for their peace, safety, and happiness; for the advancement of those ends they have at all times, an unalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such
1956:
All power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority and instituted for their peace, safety and happiness. For the advancement of these ends they have at all times an inalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform or abolish their government in such manner
1695:
John Locke believed in the precondition that the right of violent insurrection could only be retained by those challenging tyranny, stipulating "that force is to be opposed to nothing but to unjust and unlawful force". The right of revolution only gave a people the right to rebel against unjust rule,
1530:
Simply put, "An insurrection, whatever may be its immediate cause, eventually endangers all government." However, Hamilton did point out that the wide geography of the United States meant that a federal army could not provide absolute limitation on the right of revolution, since, "If the federal army
1525:
That seditions and insurrections are, unhappily, maladies as inseparable from the body politic as tumours and eruptions from the natural body; that the idea of governing all at all times by the simple force of law (which we have been told is the only admissible principle of republican government) has
1508:
Whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and
1264:
The contract of government is so completely dissolved by despotism, that the despot is master only so long as he remains the strongest; as soon as he can be expelled, he has no right to complain of violence. The popular insurrection that ends in the death or deposition of a Sultan is as lawful an act
1193:
For Locke, these governments undid themselves by standing in the way of a citizen's right to property. He believed that "governments are dissolved" when "they endeavour to invade the property of the subject", since it is the right of the people to "choose and authorise a legislative" and accompanying
2146:
The constitutional logic of recognizing the people, not a king, as the sovereign implied the irrelevance of a right of revolution in
America. This did not develop instantly or uniformly after the establishment of American governments. Some of the first state constitutions included "alter or abolish"
1672:
Thinkers often emphasise the great responsibility in taking hold of the right to revolution. Aquinas believed that would-be revolutionaries held no right to rebel against a tyrant if "the tyrant's rule be disturbed so inordinantly that his subjects suffer greater harm from the consequent disturbance
1668:
argued that a dissident should openly criticise his nation's policies, "provided that his words are not likely either to fall on deaf ears or to lead to the loss of his own life", he also stipulated against seemingly necessary violent insurrection: "force against his native land he should not use in
1289:
would have strongly disagreed with Locke and
Rousseau as regards the notion of there being any general principle of a right to revolution. He believed that "if the ruler or regent, as the organ of the supreme power, proceeds in violation of the laws, as in imposing taxes, recruiting soldiers, and so
1923:
are perverted, and public liberty manifestly endangered, and all other means of redress are ineffectual, the people may, and of right ought to reform the old, or establish a new government. The doctrine of nonresistance against arbitrary power, and oppression, is absurd, slavish, and destructive of
1850:
suggested that using the law of redress would be "extraordinary", for example applying if the king broke the original contract, violated "the fundamental laws", or abandoned the kingdom. During the Stamp Act crisis of the 1760s the
Massachusetts Provincial Congress considered resistance to the king
1845:
The law of redress had limits like the right of revolution under natural law. The law of redress, like the right of revolution, was not an individual right. It belonged to the community as a whole, as one of the parties to the original constitutional contract. It was not a means of first resort, or
1837:
called "the law of redress against public oppression". Like the natural law's right of revolution, this constitutional law of redress justified the people resisting the sovereign. This law of redress arose from a contract between the people and the king to preserve the public welfare. This original
1378:
Boswell emphasised this sentence "with peculiar pleasure, as a noble instance of that truly dignified spirit of freedom which ever glowed in his heart". Johnson seemed to believe that some form of a right to revolution inhered in natural law. He considered "that in no government power can be abused
1939:
All power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority and instituted for their peace, safety, happiness and the protection of property. For the advancement of these ends, they have at all times an inalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform or abolish
819:
suppressed a rebellion of Gallic peasants violently resisting exploitation by their masters. These fought for their natural rights against the miserable conditions they were placed under. Gibbon says that they "asserted the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights with the most savage
1841:
This well-accepted law of redress justified a people resisting unconstitutional acts of government. Liberty depended upon the people's "ultimate" right to resist. Unconstitutional commands breaching the "voluntary compact between the rulers and the ruled" could be "ignored" and arbitrary commands
1070:
Italy, left without life, waits for him who shall yet heal her wounds and put an end to the ravaging and plundering of
Lombardy, to the swindling and taxing of the kingdom and of Tuscany, and cleanse those sores that for long have festered. It is seen how she entreats God to send someone who will
2001:
All political power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and instituted for their benefit. The faith of the people of Texas stands pledged to the preservation of a republican form of government, and, subject to this limitation only, they have at all
1851:
justified if freedom came under attack from "the hand of oppression" and "the merciless feet of tyranny". A decade later the "indictment" of George III in the
Declaration of Independence sought to end his sovereign reign over the colonies because he violated the original constitutional contract.
1677:
was equally cautious, warning that "to establish a better regimen in the stead of that which a man has overthrown, many who have attempted it have foundered". Even the
American Declaration of Independence admits that "Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be
1218:
However, Locke was not only a proponent of fighting tyranny through civil disobedience of unjust laws. He also suggested using violent insurrection in situations where an illegitimate centre of power, such as a rogue executive, has used force to subdue the supreme power in the land, that is, the
1767:, have written that with the end of the Revolution, Americans did not renounce the right of revolution. In fact they codified it in their new constitutions and even today 35 constitutions of American states have the same or similar provisions on the right of revolution as in the preamble of the
1716:
disapproves of the Cretan constitution's provision for the aristocratic right of revolution against the Cosmi, the ten most important magistrates in the country: "Worst of all is the suspension of the office of Cosmi, a device to which the nobles often have recourse when they will not submit to
1223:
For having erected a legislative with an intent that should exercise the power of making laws, ... when they are hindered by any force from what is so necessary to the society, and wherein the safety and preservation of the people consists, the people have a right to remove it by force. In all
1584:, "private individuals were forbidden to take force against their rulers either for malice or because of private injuries". Instead, "not just a few individuals, but the 'Body of the People' had to feel concerned" before the right of revolution was justified and with most writers speaking of a
1204:
Like
Aquinas, Locke believed that the truly seditious or rebellious individuals are not those who change the legislative to ensure public wellbeing, but the despots who violated public wellbeing in the first place with their illegitimate laws: "For when men, by entering into society and civil
1854:
As explained in legal historian Christian Fritz's description of the role of the right of revolution in American Revolution, American independence was justified by conventional theories under Anglo-American constitutional thought at the time about the people's collective right to cast off an
1691:
argued that, since they have consented to invest their sovereign with the right of rulership, monarchical subjects can only change rulers with the original sovereign's permission. He states that "they that are subjects to a monarch cannot without his leave cast off monarchy and return to the
732:
would bless the authority of a just ruler, but would be displeased and withdraw its mandate from a despotic ruler. The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven had passed on.
1173:, or to reduce them to Slavery under Arbitrary Power, they put themselves into a state of War with the People, who are thereupon absolved from any farther Obedience, and are left to the common Refuge, which God hath provided for all Men, against Force and Violence. Whensoever therefore the
1751:
In the American Revolutionary context, one finds expressions of the right of revolution both as subject to precondition and as unrestrained by conditions. On the eve of the American Revolution, for example, Americans considered their plight to justify exercise of the right of revolution.
1692:
confusion of a disunited multitude; nor transfer their person from him that beareth it to another man, or other assembly of men". Elsewhere he emphasises this point by saying that "the commands of them that have the right to command are not by their subjects to be censured nor disputed".
1760:, the Declaration was the last-ditch effort of an oppressed people—the position in which many Americans saw themselves in 1776. Jefferson's litany of colonial grievances was an effort to establish that Americans met their burden to exercise the natural law right of revolution.
1795:'s 1784 constitution required the perversion of the ends of government and the endangering of public liberty and that all other means of redress were to no avail. But in contrast, other states dispensed with the onerous preconditions on the exercise of the right. In the 1776
854:, an English charter issued in 1215, which required the King to renounce certain rights and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It included a "security clause" that gave the right to a committee of barons to overrule the will of the King through force if needed.
1696:
not any rule: "whoever, either ruler or subject, by force goes about to invade the rights of either prince or people, and lays the foundation for overturning the constitution and frame of any just government, he is guilty of the greatest crime I think a man is capable of".
1787:, describes a duality in American views on preconditions to the right of revolution: "Some of the first state constitutions included 'alter or abolish' provisions that mirrored the traditional right of revolution" in that they required dire preconditions to its exercise.
1663:
Certain theories of the right of revolution impose significant preconditions on its exercise, sometimes limiting its invocation to the most dire circumstances. Aristotle insisted that "men of rank" who "excel in virtue have the best right of all to rebel". Although
2018:
Article 11: Any act directed against a person, apart from the cases and without the forms determined by law, is arbitrary and tyrannical; if attempt is made to execute such act by force, the person who is the object thereof has the right to resist it by force.
912:
Indeed it is the tyrant rather that is guilty of sedition, since he encourages discord and sedition among his subjects, that he may lord over them more securely; for this is tyranny, since it is ordered to the private good of the ruler and to the injury of the
1775:
in 1780, preserved the people's right "to reform, alter, or totally change" government not only for their protection or safety but also whenever their "prosperity and happiness require it". This expression was not unusual in the early American constitutions.
1826:
invoked the natural law right of revolution, natural law was not the sole justification for American independence. English constitutional doctrine also supported the colonists' actions, at least up to a point. By the 1760s, English law recognized what
733:
Throughout Chinese history, rebels who opposed the ruling dynasty made the claim that the Mandate of Heaven had passed, giving them the right to revolt. Ruling dynasties were often uncomfortable with this, and the writings of the Confucian philosopher
1988:
3d. That Government ought to be instituted for the common benefit, protection and security of the people; and that the doctrine of non-resistance against arbitrary power and oppression is absurd, slavish, and destructive to the good and happiness of
2093:
Citizens have the right to resist anybody who would do away with the democratic order of human rights and fundamental freedoms, established by this Charter, if the actions of constitutional bodies or the effective use of legal means have been
2767:(Cambridge University Press, 2008), 14 (noting that under English constitutional law the right of revolution "belonged to the community as a whole, as one of the parties to the original constitutional contract"). See also John Phillip Reid,
3279:, 1765–1776, 33–34 ("Private individuals were forbidden to take force against their rulers either for malice or because of private injuries, even if no redress for their grievances were afforded by the regularly constituted government").
1454:, Locke's mentor, patron and friend, introduced the bill, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. Alternatively, the work is better associated with the revolutionary conspiracies that swirled around what would come to be known as the
780:
observes, after Tarquin's overthrow, "the ambitious Roman who should dare to assume their title or imitate tyranny was devoted to the infernal gods: each of his fellow-citizens was armed with the sword of justice; and the act of
2750:
in the constitution; but I should like to know where the power exists in the Constitution of the United States to authorize the Federal Government to coerce a sovereign State. It does not exist in any terms, at any rate, in the
845:, who in 1018 had a dramatic confrontation with the King of Sweden. The lawspeaker claimed the King of Sweden was accountable to the people and would be overthrown by them if he continued with his unpopular war with Norway.
1572:
Although some explanations of the right of revolution leave open the possibility of its exercise as an individual right, it was clearly understood to be a collective right under English constitutional and political theory.
1871:
mention this right or guarantee this right to citizens because of the destabilizing effect such a guarantee would likely produce. Among the examples of an articulation of a right of revolution as positive law include:
769:"stands deprived by his own act of honours and immunities, by the neglect of the duty for which the honour was bestowed upon him". For Gracchus, he "who assails the power of the people is no longer a tribune at all".
1599:
as stating "That particular men are allowed ... to have no other remedy but patience; but the body of the people may with, with respect, resist intolerable tyranny, for when it is moderate they ought to endure it."
811:
on the grounds that Nero's crimes meant he no longer deserved the love of the people: "I began to hate you when you became the murderer of your mother and your wife, a charioteer, an actor, and an incendiary."
2072:
Observance of the constitution is entrusted to the patriotism of the Greeks who shall have the right and the duty to resist by all possible means against anyone who attempts the violent abolition of the
1034:
was widely considered to be a mistake. Instead, the safest course of action for the people was to endure tyranny for as long as it could be borne, rather than run the larger risks of armed revolution.
1215:, he argued that "if the law, indeed, be concerning things that lie not within the verge of the magistrates authority, ... men are not in these cases obliged by that law, against their consciences."
1006:. That Calvin could support a right of resistance in theory did not mean that he thought such resistance prudent in all circumstances. At least publicly, he disagreed with the Scottish Calvinist
1152:, to replace the government with one that served the interests of citizens. In some cases, Locke saw revolution as an obligation. For him, the right of revolution acted as a safeguard against
1209:– that is, bring back again the state of war, and are properly rebels". Also like Aquinas, Locke considered it just for a subject to disobey any ruler overextending his political power. In
1756:
justified American resistance as an expression of "the law of nature" redressing violations of "the first principles of civil society" and invasions of "the rights of a whole people". For
3480:
1838:
contract was "a central dogma in English and British constitutional law" since "time immemorial". The Declaration's long list of grievances declared that this bargain had been breached.
1066:
exhorts the Medici family to take up violent insurrection "to liberate Italy from the barbarians". He explains why contemporary circumstances justify the Medici's right of revolution:
3288:
Some commentators endorsed the right of resistance if Parliament "jeopardized the constitution", but most identified the need for oppression and tyranny before its exercise. See Reid,
1638:
states that "when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their
1205:
government, have excluded force, and introduced laws for the preservation of property, peace, and unity among themselves, those who set up force again in opposition to the law, do
800:, "The throng applauded from various motives, some pointing to the marks of the lash, others to their grey locks, and most of them to their threadbare garments and naked limbs."
1725:
believed that this institution successfully hindered the abuse of power, thanks to the existing precondition of a powerful patriotism felt by the Cretans towards their island.
1521:
successfully made the case for a federal standing army, in opposition to Locke's principle that a republican government rules not by violence, but by law. Hamilton thought:
1669:
order to bring about a change of constitution, when it is not possible for the best constitution to be introduced without driving men into exile or putting them to death".
1329:
believed in a morally justifiable form of right to revolution against tyranny, placing him firmly in the tradition of Aquinas, Locke, and Rousseau. In his introduction to
1717:
justice." For Aristotle, this is evidence of oligarchical interference codified into supposedly constitutional, republican government. In contrary to this view, the
1265:
as those by which he disposed, the day before, of the lives and fortunes of his subjects. He was maintained by force alone, it is force alone that overthrows him.
2734:"The Congressional Globe: containing The Debates and Proceedings of the Second Session of the Thirty-Sixth Congress: also, of the Special Session of the Senate"
2045:, as well as a clause in its Article 20 (since 1968) recognizing the right of the people to resist unconstitutional tyranny, if all other measures have failed:
1822:
An example of the dual nature of the right of revolution as both a natural law and as positive law is found in the American revolutionary context. Although the
1588:'whole people who are the Public', or the body of the people acting in their 'public Authority', indicating a broad consensus involving all ranks of society".
1071:
deliver her from these wrongs and barbarous insolencies. It is seen also that she is ready and willing to follow a banner if only someone will raise it.
776:"when he acted wrongfully; and for the crime of one single man, the ancient government under which Rome was built was abolished forever." As historian
3119:
36:
2012:
1189:, the People had put into their hands, for quite contrary ends, and it devolves to the People, who have a Right to resume their original Liberty.
3544:
3491:
1555:
The inherent (rather than constitutional) right to revolt was cited in the year prior the civil war's start as justifying the secession of the
1451:
3451:
Randy Barnett, The Rights Retained by the People, The History and Meaning of the Ninth Amendment, George Mason University Press, 1989), p. 364
2106:
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that
2038:
2022:
Article 12: Those who incite, dispatch, sign, or execute arbitrary acts, or cause them to be executed, are guilty and must be punished. ...
1423:. Although Locke's treatise was published the year after, his ideas were already widely current in the English political system at the time.
1642:, to throw off such Government" (emphasis added). The phrase "long train of abuses" is a reference to John Locke's similar statement in the
737:(372–289 BCE) were often suppressed for declaring that the people have the right to overthrow a ruler that did not provide for their needs.
943:
650:
1489:
3529:
2742:
But, sir, while a State has no power under the Constitution conferred upon it, to secede from the Federal Government or from the Union,
2079:
1780:'s 1818 constitution articulated the people's right "at all times" to alter government "in such a manner as they may think expedient".
1391:
Revolutionary movements subsequent to this, all drew on Locke's theory as a justification for the exercise of the right of revolution.
2032:
people, insurrection is for the people, and for every portion thereof, the most sacred of rights and the most indispensable of duties.
1531:
should be able to quell the resistance of one State, the distant States would have it in their power to make head with fresh forces."
3752:
964:, were widely known and often feared for advocating resistance to tyranny and often tyrannicide—one of the implications of the
358:
2048:
All Germans shall have the right to resist any person seeking to abolish this constitutional order, if no other remedy is available.
2138:. In a study of the idea of rule by the people in the American Revolution and in early post-revolutionary America, legal historian
1446:'s ascension to the throne, it has been argued that the bulk of the writing was instead completed between 1679 and 1680 during the
1120:, especially the last two chapters, "Of Tyranny" and "Of the Dissolution of Government". The right formed an important part of his
3742:
3621:
1743:
3128:
2100:
2066:
309:
1526:
no place but in the reveries of those political doctors whose sagacity disdains the admonitions of experimental instruction.
1823:
1768:
549:
2829:
1833:
1620:
to rebel, because the right to rebellion ruins the order of power, whereas the duty to rebel goes beyond and breaks it."
2863:
3413:
1882:
1608:
Some philosophers argue that it is not only the right of a people to overthrow an oppressive government but also their
450:
3367:
3732:
2873:
2839:
2347:
2230:
1803:'s 1776 constitution required only that the people considered a change to be "most conducive" to the public welfare.
1374:
If the abuse be enormous, Nature will rise up, and claiming her original rights, overturn a corrupt political system.
398:
2002:
times the inalienable right to alter, reform or abolish their government in such manner as they may think expedient.
1635:
643:
2363:, Part I–II, Question 96, Article 4 (Fathers of the English Dominican Province, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (Ed.),
837:
marks one of the earliest attempts to limit a sovereign's authority and it is seen as a symbol of the rule of law.
3234:
The Federal and State Constitutions Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws of the ... United States of America
3188:
See Maryland 1776 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Sec. 4; New Hampshire 1784 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Art. 10.
2786:
From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765–1776
754:
2399:
1982:
1211:
368:
858:
directly influenced the development of parliamentary democracy and many constitutional documents, such as the
2772:
1909:
1556:
785:, however repugnant to gratitude or prudence, had been already sanctified by the judgement of his country."
3737:
3696:
3197:
Virginia 1776 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Sec. 3; Pennsylvania 1776 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Sec. 5.
1950:
1895:
522:
477:
440:
428:
373:
1912:
guarantees its citizens the right to reform government, in Article 10 of the New Hampshire constitution's
1504:
which violated the colonist's natural right to life, liberty, and property. According to the declaration:
828:
3722:
3631:
2008:
1864:
1540:
1290:
on, contrary to the law of equality in the distribution of the political burdens, the subject may oppose
1161:
1116:
1090:
842:
636:
584:
3727:
3614:
1733:
1630:
to rebel is extremely important to stress, for it shows that they thought they were complying with the
859:
462:
457:
3277:
From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain
1274:
1177:
shall transgress this fundamental Rule of Society; and either by Ambition, Fear, Folly or Corruption,
3541:
1966:
1306:
569:
363:
321:
2042:
1933:
1771:. For instance, constitutions considered to be "conservative", such as those of post-revolutionary
1596:
1431:
2025:
Article 27: Let any individual who would usurp sovereignty be put to death instantly by free men.
1683:
1480:
1256:
1242:
1042:
512:
167:
3589:
2041:, the federal constitution, contains both entrenched, un-amendable clauses protecting human and
1936:
guarantees a right to alter, reform or abolish their government in the Kentucky Bill of Rights:
1811:
Descriptions of the Right of Revolution also differ in whether that right is considered to be a
2183:
1647:
1443:
1412:
172:
71:
1513:
However, the Revolution did change course to set certain limits on the right of rebellion. In
1484:
used the concept as an argument for rejection of the British monarchy and separation from the
1063:
3607:
2733:
1995:
1920:
1404:
1383:, they would not have endured him; and we may say the same of the King of Prussia's people."
1251:
983:
544:
492:
472:
410:
390:
385:
219:
99:
94:
66:
61:
3701:
3691:
3177:
American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War
3120:
American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War
2765:
American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War
2188:
1785:
American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War
1718:
1708:
1107:
875:
782:
667:
502:
497:
279:
256:
157:
109:
56:
51:
20:
3070:, pp. 445–548). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1915)
2950:, pp. 318–319). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1877)
2920:, pp. 800–814). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1928)
2560:, pp. 439–441), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1887)
2539:, pp. 361–362), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1937)
2371:, pp. 445–548). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1947)
2253:, pp. 671–681). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1927)
1224:
states and conditions the true remedy of force without authority is to oppose force to it.
8:
3747:
1674:
1471:
1467:
1408:
1400:
1099:
1030:
969:
949:
922:
863:
679:
606:
579:
532:
517:
433:
353:
331:
326:
284:
214:
3481:"Preface to the Constitution of 1793 (Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen)"
2696:, pp. 96–98), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1787)
2424:, pp. 36–37). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1908)
2295:, pp. 1–184). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1927)
294:
3660:
3439:
2707:"Readings from the French Revolution – Chapter 13: Preface to the Constitution of 1793"
2505:, pp. 1–22), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1923)
2198:
2139:
2062:
1828:
1753:
1518:
1367:
1098:, developed the idea of "right of revolution". This notion was used as a basis for the
879:
691:
687:
601:
537:
487:
445:
415:
403:
341:
316:
304:
289:
274:
229:
119:
104:
3530:
The official English language translation of the Greek Constitution as of May 27, 2008
2942:
M. de Montaigne (1952). "Of Presumption" (C. Cotton, trans.). In W. C. Hazlitt (ed.),
2675:, pp. 1–3), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1776)
1450:, which attempted to prevent James II from ever taking the throne in the first place.
3686:
3515:
3124:
2869:
2835:
2706:
2343:
2226:
2165:
1815:(a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere) or
1544:
1514:
1435:
1416:
1011:
957:
927:
773:
762:
725:
683:
589:
559:
527:
467:
299:
194:
184:
114:
89:
3594:
3461:
3091:, p. 54). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1914)
1347:
162:
2203:
2178:
2135:
2058:
1757:
1497:
1326:
1278:
1141:
930:
advocated direct revolutionary assassination of unethical tyrannical rulers in his
904:
564:
482:
380:
348:
224:
2394:
1488:, as opposed to merely self-government within it. The right was also cited in the
1106:
Perhaps no other major philosopher wrote as much about the right of revolution as
3681:
3665:
3645:
3548:
3417:
3219:
John Phillip Reid, "The Irrelevance of the Declaration", in Hendrik Hartog, ed.,
2087:
1764:
1304:) to this injustice, but not active resistance." He reaffirms this repeatedly in
1121:
961:
892:; the Bull was the first constitutional document of the nation of Hungary, while
882:
noblemen, including the right to disobey the King when he acted contrary to law (
626:
554:
507:
423:
336:
3428:
2134:, the right of the people to remove the government has become embedded into the
1634:
of natural law and of nature's God when they threw off absolute despotism." The
765:
tried to justify depriving power from tribune Marcus Octavius by arguing that a
3650:
2083:
1978:
1913:
1485:
1455:
1447:
1363:
1351:
1124:, in which he defined the basis of social relationships. Locke said that under
1025:
1003:
979:
899:
804:
772:
He strengthened his argument by highlighting the precedent of the overthrow of
750:
251:
152:
142:
3389:
1185:
over the Lives, Liberties, and Estates of the People; By this breach of Trust
3716:
3655:
1905:
1799:
constitution the right would arise simply if government was "inadequate" and
1792:
1772:
1738:
1688:
1577:
1493:
1359:
1286:
1038:
1020:
The Catholic Church shared Calvin's prudential concerns – the Pope condemned
1014:
917:
777:
713:
246:
179:
3410:
841:
One example of the emergence of a right of revolution can be traced back to
3584:
2173:
2107:
1946:
1868:
1816:
1800:
1623:
1475:
987:
808:
717:
2223:
Challenging the Mandate of Heaven: Social Protest and State Power in China
2061:
have contained a right to resist in their concluding article. The current
1646:, where he explicitly established overthrow of a tyrant as an obligation.
3142:"The Crime of Terrorism and the Right of Revolution in International Law"
2111:
1819:(law enacted or adopted by proper authority for governing of the state).
1812:
1777:
1722:
1500:, two thirds of which consists of a list of the wrongs committed by King
1420:
1336:
1171:
Legislators endeavor to take away, and destroy the Property of the People
1149:
1125:
1050:
975:
965:
867:
850:
833:
574:
3560:
1747:
depicts another idealization of the exercise of the right of revolution.
1254:
would be in agreement on Locke's point about force, stating in his work
621:
3599:
3450:
1650:
likewise held that it is the duty of the people to resist unjust laws.
1501:
1426:
1331:
1145:
1111:
1095:
1085:
1058:
1021:
596:
189:
28:
3236:, V:2594 (noting that the King breached his contract with the people).
3232:
New Jersey 1776 Constitution, Preamble in Francis Newton Thorpe, ed.,
948:
Theological notions of the right of revolution were elaborated in the
3542:
English translation of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms
2127:
2099:
This right is inferred in the third paragraph of the preamble to the
1963:
1713:
1539:
The right of revolution was also included in the 1793 preface to the
1380:
1007:
209:
147:
3062:, Book II, Chapter 10 (B. Jowett, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (ed.),
1737:
The presentation of the draft of the Declaration of Independence in
1626:
writes of the American revolutionaries, "The notion that they had a
3141:
2131:
1930:
1878:
1867:
seek legitimacy by appealing to the right of revolution, far fewer
1796:
1788:
1466:
The right to revolution played a large part in the writings of the
1300:
1237:
1198:
1046:
999:
816:
793:
789:
745:
241:
2416:, Chapter XXVI (W. K. Marriott, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (ed.),
1285:
Not all Enlightenment thinkers supported the rebellion principle.
1281:
was a proponent of the right to revolution in the name of liberty.
2193:
1846:
response to trivial or casual errors of government. Blackstone's
1137:
953:
797:
766:
734:
204:
137:
3590:
The Founders Constitution, Vol. 1 Chapter 3, Right of Revolution
3551:
on the website of the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic
3210:(4 vols., Oxford, 1765–1769, Facsimile ed., repr., 1979), I:238.
2054:
2015:" with several right of revolution provisions which stated in
1887:
1612:
to do so. Howard Evans Kiefer opines, "It seems to me that the
1233:
1153:
1129:
995:
991:
896:
was the first constitutional charter of the nation of England.
199:
3258:
Alexander Hamilton, "The Farmer Refuted" (February 23, 1775),
1442:
Although Locke claimed that his book's purpose was to justify
1438:, when a people rose up to exercise their right of revolution.
1354:
saw the justifications for the right to rebel against tyranny.
1148:
against the government when it acted against the interests of
2754:(Iverson said this in 1860; 1861 is when Globe published it.)
1665:
871:
721:
3221:
Law in the American Revolution and the Revolution in the Law
1985:
of November 21, 1789 contains in its Declaration of Rights:
1246:
argues in favour of the right of revolution against despots.
2980:, pp. 101–104). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica.
1953:, under Article 1, Section 2 of the Declaration of Rights:
1133:
792:, the soldier Percennius fomented mutiny in the legions of
729:
236:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3469:
2287:, Book I (A. J. Church, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (Ed.),
1144:; under the social contract, the people could instigate a
3157:
Massachusetts 1780 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Art. 7.
1940:
their government in such manner as they may deem proper.
3466:
3166:
Connecticut 1818 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Sec. 2.
2740:. Washington: Congressional Globe Office. p. 11.
2641:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1988), 59–61.
2329:, p. 144). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica.
2274:, p. 92). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica.
902:
also writes about the right to resist tyranny in the
2155:
1415:, due to the former's unacceptable leanings towards
1183:
or put into the hands of any other an Absolute Power
2865:
Prophetic Tradition and Radical Rhetoric in America
2082:, a part of the constitutional systems of both the
978:believed something similar. In a commentary on the
1010:'s call for revolution against the Catholic Queen
3247:Constitutional History of the American Revolution
2769:Constitutional History of the American Revolution
1728:
1567:
3714:
3429:Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
2013:Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
926:, categorically denied any right of resistance.
2959:T. Jefferson, Declaration of Independence, p. 1
1998:contains similar wording in Article 1, Sect 2:
1616:to rebel is much more understandable than that
3123:. (Cambridge University Press, 2008) at p. 25
2972:, Part II, Chapter XVIII. In N. Fuller (ed.),
2615:), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica.
2581:), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica.
2458:), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica.
2245:(J. Dryden, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (ed.),
2126:Some have argued that because in modern times
1806:
1452:Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury
3615:
3517:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
2933:, Part II–II, Question 42, Article 2, Reply 3
2531:. (G. D. H. Cole, trans.) In R. M. Hutchins,
2384:, Part II–II, Question 42, Article 2, Reply 3
2039:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
1658:
1366:'s attack on the widespread assumption that "
1037:The right of revolution was expounded by the
712:To justify their overthrowing of the earlier
644:
3411:Constitution of the Commonwealth of Kentucky
2912:(J. Harward, trans.). In M. J. Adler (ed.),
2365:The Summa Theologica of Saint Thomas Aquinas
1885:, maintained a right of rebellion, known as
944:Resistance theory in the early modern period
3331:Reid, "Irrelevance of the Declaration", 84.
3083:(T. Nugent, trans.). In M. J. Adler (ed.),
2828:Kiefer, Howard Evans; Munitz, Milton Karl.
1858:
883:
3622:
3608:
2080:Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms
1763:Certain scholars, such as legal historian
1461:
1434:on 14 July 1789 has come to symbolize the
1394:
1159:Locke defended the right of revolution in
807:justified his right of revolution against
651:
637:
2552:. (W. Hastie, trans.) In R. M. Hutchins,
1678:changed for light and transient causes".
1197:Locke drew on the Old Testament story of
3629:
3146:Connecticut Journal of International Law
2944:The Essays of Michel Eyquem de Montaigne
2827:
2319:The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
2264:The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
1732:
1534:
1425:
1346:
1273:
1232:
1228:
1084:
888:). The Golden Bull is often compared to
827:
744:
3370:(in Spanish). Government of El Salvador
3179:(Cambridge University Press, 2008), 24.
3715:
3490:. college.columbia.edu. Archived from
3440:Constitution of the State of Tennessee
2861:
2744:each State has the right of revolution
2247:Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans
1562:
1075:
937:
3603:
3561:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
3532:on the website of Hellenic Parliament
3390:"State Constitution – Bill of Rights"
3049:, Chapter XIX, Section 235–237, p. 80
2731:
2101:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1550:
724:promulgated the concept known as the
1824:American Declaration of Independence
1769:American Declaration of Independence
1673:than from the tyrant's government".
1603:
878:. The law established the rights of
3595:North Carolina Constitution of 1789
3208:Commentaries on the Laws of England
3006:, Chapter XVIII, Section 204, p. 72
2289:The Annals and Histories of Tacitus
2121:
1834:Commentaries on the Laws of England
1321:
13:
3572:Fritz, American Sovereigns, 24–25.
2713:. Columbia University. p. 135
2450:, Chapter XVI, Section 176, p. 66
1924:the good and happiness of mankind.
1114:. He developed the concept in his
823:
14:
3764:
3578:
3032:, Chapter XIX, Section 235, p. 79
3019:, Chapter XIX, Section 230, p. 78
2818:, chapter XIX, Section 233, p. 79
2518:, Chapter III, Section 155, p. 61
2484:, chapter XIX, section 226, p. 77
2471:, Chapter XVI, Section 196, p. 70
2437:, Chapter XIX, Section 221, p. 75
1386:
1342:
702:
3753:Concepts in political philosophy
3392:. New Hampshire State Government
3260:The Papers of Alexander Hamilton
3106:The Papers of Alexander Hamilton
3089:Great Books of the Western World
3068:Great Books of the Western World
2978:Great Books of the Western World
2948:Great Books of the Western World
2918:Great Books of the Western World
2862:Darsey, James (September 1999).
2694:Great Books of the Western World
2673:Great Books of the Western World
2637:Laslett, Peter. "Introduction".
2613:Great Books of the Western World
2579:Great Books of the Western World
2558:Great Books of the Western World
2537:Great Books of the Western World
2503:Great Books of the Western World
2456:Great Books of the Western World
2422:Great Books of the Western World
2369:Great Books of the Western World
2327:Great Books of the Western World
2293:Great Books of the Western World
2272:Great Books of the Western World
2251:Great Books of the Western World
2158:
1653:
1636:U.S. Declaration of Independence
1269:
707:
620:
35:
3566:
3554:
3535:
3523:
3509:
3455:
3444:
3433:
3422:
3404:
3382:
3360:
3347:
3334:
3325:
3312:
3299:
3282:
3265:
3252:
3239:
3226:
3213:
3200:
3191:
3182:
3169:
3160:
3151:
3134:
3111:
3094:
3073:
3052:
3035:
3022:
3009:
2996:
2983:
2962:
2953:
2936:
2923:
2902:
2889:
2855:
2821:
2804:
2791:
2778:
2757:
2725:
2699:
2678:
2665:The Declaration of Independence
2657:
2644:
2631:
2618:
2597:
2584:
2563:
2542:
2521:
2508:
2487:
2474:
2461:
2440:
2427:
2406:
2387:
1973:manner as they may think proper
1595:, John Locke quotes the jurist
755:overthrow of the Roman monarchy
740:
663:Concept in political philosophy
3743:Control (social and political)
3249:(4 vols., 1986–1993), III:140.
2495:A Letter Concerning Toleration
2374:
2353:
2342:. Pearson Education. (2003).
2332:
2311:
2298:
2277:
2256:
2235:
2215:
1902:("the right to insurrection").
1883:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1729:During the American Revolution
1568:Individual or collective right
1212:A Letter Concerning Toleration
753:was established following the
1:
3079:Baron de Montesquieu (1952).
2993:, Part II, Chapter XX, p. 112
2799:From Resistance to Revolution
2773:University of Wisconsin Press
2688:, No. 28, in R. M. Hutchins,
2283:P. Cornelius Tacitus (1952).
2209:
1644:Second Treatise of Government
1582:From Resistance to Revolution
1557:Confederate States of America
1080:
3697:Collective rights management
2788:(Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 33.
1900:el derecho a la insurrecciĂłn
1896:Constitutions of El Salvador
1865:declarations of independence
1413:William III of Orange-Nassau
7:
3488:National Assembly of France
3368:"Derecho a la InsurrecciĂłn"
3047:Concerning Civil Government
3045:, I. iii. c. 16. in Locke,
3030:Concerning Civil Government
3017:Concerning Civil Government
3004:Concerning Civil Government
2816:Concerning Civil Government
2639:Two Treatises of Government
2529:On the Origin of Inequality
2516:Concerning Civil Government
2482:Concerning Civil Government
2469:Concerning Civil Government
2448:Concerning Civil Government
2435:Concerning Civil Government
2321:. In R. M. Hutchins (ed.),
2266:. In R. M. Hutchins (ed.),
2151:
2009:French Constitution of 1793
1945:Similar wording is used in
1807:Natural law or positive law
1744:Declaration of Independence
1701:Two Treatises of Government
1593:Two Treatises of Government
1541:French Constitution of 1793
1490:Declaration of Independence
1257:On the Origin of Inequality
1162:Two Treatises of Government
1117:Two Treatises of Government
1091:Two Treatises of Government
10:
3769:
3585:Locke and the Social Order
3520:(English translation; PDF)
3292:, III:121, 427n31; Maier,
2497:. In C. L. Sherman (ed.),
2395:"The Calvinist Connection"
1659:In philosophical discourse
1362:noted the literary critic
941:
860:United States Constitution
697:
3674:
3638:
3563:, United Nations website.
2831:Ethics and Social Justice
2403:, October 2008, pp. 27–31
2221:Perry, Elizabeth (2002).
1957:as they may think proper.
1791:'s 1776 constitution and
1307:The Metaphysics of Morals
1049:thinkers who legitimized
3733:Enlightenment philosophy
3675:Rights of other entities
3117:See Christian G. Fritz,
2763:See Christian G. Fritz,
2090:, states in Article 23:
2057:constitutions since the
1859:Examples as positive law
1468:American revolutionaries
1432:storming of the Bastille
1368:the King can do no wrong
2738:The Congressional Globe
2732:Rives, John C. (1861).
2412:N. Machiavelli (1952).
2110:should be protected by
1580:has noted in her study
1462:The American Revolution
1395:The Glorious Revolution
1243:Discourse on Inequality
1056:In the last chapter of
1043:French Wars of Religion
84:By other characteristic
3462:The Texas Constitution
3320:Constitutional History
3290:Constitutional History
3273:Constitutional History
2652:Revolutionary Politics
2184:Confederation (Poland)
2149:
2128:democratic governments
2116:
2096:
2075:
2050:
2034:
2004:
1991:
1975:
1959:
1942:
1926:
1748:
1648:Martin Luther King Jr.
1528:
1511:
1439:
1411:and replaced him with
1376:
1355:
1282:
1267:
1247:
1226:
1191:
1187:they forfeit the Power
1122:social contract theory
1103:
1073:
1041:in the context of the
915:
884:
843:Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker
838:
758:
3104:(February 23, 1775),
3043:Contra Monarchomachus
2812:Contra Monarchomachos
2690:American State Papers
2686:The Federalist Papers
2669:American State Papers
2667:, in R. M. Hutchins,
2663:T. Jefferson (1952).
2144:
2130:can be overthrown by
2104:
2091:
2070:
2046:
2016:
1999:
1996:Constitution of Texas
1986:
1970:
1962:Article I, §1 of the
1954:
1937:
1917:
1898:have long recognized
1736:
1591:In the second of his
1535:The French Revolution
1523:
1506:
1470:in the run up to the
1429:
1405:Parliament of England
1372:
1350:
1277:
1262:
1252:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
1236:
1229:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
1221:
1167:
1088:
1068:
984:Tribunes of the Plebs
910:
831:
748:
386:Bulgarian unification
62:Counter-revolutionary
3702:Corporate personhood
3692:Collective agreement
3497:on February 27, 2014
3206:William Blackstone,
3175:Christian G. Fritz,
3140:See Marsavelski, A.
3100:Alexander Hamilton,
2814:, iii. 8. in Locke,
2684:A. Hamilton (1952).
2550:The Science of Right
2527:J. Rousseau (1952).
2189:Political corruption
1719:French Enlightenment
1407:effectively deposed
1358:Scottish biographer
876:Andrew II of Hungary
761:The populist leader
668:political philosophy
158:Contentious politics
29:Political revolution
3738:Popular sovereignty
3355:American Sovereigns
3342:American Sovereigns
3245:John Phillip Reid,
3087:(1st ed., vol. 38,
2976:(1st ed., Vol. 23,
2946:(1st ed., vol. 25,
2899:, Book V, Chapter 1
2711:Columbia University
2692:(1st ed., vol. 43,
2671:(1st ed., Vol. 43,
2611:(1st ed., vol. 44,
2603:J. Boswell (1952).
2594:, Chapter 2, p. 274
2577:(1st ed., vol. 43,
2569:J. S. Mill (1952).
2556:(1st ed., vol. 42,
2535:(1st ed., vol. 28,
2501:(1st ed., Vol. 35,
2454:(1st ed., vol. 35,
2420:(1st ed., vol. 23,
2367:(1st ed., vol. 20,
2359:T. Aquinas (1952).
2325:(1st ed., Vol. 40,
2291:(1st ed., vol. 15,
2270:(1st ed., Vol. 41,
2249:(1st ed., Vol. 14,
2007:The preface to the
1675:Michel de Montaigne
1563:Nature of the right
1478:'s political tract
1472:American Revolution
1409:James II of England
1401:Glorious Revolution
1100:Glorious Revolution
1076:Philosophical views
1064:Niccolò Machiavelli
1031:Regnans in Excelsis
970:School of Salamanca
950:early modern period
938:Early modern Europe
923:Livre de Politiques
864:Golden Bull of 1222
848:Another example is
788:After the death of
716:, the kings of the
680:American Revolution
672:right of revolution
627:Politics portal
3723:Political concepts
3661:Self-determination
3547:2013-06-13 at the
3416:2009-07-03 at the
3102:The Farmer Refuted
3081:The Spirit of Laws
3066:(1st ed., vol. 9,
3058:Aristotle (1952).
2968:T. Hobbes (1952).
2916:(1st ed., Vol. 7,
2910:The Seventh Letter
2317:E. Gibbon (1952).
2262:E. Gibbon (1952).
2199:Regulatory capture
2140:Christian G. Fritz
2063:Greek Constitution
1921:ends of government
1829:William Blackstone
1754:Alexander Hamilton
1749:
1551:American Civil War
1519:Alexander Hamilton
1440:
1356:
1316:casus necessitatis
1312:right of necessity
1283:
1248:
1132:have the right to
1104:
839:
759:
720:(1122–256 BCE) of
692:Iranian Revolution
688:Russian Revolution
676:right of rebellion
602:Second Arab Spring
3728:Collective rights
3710:
3709:
3687:Return of results
3148:, vol. 28, p. 270
3129:978-0-521-88188-3
2493:J. Locke (1952).
2446:J. Locke (1952).
2414:To Liberate Italy
2338:Ralph V. Turner.
2308:, Book XV, p. 174
2243:Tiberius Gracchus
2241:Plutarch (1952).
2166:Philosophy portal
1604:Right versus duty
1545:French Revolution
1515:Federalist No. 28
1436:French Revolution
1179:endeavor to grasp
958:Robert Bellarmine
928:John of Salisbury
874:, issued by King
774:Tarquin the Proud
763:Tiberius Gracchus
726:Mandate of Heaven
684:French Revolution
661:
660:
195:Mass mobilization
185:Guerrilla warfare
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2548:I. Kant (1952).
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2204:Right to protest
2179:Civil resistance
2168:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2136:political system
2122:Modern relevance
2103:, which states:
2059:Greek Revolution
1881:, nobles of the
1758:Thomas Jefferson
1706:In his treatise
1587:
1498:Thomas Jefferson
1448:Exclusion Crisis
1327:John Stuart Mill
1322:John Stuart Mill
1279:John Stuart Mill
1142:private property
905:Summa Theologica
887:
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478:Hungarian (1956)
310:Spanish American
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3670:
3666:Right of return
3646:Right to resist
3639:National rights
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3549:Wayback Machine
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1456:Rye House Plot
1396:
1393:
1388:
1387:Use in history
1385:
1364:Samuel Johnson
1352:Samuel Johnson
1344:
1343:Samuel Johnson
1341:
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1026:Gunpowder Plot
1004:ancient Athens
980:Book of Daniel
942:Main article:
939:
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900:Thomas Aquinas
885:jus resistendi
825:
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805:Subrius Flavus
751:Roman Republic
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1195:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1169:Whenever the
1166:
1165:in this way:
1164:
1163:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1108:Enlightenment
1101:
1097:
1094:, written by
1093:
1092:
1087:
1072:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1039:Monarchomachs
1035:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
971:
968:focus of the
967:
963:
959:
956:, especially
955:
951:
945:
935:
933:
929:
925:
924:
919:
918:Nicole Oresme
914:
909:
907:
906:
901:
897:
895:
891:
886:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
852:
846:
844:
836:
835:
830:
821:
818:
815:In 285 C.E.,
813:
810:
806:
801:
799:
795:
791:
786:
784:
779:
778:Edward Gibbon
775:
770:
768:
764:
756:
752:
747:
738:
736:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
714:Shang dynasty
708:Ancient China
695:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
654:
649:
647:
642:
640:
635:
634:
632:
631:
628:
623:
618:
617:
608:
605:
604:
603:
600:
598:
595:
591:
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586:
583:
581:
578:
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571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
520:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
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501:
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283:
282:
281:
278:
276:
273:
272:
266:
265:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
247:Strike action
245:
243:
240:
238:
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231:
228:
226:
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218:
217:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
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198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
180:Direct action
178:
174:
171:
170:
169:
168:Demonstration
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
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129:
128:
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111:
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88:
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73:
70:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
53:
50:
49:
43:
42:
38:
34:
33:
30:
27:
26:
22:
18:
17:
3632:group rights
3568:
3556:
3537:
3525:
3516:
3511:
3499:. Retrieved
3492:the original
3487:
3457:
3446:
3435:
3424:
3406:
3394:. Retrieved
3384:
3372:. Retrieved
3362:
3354:
3349:
3341:
3336:
3327:
3319:
3314:
3307:Commentaries
3306:
3305:Blackstone,
3301:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3276:
3272:
3267:
3259:
3254:
3246:
3241:
3233:
3228:
3220:
3215:
3207:
3202:
3193:
3184:
3176:
3171:
3162:
3153:
3145:
3136:
3118:
3113:
3105:
3101:
3096:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3075:
3067:
3064:Aristotle II
3063:
3059:
3054:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3029:
3024:
3016:
3011:
3003:
2998:
2990:
2985:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2955:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2930:
2925:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2904:
2896:
2891:
2879:. Retrieved
2864:
2857:
2845:. Retrieved
2830:
2823:
2815:
2811:
2806:
2798:
2793:
2785:
2780:
2768:
2764:
2759:
2747:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2727:
2715:. Retrieved
2710:
2701:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2651:
2646:
2638:
2633:
2625:
2620:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2591:
2586:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2544:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2515:
2510:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2481:
2476:
2468:
2463:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2442:
2434:
2429:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2398:
2393:Dave Kopel,
2389:
2381:
2376:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2339:
2334:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2305:
2300:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2237:
2222:
2217:
2174:Citizen suit
2145:
2132:popular vote
2125:
2108:human rights
2105:
2092:
2071:
2047:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2017:
2000:
1987:
1983:constitution
1971:
1967:constitution
1955:
1951:constitution
1947:Pennsylvania
1938:
1934:constitution
1918:
1910:constitution
1899:
1886:
1862:
1853:
1848:Commentaries
1847:
1844:
1840:
1832:
1821:
1817:positive law
1810:
1801:Pennsylvania
1784:
1782:
1762:
1750:
1742:
1707:
1705:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1682:
1680:
1671:
1662:
1643:
1639:
1631:
1627:
1624:Morton White
1622:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1607:
1592:
1590:
1581:
1575:
1571:
1554:
1538:
1529:
1524:
1512:
1507:
1481:Common Sense
1479:
1476:Thomas Paine
1465:
1441:
1398:
1390:
1377:
1373:
1357:
1330:
1325:
1315:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1263:
1255:
1249:
1241:
1222:
1217:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1182:
1181:themselves,
1178:
1174:
1170:
1168:
1160:
1158:
1115:
1105:
1089:
1069:
1057:
1055:
1051:tyrannicides
1036:
1029:
1019:
1017:of England.
988:ancient Rome
974:
947:
932:Policraticus
931:
921:
916:
911:
903:
898:
893:
889:
855:
849:
847:
840:
832:
814:
809:Emperor Nero
802:
787:
771:
760:
741:Ancient Rome
718:Zhou dynasty
711:
675:
671:
665:
513:People Power
230:Disobedience
3396:13 February
3374:February 1,
3223:(1981), 72.
3085:Montesquieu
2895:Aristotle,
2717:11 December
2340:Magna Carta
2225:. Sharpe.
2112:rule of law
2094:frustrated.
2067:Article 120
1813:natural law
1778:Connecticut
1723:Montesquieu
1543:during the
1444:William III
1421:Catholicism
1399:During the
1337:tyrannicide
1175:Legislative
1126:natural law
976:John Calvin
966:natural law
894:Magna Carta
890:Magna Carta
868:golden bull
856:Magna Carta
851:Magna Carta
834:Magna Carta
575:Arab Spring
173:Human chain
163:Coup d'Ă©tat
72:Proletarian
3748:Revolution
3717:Categories
3501:5 November
3294:Resistance
3271:See Reid,
2771:(4 vols.,
2650:Ashcraft,
2607:, p. 120,
2592:On Liberty
2575:J. S. Mill
2573:, p. 268,
2571:On Liberty
2418:The Prince
2306:The Annals
2285:The Annals
2210:References
2065:states in
1783:Fritz, in
1509:happiness.
1502:George III
1417:absolutism
1332:On Liberty
1296:objections
1292:complaints
1146:revolution
1112:John Locke
1096:John Locke
1081:John Locke
1059:The Prince
1022:Guy Fawkes
998:, and the
913:multitude.
820:cruelty".
690:, and the
597:Euromaidan
545:Bolivarian
493:Nicaraguan
473:Guatemalan
411:Young Turk
391:Philippine
220:Nonviolent
215:Resistance
190:Insurgency
100:Nonviolent
95:From above
67:Democratic
3041:Barclay,
2991:Leviathan
2970:Leviathan
2929:Aquinas,
2810:Barclay,
2624:Boswell,
2380:Aquinas,
2304:Tacitus,
2268:Gibbon II
2037:The 1949
1964:Tennessee
1714:Aristotle
1684:Leviathan
1381:Louis XIV
1301:gravamina
1207:rebellare
1047:Huguenots
1045:, and by
1008:John Knox
920:, in his
880:Hungary's
550:Bulldozer
503:Carnation
498:Argentine
441:1917–1923
429:Communist
374:Hungarian
210:Rebellion
148:Civil war
110:Permanent
57:Communist
52:Bourgeois
3630:Various
3545:Archived
3414:Archived
3296:, 33–35.
3060:Politics
2989:Hobbes,
2897:Politics
2801:, 35–36.
2628:, p. 195
2533:Rousseau
2323:Gibbon I
2152:See also
2142:writes:
1989:mankind.
1969:states:
1931:Kentucky
1879:szlachta
1797:Virginia
1789:Maryland
1721:thinker
1709:Politics
1632:commands
1238:Rousseau
1199:Hezekiah
1150:citizens
1110:thinker
1102:of 1688.
1000:Demarchs
817:Maximian
794:Pannonia
790:Augustus
607:Sudanese
585:Egyptian
580:Tunisian
533:Romanian
434:Cultural
420:Chinese
395:Iranian
364:February
285:American
280:Atlantic
269:Examples
242:Samizdat
46:By class
21:a series
19:Part of
3353:Fritz,
3340:Fritz,
3322:, I:112
3262:, I:88.
3108:, I:136
3028:Locke,
3015:Locke,
3002:Locke,
2881:30 June
2847:30 June
2797:Maier,
2609:Boswell
2514:Locke,
2480:Locke,
2467:Locke,
2433:Locke,
2400:Liberty
2194:Qui tam
1492:of the
1250:Later,
1154:tyranny
1138:liberty
954:Jesuits
798:Tacitus
767:tribune
735:Mencius
728:, that
698:History
538:Singing
488:Rwandan
463:Spanish
458:Siamese
446:Russian
416:Mexican
342:Belgian
317:Serbian
305:Haitian
290:Brabant
275:English
205:Protest
138:Boycott
132:Methods
105:Passive
3318:Reid,
3127:
2974:Hobbes
2872:
2838:
2590:Mill,
2346:
2229:
2011:is a "
1888:rokosz
1260:that:
1140:, and
1130:people
1128:, all
1028:, and
1012:Mary I
996:Sparta
992:Ephors
990:, the
952:. The
866:was a
862:. The
783:Brutus
730:Heaven
686:, the
670:, the
590:Yemeni
570:Kyrgyz
560:Orange
528:Velvet
523:Yogurt
468:August
451:German
424:Xinhai
404:Second
381:Eureka
369:German
300:French
257:Terror
200:Mutiny
115:Social
90:Colour
3495:(PDF)
3484:(PDF)
3357:, 13.
3344:, 14.
2914:Plato
2499:Locke
2452:Locke
2055:Greek
1666:Plato
1618:right
1015:Tudor
872:edict
870:, or
722:China
565:Tulip
483:Cuban
399:First
349:Texas
322:Greek
295:Liège
225:Civil
3503:2012
3398:2019
3376:2024
3125:ISBN
2883:2015
2870:ISBN
2849:2015
2836:ISBN
2719:2013
2554:Kant
2344:ISBN
2227:ISBN
2086:and
2078:The
2053:All
2028:...
1994:The
1929:The
1894:The
1877:The
1640:duty
1628:duty
1614:duty
1610:duty
1430:The
1419:and
1318:)".
1294:and
1134:life
960:and
749:The
674:(or
555:Rose
518:1989
508:Saur
354:1848
337:July
332:1830
327:1820
237:Riot
120:Wave
2350:p.1
1981:'s
1949:'s
1908:'s
1831:'s
1741:'s
1699:In
1681:In
1576:As
1370:":
1240:'s
1002:in
994:in
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