98:
capital, skills, and resources that contribute to development and economic growth. However, return migration is not always a smooth process. Migrants may face challenges in reintegrating into their home societies, including finding suitable employment, adapting to changes in the local environment, or dealing with the stigma associated with migration. The decision to return is often influenced by a complex interplay of individual circumstances and broader economic, social, and political factors.
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While repatriation necessarily brings an individual to his or her territory of origin or citizenship, a return potentially includes bringing the person back to the point of departure. This could be to a third country, including a country of transit, which is a country the person has traveled through
97:
Return migration can have major impacts on both the migrants themselves and the countries involved. For the migrants, it can lead to cultural readjustment, the reestablishment of social networks, and potential economic opportunities. For the countries of origin, return migration can bring back human
75:
Political factors can operate in the host or the home country: changes in political regimes, policy reforms, or improvements in governance may encourage individuals who had previously migrated to return to their home country. Their ethnicity might be a cause of intolerable discrimination in the host
63:
Economic factors: Individuals may choose to return to their home country if they believe there are better job prospects, or the opportunity to purchase a farm with money earned abroad. They may go back because a deep economic downturn in the host economy undermines their opportunities. By the 1890s,
69:
Social and cultural factors: People may decide to return to their home country to be closer to family members, to reconnect with their cultural roots, or to participate in social and community activities. Their experience abroad gives them a new status: e.g. they may be sought out to give advice to
29:
refers to the individual or family decision of a migrant to leave a host country and to return permanently to the country of origin. Research topics include the return migration process, motivations for returning, the experiences returnees encounter, and the impacts of return migration on both the
171:
Involuntary or forced repatriation is the return of refugees, prisoners of war, or civil detainees to their country of origin under circumstances that leave no other viable alternatives. According to modern international law, prisoners of war, civil detainees, or refugees refusing repatriation,
87:
Personal reasons: An elderly migrant might wish to retire, and would thus no longer earn a high income in the host country. They may wish to return due to homesickness, a desire for familiarity, or a sense of attachment to their home country. In Kenya there is a wish to be buried alongside
119:
or citizenship on the basis of freely expressed willingness to such return. Voluntary return, unlike expulsion and deportation, which are actions of sovereign states, is defined as a personal right under specific conditions described in various international instruments, such as the
76:
country. A sudden turn for the worse in the host country's political scene might cause them to flee home. They may also bring new skills learned while abroad. Jewish and Irish immigrants rarely returned to homelands (Russia and
Ireland) where they were not well treated.
150:
Two countries may have a re-admission agreement, which establishes procedures, on a reciprocal basis, for one state to return "irregular" non-nationals to their country of origin or to a country through which they have transited.
992:
81:
Government factors: the host government might be hostile to immigrants, setting up barriers or threats or talking in that direction. Or the original home government might offer incentives to return, as Italy did in
1029:(Center for Migration Studies, 1973) 110 pp. * Caroli, Betty Boyd. "Italian repatriation from the United States, 1900-1914" (PhD dissertation, New York University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7221496).
33:
The exact numbers are debated, but Mark Wyman concludes: "The totals are so enormous: at least one-third of the 52 million
Europeans who left Europe between 1824 and 1924 returned permanently to their homelands."
1080:
1042:
Christou, Anastasia. "Deciphering diaspora–translating transnationalism: Family dynamics, identity constructions and the legacy of ‘home’ in second-generation Greek-American return migration."
59:
Return migration to the original home by migrants living in their new home can be motivated by numerous factors, singly or in combination. Some common motivations for return migration are:
597:
Perruchoud, Richard and
Jillyanne Redpath-Cross (eds.), Glossary on Migration, Second Edition, International Organisation for Migration, International Migration Law, No. 25, Geneva, 2011.
358:; and Mohamed-Abdullahi Mohamed, and Asmat-Nizam Abdul-Talib "Push–pull factors influencing international return migration intentions: a systematic literature review"
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814:
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422:
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Mohamed, and Asmat-Nizam Abdul-Talib, "Push–pull factors influencing international return migration intentions: a systematic literature review."
127:
Certain countries offer financial support to refugees and immigrants to help them start a new life in their country of origin. Examples in the 21st century are:
180:. The forced return of people to countries where they would face persecution is more specifically known as refoulement, which is against international law.
514:
1137:
Poznan, Kristina E. "Return
Migration to Austria-Hungary from the United States in Homeland Economic and Ethnic Politics and International Diplomacy."
719:
887:
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to get to the country of destination. A return could also be within the territorial boundaries of a country, as in the case of returning
665:
Abramitzky, Ran, Leah
Boustan, and Katherine Eriksson. "To the new world and back again: Return migrants in the age of mass migration."
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334:
a right-wing political concept in Europe, referring to the forced or promoted return of people who are not ethnically from Europe.
64:
German and Scandinavian immigrants had established prosperous farms and small businesses in the U.S. and were reluctant to return.
1292:
1090:
925:
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and demobilized combatants. The distinction between repatriation and return, voluntary or involuntary, is not always clear.
1032:
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For the recent historiography see Tuncay Bilecen, "To Stay or to Return? A Review on Return Migration Literature"
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would-be emigrants. Many Italian immigrants felt alienated in the U.S., and typically stayed for only a few years.
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Coming Home to the Third Reich: Return Migration of German Nationals from the United States and Canada, 1933-1941
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Switzerland offering about 6,500 Francs, targeted for business startups upon returning home,
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1322:
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In 2016, Germany allocated €150 million over three years for migrants willing to return,
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1338:OECD International Migration Outlook 2007
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1174:Explorations in Economic History
970:((Edinburgh: John Donald, 2012).
849:(Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003)
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889:International Migration Review
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1:
735:Annual review of anthropology
30:host and the home countries.
1265:Journal of Caribbean History
1077:EGO: European History Online
1003:(Simon and Schuster, 1984).
749:Global Migration: The Basics
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191:internally displaced persons
163:are used in many countries.
7:
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1139:Hungarian Historical Review
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694:(Routledge, 2015). 216-222.
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387:(2nd ed. 2020) pp 105-110.
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362:(2020) 14#2 pp. 231-246
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966:Varricchio, Mario, ed.
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1123:Piore, Michael J.
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982:From United States
959:Population Studies
898:Population Studies
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730:(Oxford UP, 2014).
718:73.1 (1983): 1-17
634:10.1111/anti.12176
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545:, Henry McDonald.
153:Illegal immigrants
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1300:Migration Letters
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1001:Becoming American
991:(2005): 653-671.
882:Return to Europe
677:Migration Letters
648:Becoming American
437:Becoming American
352:Migration Letters
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314:
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1096:Grams, Grant W.
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1382:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
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1350:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1311:
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1302:
1301:
1297:
1295:
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1290:
1288:
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1280:
1276:
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1266:
1262:
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1257:
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1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1182:Wyman, Mark.
1181:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1051:Cinel, Dino.
1050:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
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1002:
998:
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994:
990:
986:
985:
976:
972:
969:
965:
964:
960:
956:
953:
949:
948:
945:
941:
937:
934:
930:
927:
923:
919:
916:
912:
910:
906:
902:
899:
895:
894:
890:
886:
885:
876:
873:(2003): 273+
872:
868:
865:
861:
858:
854:
851:
848:
844:
843:
834:
830:
827:
823:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
792:
787:
783:
779:
775:
770:
768:
764:
760:
757:
753:
750:
746:
743:
739:
736:
732:
729:
725:
724:
721:
717:
713:
711:(2020): 1-40.
710:
706:
704:
700:
696:
693:
689:
688:
685:
682:
678:
674:
672:
668:
664:
663:
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649:
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635:
631:
627:
623:
616:
609:
603:
594:
592:
584:
579:
572:
567:
560:
555:
548:
544:
539:
532:
531:Nigeria World
528:
523:
516:
511:
504:
498:
491:
485:
478:
472:
463:
454:
445:
438:
432:
425:
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412:
406:
399:
393:
386:
380:
371:
365:
361:
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318:
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109:
99:
86:
85:
80:
79:
74:
73:
68:
67:
62:
61:
60:
56:
46:
44:
40:
35:
31:
28:
22:
1365:Repatriation
1336:
1329:
1298:
1291:
1284:
1277:
1264:
1255:
1248:
1234:
1224:
1214:
1205:China Review
1204:
1190:
1183:
1173:
1166:
1159:
1150:
1138:
1131:
1124:
1117:
1107:
1097:
1086:
1076:
1066:
1059:
1052:
1043:
1033:
1026:
1010:
1000:
988:
974:
967:
958:
951:
939:
932:
921:
914:
904:
897:
888:
870:
863:
856:
846:
832:
825:
815:
784:(1): 47–57.
781:
777:
762:
755:
748:
741:
734:
727:
715:
708:
698:
691:
676:
666:
647:
642:
625:
621:
615:
607:
602:
578:
566:
554:
547:The Guardian
546:
538:
530:
522:
510:
502:
501:Mark Wyman,
497:
489:
484:
476:
471:
462:
453:
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436:
431:
423:
418:
410:
409:Mark Wyman,
405:
397:
392:
384:
379:
370:
359:
351:
346:
316:
236:Scandinavian
187:
170:
149:
146:
126:
111:
96:
58:
39:repatriation
36:
32:
26:
25:
1198:From Canada
332:Remigration
174:refoulement
167:Deportation
161:deportation
49:Motivations
21:Remigration
1349:Categories
778:Demography
667:ILR Review
88:ancestors.
82:1901-1927.
292:Hungarian
204:Ethnicity
1360:Refugees
808:46976641
622:Antipode
321:See also
308:Romanian
244:Armenian
1013:(2018)
828:(2013).
800:2060063
284:Italian
137:Ireland
1229:online
1219:online
1209:online
1178:online
1153:(1950)
1143:online
1112:online
1102:online
1091:online
1081:online
1071:online
1038:online
1015:online
1005:online
993:online
944:online
926:online
909:online
875:online
820:online
806:
798:
767:online
720:online
703:online
684:online
671:online
652:online
364:online
276:Polish
228:German
212:Jewish
178:asylum
804:S2CID
796:JSTOR
339:Notes
300:Greek
252:Dutch
220:Irish
207:Rate
763:Area
311:66%
303:54%
295:47%
287:46%
279:33%
271:24%
263:19%
255:19%
247:18%
239:15%
231:14%
786:doi
630:doi
223:9%
215:4%
1351::
1025:.
802:.
794:.
780:.
776:.
626:48
624:.
590:^
1319:)
1017:.
877:.
852:.
810:.
788::
782:3
636:.
632::
23:.
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