38:
124:
ultimately doomed to failure. Without alternative strategies, the acquisition of drug resistance by pathogenic microorganisms looms as possibly one of the most significant public health threats facing humanity in the 21st century. Some of the best alternative sources to reduce the chance of antibiotic resistance are probiotics, prebiotics, dietary fibers, enzymes, organic acids, phytogenics.
487:
evolutionary fitness as compared to susceptible pathogens. This is one of the reasons drug resistance adaptations are rarely seen in environments where antibiotics are absent. However, in the presence of antibiotics, the survival advantage conferred off-sets the high metabolic cost and allows resistant strains to proliferate.
123:
In short, the lack of concerted effort by governments and the pharmaceutical industry, together with the innate capacity of microbes to develop resistance at a rate that outpaces development of new drugs, suggests that existing strategies for developing viable, long-term anti-microbial therapies are
486:
Drug resistance has a high metabolic price in pathogens for which this concept is relevant (bacteria, endoparasites, and tumor cells.) In viruses, an equivalent "cost" is genomic complexity. The high metabolic cost means that, in the absence of antibiotics, a resistant pathogen will have decreased
503:
which is a key transporter of medications on the cellular level. If MDR1 is overexpressed, drug resistance increases. Therefore, ABCB1 levels can be monitored. In patients with high levels of ABCB1 expression, the use of secondary treatments, like metformin, have been used in conjunction with the
555:
by sending molecules of those antibiotics out of the bacterial cell. Sometimes a combination of different classes of antibiotics may be used synergistically; that is, they work together to effectively fight bacteria that may be resistant to one of the antibiotics alone.
83:
specific, any mutation in these molecules will interfere with or negate its destructive effect, resulting in antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, there is mounting concern over the abuse of antibiotics in the farming of livestock, which in the
140:
may be capable of surviving drug treatment. Drug-resistant traits are accordingly inherited by subsequent offspring, resulting in a population that is more drug-resistant. Unless the drug used makes sexual reproduction or
531:(the group of enzymes responsible for breaking down beta-lactams). Beta-lactam bacterial resistance can also be dealt with by administering beta-lactam antibiotics with drugs that block beta-lactamases such as
91:
Bacteria are capable of not only altering the enzyme targeted by antibiotics, but also by the use of enzymes to modify the antibiotic itself and thus neutralize it. Examples of target-altering pathogens are
253:, and dips. The chemicals contained in these preparations, besides harming beneficial organisms, may intentionally or inadvertently target organisms that have the potential to develop resistance.
1428:
Yoon KS, Kwon DH, Strycharz JP, Hollingsworth CS, Lee SH, Clark JM (November 2008). "Biochemical and molecular analysis of deltamethrin resistance in the common bed bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)".
814:
Reading: The
Resistance Phenomenon in Microbes and Infectious Disease Vectors: Implications for Human Health and Strategies for Containment -- Workshop Summary - The National Academies Press
998:
Ghasabi M, Mansoori B, Mohammadi A, Duijf PH, Shomali N, Shirafkan N, Mokhtarzadeh A, Baradaran B (2019). "MicroRNAs in cancer drug resistance: Basic evidence and clinical applications".
511:, which represents a widespread problem nowadays, drugs designed to block the mechanisms of bacterial antibiotic resistance are used. For example, bacterial resistance against
1471:
637:
Alfarouk, KO; Stock, CM; Taylor, S; Walsh, M; Muddathir, AK; Verduzco, D; Bashir, AH; Mohammed, OY; Elhassan, GO; Harguindey, S; Reshkin, SJ; Ibrahim, ME; Rauch, C (2015).
1385:
Weber DJ, Rutala WA (October 2006). "Use of germicides in the home and the healthcare setting: is there a relationship between germicide use and antibiotic resistance?".
856:"Probiotics (Direct-Fed Microbials) in Poultry Nutrition and Their Effects on Nutrient Utilization, Growth and Laying Performance, and Gut Health: A Systematic Review"
79:
The development of antibiotic resistance in particular stems from the drugs targeting only specific bacterial molecules (almost always proteins). Because the drug is
1280:
1772:
Ramos-Peñafiel C, Olarte-Carrillo I, CerĂłn-Maldonado R, Rozen-Fuller E, Kassack-Ipiña JJ, MelĂ©ndez-Mier G, Collazo-Jaloma J, MartĂnez-Tovar A (September 2018).
1089:
Molin S, Tolker-Nielsen T (June 2003). "Gene transfer occurs with enhanced efficiency in biofilms and induces enhanced stabilisation of the biofilm structure".
710:
1242:
Shefte N, Bruggers RL, Schafer EW (April 1982). "Repellency and toxicity of three bird control chemicals to four species of
African grain-eating birds".
2143:
136:
and is a response to pressures imposed on any living organism. Individual organisms vary in their sensitivity to the drug used and some with greater
2128:
964:
811:
Institute of
Medicine (US) Forum on Emerging Infections; Knobler, S. L.; Lemon, S. M.; Najafi, M.; Burroughs, T. (2003). "Summary and Assessment".
1345:
535:
so that the antibiotics can work without getting destroyed by the bacteria first. Researchers have recognized the need for new drugs that inhibit
17:
1546:
Sandhu P, Akhter Y (January 2018). "Evolution of structural fitness and multifunctional aspects of mycobacterial RND family transporters".
1320:
2158:
907:"Dietary fiber in poultry nutrition and their effects on nutrient utilization, performance, gut health, and on the environment: a review"
284:
605:
1143:
1475:
2194:
830:
795:
1367:
233:
In the domestic environment, drug-resistant strains of organism may arise from seemingly safe activities such as the use of
2286:
2251:
368:
Plasmid encode enzymes that chemically alter the drug (e.g., by acetylation or phosphorylation), thereby inactivating it.
2980:
2122:
610:
173:
have also been shown to affect acquired drug resistance in cancer cells and this can be used for therapeutic purposes.
1288:
735:
Duckenfield, Joan (2011-12-30). "Antibiotic
Resistance Due to Modern Agricultural Practices: An Ethical Perspective".
218:". Examples of drug-resistant strains are to be found in microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses, parasites both
30:
This article is about pathogen resistance to the effects of drugs. For human resistance to the effects of drugs, see
2534:
1774:"Effect of metformin on the survival of patients with ALL who express high levels of the ABCB1 drug resistance gene"
88:
alone accounts for three times the volume dispensed to humans – leading to development of super-resistant bacteria.
2970:
2013:"Comparative synergistic activity of nafcillin, oxacillin, and methicillin in combination with gentamicin against"
306:
in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides. Instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to utilizing preformed folic acid.
72:
challenge clinical care and drive research. When an organism is resistant to more than one drug, it is said to be
2910:
2403:
1353:
2133:
2965:
2661:
2572:
2438:
1441:
149:
impossible in the entire target population, resistance to the drug will inevitably follow. This can be seen in
1712:"Compensation of the Metabolic Costs of Antibiotic Resistance by Physiological Adaptation in Escherichia coli"
2890:
2515:
2443:
206:, and is termed horizontal gene transfer in which there is a direct exchange of genes, particularly in the
3020:
2633:
810:
2368:
2187:
2167:
280:
536:
2880:
2628:
2622:
69:
2149:
3010:
2945:
2647:
2157: : A web server for predicting inhibitors against drug tolerant M. Tuberculosis, published in
590:
146:
73:
65:
2696:
2458:
2453:
2363:
2281:
116:
459:
Bacteria change shape of the outer membrane porin proteins, preventing drug from entering cell.
2832:
2593:
2568:
2503:
2392:
2276:
1324:
512:
310:
295:
110:
2125:—An EU project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European hospitals
2940:
2732:
2211:
2180:
1626:
Gillespie SH, McHugh TD (September 1997). "The biological cost of antimicrobial resistance".
1281:"Reptiles Magazine, your source for reptile and herp care, breeding, and enthusiast articles"
1124:
812:
585:
580:
508:
314:
187:
94:
241:, and soaps, particularly antibacterial soaps, hand-washing, surface sprays, application of
2975:
2837:
2747:
2588:
2468:
2236:
1203:"Rodent resistance to the anticoagulant rodenticides, with particular reference to Denmark"
688:
600:
595:
544:
261:
The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are:
203:
2138:
8:
3015:
2885:
2773:
2742:
2388:
2348:
2271:
1710:
Händel, Nadine; Schuurmans, J. Merijn; Brul, Stanley; ter Kuile, Benno H. (August 2013).
237:, tooth-brushing and mouthwashing, the use of antibiotics, disinfectants and detergents,
1771:
1064:
2855:
2805:
2706:
2519:
2498:
2398:
2319:
2231:
2096:
2061:
1988:
1963:
1849:
1824:
1800:
1773:
1744:
1711:
1606:
1571:
1523:
1498:
1453:
1410:
1259:
1219:
1202:
1023:
941:
906:
882:
855:
760:
665:
638:
182:
2037:
2012:
1898:
1873:
1687:
1663:"Biological cost of rifampin resistance from the perspective of Staphylococcus aureus"
1662:
1661:
Wichelhaus TA, Böddinghaus B, Besier S, Schäfer V, Brade V, Ludwig A (November 2002).
1639:
1102:
2850:
2711:
2701:
2529:
2523:
2358:
2101:
2083:
2042:
1993:
1944:
1903:
1854:
1805:
1749:
1731:
1692:
1678:
1643:
1563:
1528:
1514:
1445:
1402:
1224:
1106:
1015:
946:
928:
887:
836:
826:
791:
787:
752:
670:
616:
480:
137:
1575:
1457:
1414:
1027:
764:
420:
Bacteria make an altered penicillin-binding proteins, that do not bind to the drug.
2895:
2783:
2778:
2578:
2548:
2334:
2314:
2296:
2091:
2073:
2032:
2024:
1983:
1975:
1934:
1893:
1885:
1844:
1836:
1795:
1785:
1739:
1723:
1682:
1674:
1635:
1555:
1518:
1510:
1437:
1394:
1251:
1214:
1158:
1098:
1007:
936:
918:
877:
867:
818:
783:
744:
660:
650:
2062:"Phage therapy: An alternative to antibiotics in the age of multi-drug resistance"
778:
Fisher, Jed F.; Mobashery, Shahriar (2010). "Enzymology of
Bacterial Resistance".
2810:
2638:
2598:
2583:
2291:
2241:
1060:
548:
532:
476:
370:
Plasmid encode beta-lactamase, which open the beta-lactam ring, inactivating it.
273:
178:
2493:
169:
B. This protein stimulates the growth of cancer cells which are drug-resistant.
2925:
2905:
2824:
2666:
2408:
2353:
1979:
1962:
Tegos GP, Haynes M, Strouse JJ, Khan MM, Bologa CG, Oprea TI, Sklar LA (2011).
923:
639:"Resistance to cancer chemotherapy: failure in drug response from ADME to P-gp"
528:
500:
496:
85:
53:
31:
1790:
1559:
1162:
748:
655:
3004:
2930:
2417:
2324:
2087:
1735:
1144:"Ethion resistance in the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) in New Caledonia"
1042:
981:
932:
756:
568:
564:
520:
455:
Binds to 30S Ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis by blocking tRNA
303:
223:
219:
215:
104:
49:
2078:
1302:
426:
Bacteria make an altered DNA topoisomerase that does not binds to the drug.
2900:
2860:
2761:
2685:
2563:
2246:
2203:
2105:
1997:
1948:
1858:
1840:
1809:
1753:
1696:
1567:
1532:
1449:
1406:
1176:
1110:
1019:
950:
891:
840:
706:
674:
552:
373:
Plasmid encode an enzyme that acetylate the drug, thereby inactivating it.
154:
2046:
1907:
1647:
1228:
780:
Comprehensive
Natural Products II. Volume 8: Enzymes and Enzyme Mechanisms
414:
Inhibit the enzyme dihydrofolate reduces, blocking the folic acid pathway
2985:
2472:
2448:
2163:
1939:
1922:
1727:
540:
450:
Binds to penicillin-binding proteins, Inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
402:
Binds to penicillin-binding proteins, Inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
361:
Binds to penicillin-binding proteins, Inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
291:
250:
158:
99:
2028:
1889:
872:
2865:
2797:
2689:
2464:
1263:
711:"Use of strongest antibiotics rises to record levels on European farms"
516:
418:
Bacteria make an altered 30S ribosomes that does not bind to the drug.
299:
266:
37:
1474:. Australian Department of Health & Human Services. Archived from
1011:
423:
Bacteria make a form of 50S ribosome that does not binds to the drug.
2643:
1177:"Review Article on Colorado Potato Beetle Resistance to Insecticides"
524:
429:
Bacteria make an altered polymerase that does not binds to the drug.
242:
227:
133:
2154:
1255:
411:
Binds to the RNA polymerase; inhibiting initiation of RNA synthesis
364:
Bind to 50S ribosome subunit, inhibiting formation of peptide bonds
153:
tumors where some cells may develop resistance to the drugs used in
2765:
2737:
2724:
2413:
1923:"The importance of efflux pumps in bacterial antibiotic resistance"
1398:
822:
560:
265:
Drug inactivation or modification: e.g., enzymatic deactivation of
246:
170:
61:
1660:
408:
Binds to DNA topoisomerase, an enzyme essential for DNA synthesis
2226:
432:
Bacteria make an altered enzyme that does not binds to the drug.
238:
207:
196:
192:
174:
142:
60:
or condition. The term is used in the context of resistance that
57:
272:
in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of
2172:
2066:
World
Journal of Gastrointestinal Pharmacology and Therapeutics
461:
New membrane transport system prevent drug from entering cell.
234:
150:
1427:
1709:
997:
854:
Jha, Rajesh; Das, Razib; Oak, Sophia; Mishra, Pravin (2020).
211:
166:
162:
64:
or cancers have "acquired", that is, resistance has evolved.
48:
is the reduction in effectiveness of a medication such as an
400:
Binds to 30S Ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis
359:
Binds to 30S Ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis
2618:
2511:
2507:
2309:
452:
Bind to 50S ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis
405:
Bind to 50S ribosome subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis
2684:
1964:"Microbial efflux pump inhibition: tactics and strategies"
1597:
1442:
10.1603/0022-2585(2008)45[1092:BAMAOD]2.0.CO;2
2958:
539:, which cause resistance to multiple antibiotics such as
321:
2760:
1825:"Penicillinase-resistant Penicillins and Cephalosporins"
1499:"Efflux-mediated drug resistance in bacteria: an update"
1043:"Resistance spread 'compromising' fight against malaria"
636:
132:
Drug, toxin, or chemical resistance is a consequence of
2918:
2010:
384:
Beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin and cephalosporin)
352:
Beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin and cephalosporin)
2380:
1961:
1346:"The Dirt on Clean: Antibacterial Soap v Regular Soap"
1065:"Drug-resistant malaria can infect African mosquitoes"
464:
New membrane transport system pumps drug out of cell.
108:, while examples of antibiotic-modifying microbes are
1874:"Beta-lactamase inhibitors from laboratory to clinic"
1603:
1588:
1241:
2123:
BURDEN of
Resistance and Disease in European Nations
2060:
Lin, Derek M; Koskella, Britt; Lin, Henry C (2017).
298:(PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of
191:
are posing massive problems for health authorities.
2342:
1088:
527:that are not susceptible to destruction by certain
523:) can be circumvented by using antibiotics such as
317:(pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface.
202:A rapid process of sharing resistance exists among
41:
An illustrative diagram explaining drug resistance.
2150:Battle of the Bugs: Fighting Antibiotic Resistance
1605:
1275:
1273:
982:"Chemo 'Undermines Itself' Through Rogue Response"
230:, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and amphibians.
2011:Glew RH, Millering RS, Wennersten C (June 1975).
3002:
2146:- An informative article on multidrug resistance
1822:
1604:Catherine A. Ingraham, John L. Ingraham (2000).
1589:Catherine A. Ingraham, John L. Ingraham (2000).
1141:
737:Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics
1625:
1270:
853:
777:
279:Alteration of target site: e.g., alteration of
2059:
1621:
1619:
309:Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug
283:— the binding target site of penicillins — in
2823:
2188:
1920:
1303:"How household bleach works to kill bacteria"
1545:
1490:
1321:"Compete50 The complete mouth care products"
290:Alteration of metabolic pathway: e.g., some
1616:
1591:Introduction to Microbiology second edition
1387:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
1384:
1142:Brun LO, Wilson JT, Daynes P (March 1983).
991:
911:Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology
734:
210:state. A similar asexual method is used by
2195:
2181:
1125:"Mechanisms of drug action and resistance"
905:Jha, Rajesh; Mishra, Pravin (2021-04-19).
504:primary drug treatment with some success.
2796:
2264:
2219:
2095:
2077:
2036:
1987:
1938:
1927:The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
1897:
1848:
1799:
1789:
1743:
1686:
1522:
1496:
1218:
1207:Bulletin of the World Health Organization
940:
922:
904:
881:
871:
664:
654:
606:Physical factors affecting microbial life
249:and any cosmetic or health-care product,
177:in 2012 has become a resurgent threat in
1368:"Should antibacterial soap be outlawed?"
1151:International Journal of Pest Management
287:and other penicillin-resistant bacteria.
165:to produce large amounts of the protein
36:
2723:
2431:
1823:Barber M, Waterworth PM (August 1964).
1059:
1040:
14:
3003:
2556:
2486:
1921:Webber MA, Piddock LJ (January 2003).
705:
322:Mechanisms of Acquired Drug Resistance
195:has shown an increasing resistance to
2176:
2017:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1767:
1765:
1763:
1716:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1667:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
689:"Antibiotic Resistance and Evolution"
571:(virus that kills bacteria) is used.
2611:
1871:
1865:
1200:
438:Inhibits drug entry or removes drug
2166:: Cancer Drug Resistance Database.
2139:HCMV drug resistance mutations tool
1816:
965:"Tolerance and Resistance to Drugs"
294:-resistant bacteria do not require
24:
2981:Minimum bactericidal concentration
1760:
1244:The Journal of Wildlife Management
611:Small multidrug resistance protein
27:Pathogen resistance to medications
25:
3032:
2116:
1778:Journal of Translational Medicine
1472:"Antibacterial cleaning products"
471:
2971:Minimum inhibitory concentration
2202:
2129:Merck - Tolerance and Resistance
1679:10.1128/AAC.46.11.3381-3385.2002
1515:10.2165/11317030-000000000-00000
1497:Li XZ, Nikaido H (August 2009).
1091:Current Opinion in Biotechnology
788:10.1016/B978-008045382-8.00161-1
483:required to achieve a function.
185:, and drug-resistant strains of
2911:WHO list of essential medicines
2404:Non-specific effect of vaccines
2053:
2004:
1955:
1914:
1703:
1654:
1582:
1539:
1464:
1421:
1378:
1360:
1338:
1313:
1295:
1235:
1194:
1169:
1135:
1117:
1082:
1053:
1034:
975:
2966:Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics
1000:Journal of Cellular Physiology
969:Merck Manuals Consumer Version
957:
898:
847:
804:
782:. Elsevier. pp. 443–201.
771:
728:
699:
681:
630:
479:is a measure of the increased
13:
1:
2891:Functional analog (chemistry)
1968:Current Pharmaceutical Design
1878:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1640:10.1016/S0966-842X(97)01101-3
1430:Journal of Medical Entomology
1103:10.1016/S0958-1669(03)00036-3
623:
559:Destruction of the resistant
256:
114:and aminoglycoside-resistant
18:Resistance to antiviral drugs
2444:Hill equation (biochemistry)
1608:Introduction to Microbiology
1041:McGrath, Matt (2012-04-05).
490:
7:
574:
10:
3037:
2959:Antimicrobial pharmacology
2439:Dose–response relationship
2369:Desensitization (medicine)
2168:Scientific Reports 3, 1445
1980:10.2174/138161211795703726
924:10.1186/s40104-021-00576-0
29:
2881:Coinduction (anesthetics)
2874:
2675:
2547:
2333:
2210:
2159:Chemistry Central Journal
2144:Combating Drug Resistance
1791:10.1186/s12967-018-1620-6
1560:10.1007/s00203-017-1434-6
1163:10.1080/09670878309370763
749:10.1007/s10806-011-9370-y
656:10.1186/s12935-015-0221-1
643:Cancer Cell International
313:and/or increasing active
70:antineoplastic resistance
2946:Multiple drug resistance
2919:Tolerance and resistance
2287:Physiological antagonist
1548:Archives of Microbiology
591:Mass drug administration
563:can also be achieved by
342:Mechanism of Resistance
147:horizontal gene transfer
127:
102:and macrolide-resistant
66:Antimicrobial resistance
2697:Neuropsychopharmacology
2459:Cheng-Prussoff Equation
2454:Del Castillo Katz model
2381:Other effects of ligand
2364:Receptor (biochemistry)
2282:Irreversible antagonist
2079:10.4292/wjgpt.v8.i3.162
1872:Bush K (January 1988).
1829:British Medical Journal
513:beta-lactam antibiotics
204:single-celled organisms
117:Acinetobacter baumannii
98:, vancomycin-resistant
2833:Classical pharmacology
2594:Plasma protein binding
2569:Volume of distribution
2277:Competitive antagonist
1841:10.1136/bmj.2.5405.344
567:, in which a specific
537:bacterial efflux pumps
296:para-aminobenzoic acid
157:. Chemotherapy causes
111:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
42:
2941:Antibiotic resistance
2733:Clinical pharmacology
2252:Physiological agonist
2212:Ligand (biochemistry)
586:Fecal bacteriotherapy
581:Antibiotic resistance
509:antibiotic resistance
188:Plasmodium falciparum
95:Staphylococcus aureus
40:
2838:Reverse pharmacology
2748:Pharmacoepidemiology
2589:Biological half-life
2469:Ligand binding assay
2343:Activity at receptor
2237:Irreversible agonist
1728:10.1128/AAC.02096-12
601:Pharmacoepidemiology
596:Multidrug resistance
501:MDR1(p-glycoprotein)
495:In humans, the gene
336:Antimicrobial Agent
2886:Combination therapy
2774:Pharmacoinformatics
2743:Medicinal chemistry
2349:Mechanism of action
2029:10.1128/aac.7.6.828
1890:10.1128/CMR.1.1.109
1063:(20 October 2015).
873:10.3390/ani10101863
709:(16 October 2016).
693:detectingdesign.com
379:Alters drug target
329:
74:multidrug-resistant
3021:Psychopharmacology
2856:Immunopharmacology
2806:Pharmacotoxicology
2707:Psychopharmacology
2499:Intrinsic activity
2399:Pleiotropy (drugs)
2320:Agonist-antagonist
2232:Endogenous agonist
2134:Cosmetics Database
1940:10.1093/jac/dkg050
1285:reptilechannel.com
328:
183:sub-Saharan Africa
43:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2954:
2953:
2851:Photopharmacology
2846:
2845:
2819:
2818:
2792:
2791:
2756:
2755:
2719:
2718:
2712:Electrophysiology
2702:Neuropharmacology
2657:
2656:
2607:
2606:
2543:
2542:
2530:Therapeutic index
2482:
2481:
2427:
2426:
2376:
2375:
2305:
2304:
2260:
2259:
1356:on 6 August 2011.
1012:10.1002/jcp.26810
832:978-0-309-08854-1
797:978-0-08-045382-8
617:Eleftheria terrae
481:energy metabolism
469:
468:
226:, plants, fungi,
16:(Redirected from
3028:
2956:
2955:
2916:
2915:
2896:Polypharmacology
2821:
2820:
2794:
2793:
2784:Pharmacogenomics
2779:Pharmacogenetics
2758:
2757:
2721:
2720:
2682:
2681:
2609:
2608:
2579:Rate of infusion
2554:
2553:
2549:Pharmacokinetics
2484:
2483:
2429:
2428:
2378:
2377:
2340:
2339:
2335:Pharmacodynamics
2315:Neurotransmitter
2297:Enzyme inhibitor
2262:
2261:
2217:
2216:
2197:
2190:
2183:
2174:
2173:
2110:
2109:
2099:
2081:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2040:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1991:
1974:(13): 1291–302.
1959:
1953:
1952:
1942:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1901:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1852:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1803:
1793:
1769:
1758:
1757:
1747:
1722:(8): 3752–3762.
1707:
1701:
1700:
1690:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1628:Trends Microbiol
1623:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1526:
1509:(12): 1555–623.
1494:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1352:. Archived from
1342:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1332:
1323:. Archived from
1317:
1311:
1310:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1287:. Archived from
1277:
1268:
1267:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1222:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1181:potatobeetle.org
1173:
1167:
1166:
1148:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1038:
1032:
1031:
1006:(3): 2152–2168.
995:
989:
988:, 5 August 2012.
979:
973:
972:
961:
955:
954:
944:
926:
902:
896:
895:
885:
875:
851:
845:
844:
808:
802:
801:
775:
769:
768:
732:
726:
725:
723:
721:
703:
697:
696:
685:
679:
678:
668:
658:
634:
382:Aminoglycosides
355:Chloramphenicol
330:
327:
21:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3011:Drug resistance
3001:
3000:
2999:
2990:
2950:
2936:Drug resistance
2914:
2870:
2842:
2815:
2811:Neurotoxicology
2788:
2752:
2715:
2677:
2671:
2653:
2603:
2599:Bioavailability
2584:Onset of action
2539:
2478:
2423:
2372:
2329:
2301:
2292:Inverse agonist
2256:
2242:Partial agonist
2206:
2201:
2119:
2114:
2113:
2058:
2054:
2009:
2005:
1960:
1956:
1919:
1915:
1870:
1866:
1835:(5405): 344–9.
1821:
1817:
1770:
1761:
1708:
1704:
1659:
1655:
1624:
1617:
1602:
1598:
1587:
1583:
1544:
1540:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1479:
1478:on 4 March 2015
1470:
1469:
1465:
1436:(6): 1092–101.
1426:
1422:
1393:(10): 1107–19.
1383:
1379:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1330:
1328:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1279:
1278:
1271:
1256:10.2307/3808656
1240:
1236:
1201:Lund M (1972).
1199:
1195:
1185:
1183:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1146:
1140:
1136:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1087:
1083:
1073:
1071:
1058:
1054:
1039:
1035:
996:
992:
980:
976:
963:
962:
958:
903:
899:
852:
848:
833:
809:
805:
798:
776:
772:
733:
729:
719:
717:
704:
700:
687:
686:
682:
635:
631:
626:
577:
549:chloramphenicol
533:clavulanic acid
529:beta-lactamases
493:
477:Biological cost
474:
350:Aminoglycoside
324:
259:
214:and is called "
179:South East Asia
130:
46:Drug resistance
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3034:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3013:
2996:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2976:Bacteriostatic
2973:
2968:
2962:
2960:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2926:Drug tolerance
2922:
2920:
2913:
2908:
2906:Lists of drugs
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2876:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2829:
2827:
2825:Drug discovery
2817:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2802:
2800:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2729:
2727:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2692:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2669:
2667:Bioequivalence
2664:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2615:
2613:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2566:
2560:
2558:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2501:
2496:
2490:
2488:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2435:
2433:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2409:Adverse effect
2406:
2401:
2396:
2384:
2382:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2354:Mode of action
2351:
2346:
2344:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2268:
2266:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2223:
2221:
2214:
2208:
2207:
2200:
2199:
2192:
2185:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2161:
2152:
2147:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2118:
2117:External links
2115:
2112:
2111:
2072:(3): 162–173.
2052:
2003:
1954:
1913:
1864:
1815:
1759:
1702:
1673:(11): 3381–5.
1653:
1615:
1596:
1581:
1538:
1489:
1463:
1420:
1399:10.1086/507964
1377:
1359:
1337:
1312:
1294:
1291:on 2011-01-03.
1269:
1234:
1193:
1168:
1134:
1116:
1081:
1052:
1033:
990:
974:
956:
897:
846:
831:
823:10.17226/10651
803:
796:
770:
743:(2): 333–350.
727:
698:
680:
628:
627:
625:
622:
621:
620:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
583:
576:
573:
521:cephalosporins
492:
489:
473:
472:Metabolic cost
470:
467:
466:
457:
448:
439:
435:
434:
416:
398:
380:
376:
375:
366:
357:
348:
344:
343:
340:
337:
334:
323:
320:
319:
318:
307:
288:
277:
258:
255:
129:
126:
86:European Union
56:in treating a
54:antineoplastic
32:Drug tolerance
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3033:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3006:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2931:Tachyphylaxis
2929:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2722:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2674:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2649:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2419:
2418:Neurotoxicity
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2390:
2387:Selectivity (
2386:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2326:
2325:Pharmacophore
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2263:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2186:
2184:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2023:(6): 828–32.
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1917:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1884:(1): 109–23.
1883:
1879:
1875:
1868:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1698:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1620:
1610:
1609:
1600:
1592:
1585:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1477:
1473:
1467:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1381:
1374:. 2007-11-07.
1373:
1372:HowStuffWorks
1369:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1341:
1327:on 2010-04-03
1326:
1322:
1316:
1308:
1304:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1276:
1274:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1138:
1130:
1126:
1120:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1097:(3): 255–61.
1096:
1092:
1085:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
994:
987:
983:
978:
970:
966:
960:
952:
948:
943:
938:
934:
930:
925:
920:
916:
912:
908:
901:
893:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
865:
861:
857:
850:
842:
838:
834:
828:
824:
820:
816:
815:
807:
799:
793:
789:
785:
781:
774:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
731:
716:
712:
708:
707:Harvey, Fiona
702:
694:
690:
684:
676:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
648:
644:
640:
633:
629:
619:
618:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
572:
570:
569:bacteriophage
566:
565:phage therapy
562:
557:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
505:
502:
498:
488:
484:
482:
478:
465:
462:
458:
456:
453:
449:
447:
446:Tetracycline
444:
443:Erythromycin
440:
437:
436:
433:
430:
427:
424:
421:
417:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
399:
397:
396:Trimethoprim
394:
391:
388:
387:Erythromycin
385:
381:
378:
377:
374:
371:
367:
365:
362:
358:
356:
353:
349:
347:Destroy drug
346:
345:
341:
338:
335:
332:
331:
326:
316:
312:
308:
305:
304:nucleic acids
301:
297:
293:
289:
286:
282:
278:
275:
271:
269:
264:
263:
262:
254:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
216:parasexuality
213:
209:
205:
200:
198:
194:
190:
189:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
143:cell-division
139:
135:
125:
121:
119:
118:
113:
112:
107:
106:
105:Streptococcus
101:
97:
96:
89:
87:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
50:antimicrobial
47:
39:
33:
19:
2935:
2901:Chemotherapy
2861:Cell biology
2762:Biochemistry
2686:Neuroscience
2634:Distribution
2564:Loading dose
2247:Superagonist
2204:Pharmacology
2069:
2065:
2055:
2020:
2016:
2006:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1930:
1926:
1916:
1881:
1877:
1867:
1832:
1828:
1818:
1781:
1777:
1719:
1715:
1705:
1670:
1666:
1656:
1634:(9): 337–9.
1631:
1627:
1607:
1599:
1590:
1584:
1554:(1): 19–31.
1551:
1547:
1541:
1506:
1502:
1492:
1480:. Retrieved
1476:the original
1466:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1371:
1362:
1354:the original
1349:
1340:
1329:. Retrieved
1325:the original
1315:
1306:
1297:
1289:the original
1284:
1250:(2): 453–7.
1247:
1243:
1237:
1213:(5): 611–8.
1210:
1206:
1196:
1184:. Retrieved
1180:
1171:
1157:(1): 16–22.
1154:
1150:
1137:
1128:
1119:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1072:. Retrieved
1068:
1055:
1046:
1036:
1003:
999:
993:
985:
977:
968:
959:
914:
910:
900:
866:(10): 1863.
863:
859:
849:
813:
806:
779:
773:
740:
736:
730:
718:. Retrieved
715:the Guardian
714:
701:
692:
683:
646:
642:
632:
615:
558:
553:trimethoprim
541:beta-lactams
506:
494:
485:
475:
463:
460:
454:
451:
445:
442:
431:
428:
425:
422:
419:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
372:
369:
363:
360:
354:
351:
339:Drug Action
325:
311:permeability
274:β-lactamases
267:
260:
251:insecticides
232:
201:
186:
155:chemotherapy
131:
122:
115:
109:
103:
93:
90:
80:
78:
45:
44:
2986:Bactericide
2662:Compartment
2473:Patch clamp
2449:Schild plot
1933:(1): 9–11.
1307:physorg.com
441:Penicillin
390:Quinolones
292:sulfonamide
159:fibroblasts
100:enterococci
3016:Immunology
3005:Categories
2866:Physiology
2798:Toxicology
2690:psychology
2639:Metabolism
2629:Absorption
2623:Liberation
2465:Organ bath
2393:Functional
2272:Antagonist
2265:Inhibitory
2220:Excitatory
1784:(1): 245.
1331:2010-07-18
1129:tulane.edu
1074:21 October
624:References
545:quinolones
517:penicillin
333:Mechanism
300:folic acid
268:Penicillin
257:Mechanisms
243:deodorants
228:arthropods
2648:Clearance
2644:Excretion
2463:Methods (
2088:2150-5349
1736:0066-4804
1482:1 October
1186:1 October
1061:Morelle R
933:2049-1891
917:(1): 51.
757:1187-7863
720:1 October
525:nafcillin
515:(such as
491:Treatment
393:Rifampin
247:sunblocks
171:MicroRNAs
151:cancerous
134:evolution
62:pathogens
2766:genetics
2738:Pharmacy
2725:Medicine
2535:Affinity
2494:Efficacy
2432:Analysis
2414:Toxicity
2164:CancerDR
2155:MDRIpred
2106:28828194
1998:21470111
1949:12493781
1859:14160224
1810:30176891
1754:23716056
1697:12384339
1576:13656026
1568:28951954
1533:19678712
1458:27422270
1450:19058634
1415:20734025
1407:17006819
1350:CBC News
1111:12849777
1069:BBC News
1047:BBC News
1028:52092652
1020:30146724
986:BBC News
951:33866972
892:33066185
841:22649806
765:55736918
675:26180516
575:See also
561:bacteria
499:encodes
239:shampoos
2676:Related
2619:(L)ADME
2573:Initial
2557:Metrics
2504:Potency
2487:Metrics
2389:Binding
2359:Binding
2227:Agonist
2097:5547374
2047:1155924
1989:3717411
1908:3060240
1850:1816326
1801:6122769
1745:3719774
1648:9294886
1524:2847397
1264:3808656
1229:4540680
1220:2480843
942:8054369
883:7602066
860:Animals
666:4502609
208:biofilm
197:dapsone
193:Leprosy
175:Malaria
138:fitness
58:disease
2678:fields
2104:
2094:
2086:
2045:
2038:429234
2035:
1996:
1986:
1947:
1906:
1899:358033
1896:
1857:
1847:
1808:
1798:
1752:
1742:
1734:
1695:
1688:128759
1685:
1646:
1574:
1566:
1531:
1521:
1456:
1448:
1413:
1405:
1262:
1227:
1217:
1109:
1026:
1018:
949:
939:
931:
890:
880:
839:
829:
794:
763:
755:
673:
663:
649:: 71.
551:, and
315:efflux
235:bleach
163:tumors
52:or an
2875:Other
2612:LADME
1572:S2CID
1503:Drugs
1454:S2CID
1411:S2CID
1260:JSTOR
1147:(PDF)
1024:S2CID
761:S2CID
497:ABCB1
224:ecto-
220:endo-
212:fungi
167:WNT16
161:near
128:Types
2764:and
2688:and
2524:TD50
2520:LD50
2516:ED50
2512:IC50
2508:EC50
2310:Drug
2102:PMID
2084:ISSN
2043:PMID
1994:PMID
1945:PMID
1904:PMID
1855:PMID
1806:PMID
1750:PMID
1732:ISSN
1693:PMID
1644:PMID
1564:PMID
1529:PMID
1484:2018
1446:PMID
1403:PMID
1225:PMID
1188:2018
1107:PMID
1076:2015
1016:PMID
947:PMID
929:ISSN
888:PMID
837:PMID
827:ISBN
792:ISBN
753:ISSN
722:2018
671:PMID
519:and
507:For
302:and
285:MRSA
222:and
181:and
68:and
2621:: (
2092:PMC
2074:doi
2033:PMC
2025:doi
1984:PMC
1976:doi
1935:doi
1894:PMC
1886:doi
1845:PMC
1837:doi
1796:PMC
1786:doi
1740:PMC
1724:doi
1683:PMC
1675:doi
1636:doi
1556:doi
1552:200
1519:PMC
1511:doi
1438:doi
1395:doi
1252:doi
1215:PMC
1159:doi
1099:doi
1008:doi
937:PMC
919:doi
878:PMC
868:doi
819:doi
784:doi
745:doi
661:PMC
651:doi
281:PBP
145:or
3007::
2522:,
2518:,
2514:,
2510:,
2471:,
2467:,
2391:,
2100:.
2090:.
2082:.
2068:.
2064:.
2041:.
2031:.
2019:.
2015:.
1992:.
1982:.
1972:17
1970:.
1966:.
1943:.
1931:51
1929:.
1925:.
1902:.
1892:.
1880:.
1876:.
1853:.
1843:.
1831:.
1827:.
1804:.
1794:.
1782:16
1780:.
1776:.
1762:^
1748:.
1738:.
1730:.
1720:57
1718:.
1714:.
1691:.
1681:.
1671:46
1669:.
1665:.
1642:.
1630:.
1618:^
1570:.
1562:.
1550:.
1527:.
1517:.
1507:69
1505:.
1501:.
1452:.
1444:.
1434:45
1432:.
1409:.
1401:.
1391:27
1389:.
1370:.
1348:.
1305:.
1283:.
1272:^
1258:.
1248:46
1246:.
1223:.
1211:47
1209:.
1205:.
1179:.
1155:29
1153:.
1149:.
1127:.
1105:.
1095:14
1093:.
1067:.
1045:.
1022:.
1014:.
1002:.
967:.
945:.
935:.
927:.
915:12
913:.
909:.
886:.
876:.
864:10
862:.
858:.
835:.
825:.
817:.
790:.
759:.
751:.
741:26
739:.
713:.
691:.
669:.
659:.
647:15
645:.
641:.
547:,
543:,
245:,
199:.
120:.
81:so
76:.
2650:)
2646:(
2625:)
2575:)
2571:(
2526:)
2506:(
2475:)
2420:)
2416:(
2395:)
2196:e
2189:t
2182:v
2108:.
2076::
2070:8
2049:.
2027::
2021:7
2000:.
1978::
1951:.
1937::
1910:.
1888::
1882:1
1861:.
1839::
1833:2
1812:.
1788::
1756:.
1726::
1699:.
1677::
1650:.
1638::
1632:5
1612:.
1593:.
1578:.
1558::
1535:.
1513::
1486:.
1460:.
1440::
1417:.
1397::
1334:.
1309:.
1266:.
1254::
1231:.
1190:.
1165:.
1161::
1131:.
1113:.
1101::
1078:.
1049:.
1030:.
1010::
1004:x
984:,
971:.
953:.
921::
894:.
870::
843:.
821::
800:.
786::
767:.
747::
724:.
695:.
677:.
653::
276:.
270:G
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
