1015:
2166:(DOC). Studies have shown that it is larger sinking particles that transport matter down to the sea floor while suspended particles and dissolved organics are mostly consumed by remineralisation. This happens in part due to the fact that organisms must typically ingest nutrients smaller than they are, often by orders of magnitude. With the microbial community making up 90% of marine biomass, it is particles smaller than the microbes (on the order of 10) that will be taken up for remineralisation.
106:
688:
2127:
971:. The zonation of these favored acceptors can be seen in Figure 1. Moving downwards from the surface through the zonation of these deep ocean sediments, acceptors are used and depleted. Once depleted the next acceptor of lower favorability takes its place. Thermodynamically, oxygen represents the most favorable electron accepted but is quickly used up in the water sediment interface and
925:
748:, however, remineralization is used to describe a link in the chain of elemental cycling within a specific ecosystem. In particular, remineralization represents the point where organic material constructed by living organisms is broken down into basal inorganic components that are not obviously identifiable as having come from an organic source. This differs from the process of
2118:
conditions, in which oxygen is readily available, aerobic respiration will be favored due to its high energy yield. Once the use of oxygen through respiration exceeds the input of oxygen due to bioturbation and diffusion, the environment will become anoxic and organic matter will be broken down via other means, such as denitrification and manganese reduction.
1027:
makes it to the seafloor without being remineralised and 90% of that remaining material is remineralised in sediments itself. Once in the sediment, organic remineralisation may occur through a variety of reactions. The following reactions are the primary ways in which organic matter is remineralised,
755:
Biogeochemists study this process across all ecosystems for a variety of reasons. This is done primarily to investigate the flow of material and energy in a given system, which is key to understanding the productivity of that ecosystem along with how it recycles material versus how much is entering
2158:
For most areas of the ocean, the highest rates of carbon remineralisation occur at depths between 100–1,200 m (330–3,940 ft) in the water column, decreasing down to about 1,200 m where remineralisation rates remain pretty constant at 0.1 μmol kg yr. As a result of this, the pool of
2134:
In most open ocean ecosystems only a small fraction of organic matter reaches the seafloor. Biological activity in the photic zone of most water bodies tends to recycle material so well that only a small fraction of organic matter ever sinks out of that top photosynthetic layer. Remineralisation
978:
concentrations extends only millimeters to centimeters down into the sediment in most locations of the deep sea. This favorability indicates an organism's ability to obtain higher energy from the reaction which helps them compete with other organisms. In the absence of these acceptors, organic
2138:
What fraction does escape varies depending on the location of interest. For example, in the North Sea, values of carbon deposition are ~1% of primary production while that value is <0.5% in the open oceans on average. Therefore, most of nutrients remain in the water column, recycled by the
2117:
Redox zonation refers to how the processes that transfer terminal electrons as a result of organic matter degradation vary depending on time and space. Certain reactions will be favored over others due to their energy yield as detailed in the energy acceptor cascade detailed above. In oxic
881:
764:
While it is important to note that the process of remineralization is a series of complex biochemical pathways , it can often be simplified as a series of one-step processes for ecosystem-level models and calculations. A generic form of these reactions is shown by:
1018:
Relative favorability of reduction reactions in marine sediments based on thermodynamic energetics. Origin of arrows indicate energy associated with half-cell reaction. Length of arrow indicates an estimate of ΔG for the reaction (Adapted from Libes,
1093:
to remineralise organic matter as it provides the second largest amount of energy. In depths below where denitrification is favored, reactions such as
Manganese Reduction, Iron Reduction, Sulfate Reduction, Methane Reduction (also known as
2582:
Feely, Richard A.; Sabine, Christopher L.; Schlitzer, Reiner; Bullister, John L.; Mecking, Sabine; Greeley, Dana (1 February 2004). "Oxygen
Utilization and Organic Carbon Remineralisation in the Upper Water Column of the Pacific Ocean".
1770:
1583:
1070:
Aerobic respiration is the most preferred remineralisation reaction due to its high energy yield. Although oxygen is quickly depleted in the sediments and is generally exhausted centimeters from the sediment-water interface.
1949:
886:
The above generic equation starts with two reactants: some piece of organic matter (composed of organic carbon) and an oxidant. Most organic carbon exists in a reduced form which is then oxidized by the oxidant (such as
2135:
within this top layer occurs rapidly and due to the higher concentrations of organisms and the availability of light, those remineralised nutrients are often taken up by autotrophs just as rapidly as they are released.
1409:
1263:
2096:
979:
matter can also be degraded through methanogenesis, but the net oxidation of this organic matter is not fully represented by this process. Each pathway and the stoichiometry of its reaction are listed in table 1.
771:
756:
the system. Understanding the rates and dynamics of organic matter remineralization in a given system can help in determining how or why some ecosystems might be more productive than others.
2769:
997:
and the constant mixing of this material which can change the relative importance of each respiration pathway. For the microbial perspective please reference the
951:
and determines the obtainability of energy to organisms that live there. From the water interface moving toward deeper sediments, the order of these acceptors is
2677:
Lefévre, D.; Denis, M.; Lambert, C. E.; Miquel, J. -C. (1 February 1996). "Is DOC the main source of organic matter remineralization in the ocean water column?".
2626:
Karl, David M.; Knauer, George A.; Martin, John H. (1 March 1988). "Downward flux of particulate organic matter in the ocean: a particle decomposition paradox".
905:, water and a collection of simple nutrients like nitrate or phosphate that can then be taken up by other organisms. The above general form, when considering
1597:
2155:) organisms and via respiration will remineralise the compounds from the organic form back to inorganic, making them available for primary producers again.
1423:
719:
1784:
932:
The degradation of organic matter through respiration in the modern ocean is facilitated by different electron acceptors, their favorability based on
2739:
450:
876:{\displaystyle {\ce {{Organic\ Matter}+Oxidant->{Liberated\ Simple\ Nutrients}+{\underset {Carbon~Dioxide}{CO2}}+{\underset {Water}{H2O}}}}}
1280:
1134:
1102:(ΔG). In a water body, sediment seabed, or soil, the sorting of these chemical reactions with depth in order of energy provided is called a
1967:
671:
2380:
Postma, Dieke; Jakobsen, Rasmus (1 September 1996). "Redox zonation: Equilibrium constraints on the Fe(III)/SO4-reduction interface".
2320:
712:
2723:
2566:
2449:
2424:
2364:
2303:
2273:
2238:
916:
though the reactants and products are essentially analogous to the short-hand equations used for multi-cellular respiration.
732:
The term "remineralization" is used in several contexts across different disciplines. The term is most commonly used in the
912:
as the oxidant, is the equation for respiration. In this context specifically, the above equation represents bacterial
705:
65:
Remineralisation is normally viewed as it relates to the cycling of the major biologically important elements such as
20:
2159:
remineralised carbon (which generally takes the form of carbon dioxide) tends to increase in the photic zone.
81:
settings, where it forms a significant link in the biogeochemical dynamics and cycling of aquatic ecosystems.
2206:
2201:
993:
pathways to metabolize other oxides such as manganese, iron, and sulfate. It is also important to figure in
582:
577:
410:
211:
740:
fields, where it describes the development or redevelopment of mineralized structures in organisms such as
2747:
1099:
405:
692:
639:
2502:
2541:
De La Rocha, C. L. (2006). "The
Biological Pump". In Holland, Heinrich D.; Turekian, Karl K. (eds.).
741:
633:
292:
2800:
2196:
2163:
998:
913:
179:
928:
Sketch of major electron acceptors in marine sediment porewater based on idealized relative depths
415:
287:
2265:
2259:
924:
2185:
937:
604:
429:
2255:
2805:
2466:
1080:
990:
167:
2686:
2635:
2546:
2481:
2389:
199:
8:
2596:
1065:
752:
which is a more general descriptor of larger structures degrading to smaller structures.
121:
2690:
2639:
2550:
2485:
2393:
1765:{\displaystyle {\ce {OM + 236Fe2O3 + 410H2O -> 106CO2 + 16NH3 + H3PO4 + 472Fe(OH)2}}}
2810:
2659:
2608:
2523:
654:
644:
495:
461:
378:
371:
282:
131:
43:
2719:
2698:
2651:
2600:
2562:
2558:
2527:
2515:
2507:
2445:
2420:
2401:
2360:
2299:
2269:
2234:
1578:{\displaystyle {\ce {OM + 260MnO2 + 174H2O -> 106CO2 + 8N2 + H3PO4 + 260Mn(OH)2}}}
933:
659:
569:
238:
172:
97:
78:
2612:
901:
and energy that can be harnessed by the organism. This process generally produces CO
2694:
2663:
2643:
2592:
2554:
2497:
2489:
2397:
2335:
619:
609:
589:
206:
51:
2465:
Thomas, Helmuth; Bozec, Yann; Elkalay, Khalid; Baar, Hein J. W. de (14 May 2004).
2713:
2293:
2190:
2175:
2140:
1944:{\displaystyle {\ce {OM + 59H2SO4 -> 106CO2 + 16NH3 + H3PO4 + 59H2S + 62H2O}}}
1090:
1014:
745:
485:
361:
275:
243:
77:. While crucial to all ecosystems, the process receives special consideration in
27:
2112:
1959:
1103:
1095:
895:
627:
490:
477:
331:
304:
299:
39:
2340:
2794:
2655:
2604:
2511:
2292:
Altenbach, Alexander; Bernhard, Joan M.; Seckbach, Joseph (20 October 2011).
2180:
749:
649:
594:
434:
397:
260:
218:
189:
184:
2493:
2519:
1086:
1028:
in them general organic matter (OM) is often represented by the shorthand:
994:
664:
341:
336:
318:
136:
2144:
1404:{\displaystyle {\ce {OM + 104HNO3 -> 106CO2 + 60N2 + H3PO4 + 138H2O}}}
1024:
614:
599:
542:
456:
223:
155:
1258:{\displaystyle {\ce {OM + 150O2 -> 106CO2 + 16HNO3 + H3PO4 + 78H2O}}}
105:
2152:
737:
194:
74:
2295:
Anoxia: Evidence for
Eukaryote Survival and Paleontological Strategies
2091:{\displaystyle {\ce {OM + 59H2O -> 47CO2 + 59CH4 + 16NH3 + H3PO4}}}
2647:
2148:
960:
537:
530:
424:
270:
228:
47:
42:(those molecules derived from a biological source) into its simplest
2417:
The
Benthic Boundary Layer: Transport Processes and Biogeochemistry
2126:
948:
945:
733:
525:
515:
250:
233:
70:
59:
55:
16:
Breakdown of organic matter to simple chemicals by living organisms
1098:), become favored respectively. This favorability is governed by
968:
956:
520:
445:
366:
255:
141:
952:
549:
66:
2581:
941:
265:
2712:
Schulze, Ernst-Detlef; Mooney, Harold A. (6 December 2012).
50:
as they are responsible for liberating the energy stored in
2467:"Enhanced Open Ocean Storage of CO2 from Shelf Sea Pumping"
964:
383:
322:
2676:
2291:
2084:
2071:
2055:
2035:
2015:
1992:
1934:
1911:
1891:
1878:
1862:
1842:
1822:
1809:
1758:
1727:
1714:
1698:
1678:
1655:
1635:
1622:
1571:
1540:
1527:
1511:
1491:
1468:
1448:
1394:
1374:
1361:
1345:
1325:
1305:
1248:
1228:
1215:
1199:
1179:
1159:
860:
828:
46:
forms. These transformations form a crucial link within
54:
and recycling matter within the system to be reused as
2464:
2147:
organisms will utilize the materials produced by the
2130:
Food web showing the flow of carbon in the open ocean
2121:
1970:
1787:
1600:
1426:
1283:
1137:
989:
in the surface sediments, a majority of microbes use
774:
2681:. The Coastal Ocean in a Global Change Perspective.
2258:. In Vernberg, F. John; Vernberg, Winona B. (eds.).
1085:
In instances in which the environment is suboxic or
2090:
1943:
1764:
1577:
1403:
1257:
875:
2740:"International Census of Marine Microbes (ICoMM)"
1023:A quarter of all organic material that exits the
2792:
2625:
1004:
38:) refers to the breakdown or transformation of
2379:
2711:
759:
713:
2545:. Vol. 6. Pergamon Press. p. 625.
919:
2540:
2503:11370/e821600e-4560-49e8-aeec-18eeb17549e3
2261:Functional Adaptations of Marine Organisms
720:
706:
84:
2718:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2501:
2339:
2298:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2228:
2044:
2024:
2004:
1981:
1923:
1900:
1851:
1831:
1798:
1736:
1687:
1667:
1644:
1611:
1549:
1500:
1480:
1457:
1437:
1383:
1334:
1314:
1294:
1237:
1188:
1168:
1148:
2770:"Microbe Size - Boundless Open Textbook"
2414:
2253:
2125:
1074:
1013:
923:
2746:. Census of Marine Life. Archived from
2354:
2793:
2442:Introduction to Marine Biogeochemistry
1059:
2439:
2321:"Oxygen dynamics of marine sediments"
1271:
1114:
2318:
2287:
2285:
2224:
2222:
2715:Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function
2162:Most remineralisation is done with
1089:, organisms will prefer to utilize
944:chemistry is the basis for life in
13:
2597:10.1023/B:JOCE.0000038317.01279.aa
2122:Remineralisation in the open ocean
14:
2822:
2373:
2282:
2219:
2106:
21:Remineralization (disambiguation)
2357:Geochemistry of Marine Sediments
687:
686:
104:
2762:
2732:
2705:
2670:
2619:
2575:
2534:
2382:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
982:Due to this quick depletion of
451:microbial calcite precipitation
2559:10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/06107-7
2458:
2433:
2408:
2359:. Princeton University Press.
2348:
2312:
2247:
2233:. Princeton University Press.
1998:
1825:
1748:
1742:
1661:
1561:
1555:
1474:
1308:
1162:
793:
1:
2231:Ocean Biogeochemical Dynamics
2212:
2207:Immobilization (soil science)
2202:Mineralization (soil science)
1005:Remineralisation in sediments
411:marine biogenic calcification
2699:10.1016/0924-7963(95)00003-8
2402:10.1016/0016-7037(96)00156-1
1009:
7:
2419:. Oxford University Press.
2264:. Academic Press. pp.
2169:
640:Biomineralising polychaetes
406:amorphous calcium carbonate
92:Part of a series related to
10:
2827:
2415:Boudreau, Bernard (2001).
2254:Vernberg, F. John (1981).
2110:
1078:
1063:
760:Remineralization reactions
672:Burgess Shale preservation
18:
2679:Journal of Marine Systems
2341:10.1080/17451000801888726
2229:Sarmiento, Jorge (2006).
1125:
1117:
1111:
920:Electron acceptor cascade
744:or bone. In the field of
634:Cupriavidus metallidurans
2543:Treatise on Geochemistry
2197:Mineralization (biology)
2164:dissolved organic carbon
999:electron transport chain
355:Teeth, scales, tusks etc
2585:Journal of Oceanography
2494:10.1126/science.1095491
2355:Burdige, David (2006).
2328:Marine Biology Research
2193:(soil remineralisation)
416:calcareous nannofossils
212:Choanoflagellate lorica
85:Role in biogeochemistry
2131:
2092:
1958:Methane fermentation (
1945:
1766:
1579:
1405:
1259:
1020:
938:laws of thermodynamics
929:
877:
605:Magnetotactic bacteria
430:oolitic aragonite sand
288:scaly-foot snail shell
2440:Libes, Susan (2009).
2319:Glud, Ronnie (2008).
2129:
2093:
1946:
1767:
1580:
1406:
1260:
1081:Anaerobic respiration
1075:Anaerobic respiration
1017:
934:Gibbs free energy law
927:
878:
2256:"Benthic Macrofauna"
1968:
1785:
1598:
1424:
1418:Manganese reduction
1281:
1135:
772:
19:For other uses, see
2691:1996JMS.....7..281L
2640:1988Natur.332..438K
2551:2003TrGeo...6...83D
2486:2004Sci...304.1005T
2480:(5673): 1005–1008.
2394:1996GeCoA..60.3169P
2086:
2073:
2057:
2037:
2017:
1994:
1936:
1913:
1893:
1880:
1864:
1844:
1824:
1811:
1760:
1729:
1716:
1700:
1680:
1657:
1637:
1624:
1573:
1542:
1529:
1513:
1493:
1470:
1450:
1396:
1376:
1363:
1347:
1327:
1307:
1250:
1230:
1217:
1201:
1181:
1161:
1066:Aerobic respiration
1060:Aerobic respiration
862:
830:
332:Vertebrate skeleton
122:Mineralized tissues
2444:. Academic Press.
2132:
2088:
2074:
2061:
2045:
2025:
2005:
1982:
1941:
1924:
1901:
1881:
1868:
1852:
1832:
1812:
1799:
1779:Sulfate reduction
1762:
1740:
1717:
1704:
1688:
1668:
1645:
1625:
1612:
1575:
1553:
1530:
1517:
1501:
1481:
1458:
1438:
1401:
1384:
1364:
1351:
1335:
1315:
1295:
1255:
1238:
1218:
1205:
1189:
1169:
1149:
1021:
930:
873:
870:
850:
842:
818:
496:diatomaceous earth
462:Great Calcite Belt
379:Scale microfossils
372:otolithic membrane
283:small shelly fauna
256:echinoderm stereom
132:Biocrystallization
2725:978-3-642-58001-7
2634:(6163): 438–441.
2568:978-0-08-043751-4
2451:978-0-12-088530-5
2426:978-0-19-511881-0
2388:(17): 3169–3175.
2366:978-0-691-09506-6
2305:978-94-007-1896-8
2275:978-0-12-718280-3
2240:978-0-691-01707-5
2104:
2103:
2077:
2064:
2048:
2028:
2008:
1997:
1985:
1974:
1939:
1927:
1916:
1904:
1884:
1871:
1855:
1835:
1815:
1802:
1791:
1747:
1739:
1720:
1707:
1691:
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1520:
1504:
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1387:
1367:
1354:
1338:
1318:
1298:
1287:
1253:
1241:
1221:
1208:
1192:
1172:
1152:
1141:
1129:Oxygen reduction
1112:Respiration type
1100:Gibbs Free Energy
869:
865:
853:
848:
840:
837:
834:
821:
817:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
792:
785:
782:
779:
730:
729:
660:permineralization
645:Mineral nutrients
570:Mineral evolution
239:foraminifera test
98:Biomineralization
52:organic molecules
2818:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2750:on 17 March 2016
2736:
2730:
2729:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2685:(2–4): 281–291.
2674:
2668:
2667:
2648:10.1038/332438a0
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2062:
2056:
2053:
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2036:
2033:
2026:
2016:
2013:
2006:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1983:
1972:
1950:
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1359:
1352:
1346:
1343:
1336:
1326:
1323:
1316:
1306:
1303:
1296:
1285:
1275:Denitrification
1264:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1254:
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819:
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803:
800:
797:
790:
786:
783:
780:
777:
722:
715:
708:
695:
690:
689:
610:Magnetoreception
590:Ballast minerals
185:Cephalopod shell
180:Brachiopod shell
127:Remineralisation
108:
89:
88:
36:remineralization
32:remineralisation
2826:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2801:Biogeochemistry
2791:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2778:
2776:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2753:
2751:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2710:
2706:
2675:
2671:
2624:
2620:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2539:
2535:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2413:
2409:
2378:
2374:
2367:
2353:
2349:
2323:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2227:
2220:
2215:
2191:John D. Hamaker
2176:Biological pump
2172:
2124:
2115:
2109:
2083:
2078:
2070:
2065:
2054:
2049:
2034:
2029:
2014:
2009:
1991:
1986:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1933:
1928:
1910:
1905:
1890:
1885:
1877:
1872:
1861:
1856:
1841:
1836:
1821:
1816:
1808:
1803:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1757:
1752:
1741:
1726:
1721:
1713:
1708:
1697:
1692:
1677:
1672:
1654:
1649:
1634:
1629:
1621:
1616:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1592:Iron reduction
1570:
1565:
1554:
1539:
1534:
1526:
1521:
1510:
1505:
1490:
1485:
1467:
1462:
1447:
1442:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1393:
1388:
1373:
1368:
1360:
1355:
1344:
1339:
1324:
1319:
1304:
1299:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1247:
1242:
1227:
1222:
1214:
1209:
1198:
1193:
1178:
1173:
1158:
1153:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1091:denitrification
1083:
1077:
1068:
1062:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1012:
1007:
987:
983:
976:
972:
922:
910:
906:
904:
899:
892:
888:
859:
854:
849:
847:
831:
827:
822:
816:
796:
776:
775:
773:
770:
769:
762:
746:biogeochemistry
726:
685:
678:
677:
676:
564:
556:
555:
554:
510:
502:
501:
500:
486:biogenic silica
480:
470:
469:
468:
453:
441:
420:
400:
390:
389:
388:
356:
348:
347:
346:
326:
311:
310:
309:
276:gastropod shell
244:testate amoebae
234:diatom frustule
159:
148:
147:
146:
116:
87:
28:biogeochemistry
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2824:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2787:
2786:
2761:
2731:
2724:
2704:
2669:
2618:
2574:
2567:
2533:
2457:
2450:
2432:
2425:
2407:
2372:
2365:
2347:
2334:(4): 243–289.
2311:
2304:
2281:
2274:
2246:
2239:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2171:
2168:
2123:
2120:
2113:Redox gradient
2111:Main article:
2108:
2107:Redox zonation
2105:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2081:
2068:
2060:
2052:
2043:
2040:
2032:
2023:
2020:
2012:
2003:
2000:
1989:
1980:
1977:
1963:
1960:Methanogenesis
1955:
1954:
1951:
1931:
1922:
1919:
1908:
1899:
1896:
1888:
1875:
1867:
1859:
1850:
1847:
1839:
1830:
1827:
1819:
1806:
1797:
1794:
1780:
1776:
1775:
1772:
1755:
1750:
1744:
1735:
1732:
1724:
1711:
1703:
1695:
1686:
1683:
1675:
1666:
1663:
1652:
1643:
1640:
1632:
1619:
1610:
1607:
1593:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1568:
1563:
1557:
1548:
1545:
1537:
1524:
1516:
1508:
1499:
1496:
1488:
1479:
1476:
1465:
1456:
1453:
1445:
1436:
1433:
1419:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1391:
1382:
1379:
1371:
1358:
1350:
1342:
1333:
1330:
1322:
1313:
1310:
1302:
1293:
1290:
1276:
1273:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1245:
1236:
1233:
1225:
1212:
1204:
1196:
1187:
1184:
1176:
1167:
1164:
1156:
1147:
1144:
1130:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1104:redox gradient
1096:Methanogenesis
1079:Main article:
1076:
1073:
1064:Main article:
1061:
1058:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
985:
974:
921:
918:
908:
902:
897:
890:
884:
883:
857:
846:
825:
815:
795:
789:
761:
758:
728:
727:
725:
724:
717:
710:
702:
699:
698:
697:
696:
680:
679:
675:
674:
669:
668:
667:
662:
652:
647:
642:
637:
630:
625:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
586:
585:
583:immobilization
580:
578:mineralization
572:
566:
565:
562:
561:
558:
557:
553:
552:
547:
546:
545:
535:
534:
533:
528:
518:
512:
511:
508:
507:
504:
503:
499:
498:
493:
491:siliceous ooze
488:
482:
481:
478:Silicification
476:
475:
472:
471:
467:
466:
465:
464:
459:
454:
442:
440:
439:
438:
437:
432:
421:
419:
418:
413:
408:
402:
401:
396:
395:
392:
391:
387:
386:
381:
376:
375:
374:
364:
358:
357:
354:
353:
350:
349:
345:
344:
339:
334:
328:
327:
317:
316:
313:
312:
308:
307:
302:
300:Sponge spicule
297:
296:
295:
293:estuary shells
290:
285:
280:
279:
278:
273:
268:
258:
248:
247:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
216:
215:
214:
204:
203:
202:
197:
192:
182:
177:
176:
175:
170:
161:
160:
154:
153:
150:
149:
145:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
118:
117:
114:
113:
110:
109:
101:
100:
94:
93:
86:
83:
40:organic matter
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2823:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2775:
2771:
2765:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2735:
2727:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2708:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2673:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2578:
2570:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2537:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2461:
2453:
2447:
2443:
2436:
2428:
2422:
2418:
2411:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2376:
2368:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2315:
2307:
2301:
2297:
2296:
2288:
2286:
2277:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2262:
2257:
2250:
2242:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2223:
2218:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2181:Decomposition
2179:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2167:
2165:
2160:
2156:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2145:Heterotrophic
2142:
2136:
2128:
2119:
2114:
2099:
2079:
2066:
2058:
2050:
2041:
2038:
2030:
2021:
2018:
2010:
2001:
1987:
1978:
1975:
1964:
1961:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1929:
1920:
1917:
1906:
1897:
1894:
1886:
1873:
1865:
1857:
1848:
1845:
1837:
1828:
1817:
1804:
1795:
1792:
1781:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1753:
1733:
1730:
1722:
1709:
1701:
1693:
1684:
1681:
1673:
1664:
1650:
1641:
1638:
1630:
1617:
1608:
1605:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1566:
1546:
1543:
1535:
1522:
1514:
1506:
1497:
1494:
1486:
1477:
1463:
1454:
1451:
1443:
1434:
1431:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1389:
1380:
1377:
1369:
1356:
1348:
1340:
1331:
1328:
1320:
1311:
1300:
1291:
1288:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1243:
1234:
1231:
1223:
1210:
1202:
1194:
1185:
1182:
1174:
1165:
1154:
1145:
1142:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1082:
1072:
1067:
1057:
1026:
1016:
1002:
1000:
996:
992:
980:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
947:
943:
939:
935:
926:
917:
915:
900:
855:
844:
823:
813:
787:
768:
767:
766:
757:
753:
751:
750:decomposition
747:
743:
739:
738:physiological
735:
723:
718:
716:
711:
709:
704:
703:
701:
700:
694:
684:
683:
682:
681:
673:
670:
666:
663:
661:
658:
657:
656:
655:Fossilization
653:
651:
650:Microbial mat
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
635:
631:
629:
626:
624:
622:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
595:Magnetofossil
593:
591:
588:
584:
581:
579:
576:
575:
573:
571:
568:
567:
560:
559:
551:
548:
544:
541:
540:
539:
536:
532:
529:
527:
524:
523:
522:
519:
517:
514:
513:
506:
505:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
483:
479:
474:
473:
463:
460:
458:
455:
452:
449:
448:
447:
444:
443:
436:
435:aragonite sea
433:
431:
428:
427:
426:
423:
422:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
403:
399:
398:Calcification
394:
393:
385:
382:
380:
377:
373:
370:
369:
368:
365:
363:
360:
359:
352:
351:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
329:
324:
320:
319:Endoskeletons
315:
314:
306:
303:
301:
298:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
263:
262:
261:mollusc shell
259:
257:
254:
253:
252:
249:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
221:
220:
219:Protist shell
217:
213:
210:
209:
208:
205:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
190:cirrate shell
188:
187:
186:
183:
181:
178:
174:
171:
169:
166:
165:
163:
162:
157:
152:
151:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
119:
112:
111:
107:
103:
102:
99:
96:
95:
91:
90:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
22:
2806:Oceanography
2777:. Retrieved
2773:
2764:
2752:. Retrieved
2748:the original
2744:www.coml.org
2743:
2734:
2714:
2707:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2631:
2627:
2621:
2591:(1): 45–52.
2588:
2584:
2577:
2542:
2536:
2477:
2473:
2460:
2441:
2435:
2416:
2410:
2385:
2381:
2375:
2356:
2350:
2331:
2327:
2314:
2294:
2260:
2249:
2230:
2161:
2157:
2153:chemotrophic
2137:
2133:
2116:
1118:
1084:
1069:
1022:
995:bioturbation
981:
931:
885:
763:
754:
731:
665:petrifaction
632:
620:
615:Microfossils
362:Limpet teeth
342:Ossification
337:Bone mineral
271:chiton shell
156:Exoskeletons
137:Biointerface
126:
64:
35:
31:
25:
2779:29 February
2754:29 February
2149:autotrophic
1025:photic zone
914:respiration
600:Magnetosome
543:phosphorite
509:Other forms
457:calcite sea
224:coccosphere
168:exoskeleton
2795:Categories
2213:References
1272:Anaerobic
936:, and the
195:cuttlebone
164:Arthropod
75:phosphorus
48:ecosystems
2811:Limnology
2774:Boundless
2656:0028-0836
2605:0916-8370
2528:129790522
2512:0036-8075
1999:⟶
1826:⟶
1662:⟶
1475:⟶
1309:⟶
1163:⟶
1115:Reaction
1010:Reactions
991:anaerobic
961:manganese
949:sediments
810:Nutrients
798:Liberated
794:⟶
734:medicinal
621:engrailed
538:Phosphate
531:oil shale
425:Aragonite
229:coccolith
60:organisms
58:by other
56:nutrients
44:inorganic
2613:67846685
2520:15143279
2170:See also
1126:Aerobic
946:deep sea
940:. This
693:Category
574:In soil
526:alginite
516:Bone bed
251:Seashell
158:(shells)
71:nitrogen
2687:Bibcode
2664:4356597
2636:Bibcode
2547:Bibcode
2482:Bibcode
2474:Science
2390:Bibcode
2266:179–230
2186:f-ratio
969:sulfate
957:nitrate
894:) into
839:Dioxide
791:Oxidant
778:Organic
563:Related
521:Kerogen
446:Calcite
367:Otolith
200:gladius
173:cuticle
142:Biofilm
115:General
79:aquatic
2722:
2662:
2654:
2628:Nature
2611:
2603:
2565:
2526:
2518:
2510:
2448:
2423:
2363:
2302:
2272:
2237:
1774:-21.0
1413:-28.4
1267:-29.9
1087:anoxic
1019:2011).
967:, and
953:oxygen
836:
833:Carbon
807:
804:Simple
801:
784:Matter
781:
691:
550:Pyrena
207:Lorica
67:carbon
2660:S2CID
2609:S2CID
2524:S2CID
2470:(PDF)
2324:(PDF)
2151:(and
2141:biota
2100:-5.6
1953:-6.1
1587:-7.2
942:redox
868:Water
742:teeth
628:Druse
323:bones
266:nacre
2781:2016
2756:2016
2720:ISBN
2652:ISSN
2601:ISSN
2563:ISBN
2516:PMID
2508:ISSN
2446:ISBN
2421:ISBN
2361:ISBN
2300:ISBN
2270:ISBN
2235:ISBN
965:iron
736:and
623:gene
384:Tusk
305:Test
73:and
34:(or
2695:doi
2644:doi
2632:332
2593:doi
2555:doi
2498:hdl
2490:doi
2478:304
2398:doi
2336:doi
1829:106
1734:472
1665:106
1642:410
1609:236
1547:260
1478:106
1455:174
1440:MnO
1435:260
1381:138
1312:106
1297:HNO
1292:104
1191:HNO
1166:106
1146:150
1038:(NH
1036:106
1030:(CH
26:In
2797::
2772:.
2742:.
2693:.
2658:.
2650:.
2642:.
2630:.
2607:.
2599:.
2589:60
2587:.
2561:.
2553:.
2522:.
2514:.
2506:.
2496:.
2488:.
2476:.
2472:.
2396:.
2386:60
2384:.
2330:.
2326:.
2284:^
2268:.
2221:^
2143:.
2076:PO
2047:NH
2042:16
2027:CH
2022:59
2007:CO
2002:47
1979:59
1973:OM
1962:)
1921:62
1898:59
1883:PO
1854:NH
1849:16
1834:CO
1814:SO
1796:59
1790:OM
1746:OH
1738:Fe
1719:PO
1690:NH
1685:16
1670:CO
1614:Fe
1603:OM
1559:OH
1551:Mn
1532:PO
1483:CO
1429:OM
1366:PO
1332:60
1317:CO
1286:OM
1235:78
1220:PO
1186:16
1171:CO
1140:OM
1121:G
1106:.
1056:.
1050:PO
1046:(H
1044:16
1034:O)
1001:.
963:,
959:,
955:,
896:CO
820:CO
69:,
62:.
30:,
2783:.
2758:.
2728:.
2701:.
2697::
2689::
2683:7
2666:.
2646::
2638::
2615:.
2595::
2571:.
2557::
2549::
2530:.
2500::
2492::
2484::
2454:.
2429:.
2404:.
2400::
2392::
2369:.
2344:.
2338::
2332:4
2308:.
2278:.
2243:.
2080:4
2067:3
2063:H
2059:+
2051:3
2039:+
2031:4
2019:+
2011:2
1996:O
1988:2
1984:H
1976:+
1938:O
1930:2
1926:H
1918:+
1915:S
1907:2
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1895:+
1887:4
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1743:(
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1498:8
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