1251:
105:. The remarkable structural organization and engineering properties makes these tissues desirable candidates for duplication by artificial means. Mineralized tissues inspire miniaturization, adaptability and multifunctionality. While natural materials are made up of a limited number of components, a larger variety of material chemistries can be used to simulate the same properties in engineering applications. However, the success of biomimetics lies in fully grasping the performance and mechanics of these biological hard tissues before swapping the natural components with artificial materials for engineering design.
161:
846:
743:
20:
1476:
unavailable. For nacre, the role of some nanograins and mineral bridges requires further studies to be fully defined. Successful biomimicking of mollusk shells will depend will on gaining further knowledge of all these factors, especially the selection of influential materials in the performance of mineralized tissues. Also the final technique used for artificial reproduction must be both cost effective and scalable industrially.
1363:, which expel the ceramic particles as they grow. After sublimation of the water, this results in a layered homogeneous ceramic scaffold that, architecturally, is a negative replica of the ice. The scaffold can then be filled with a second soft phase so as to create a hard–soft layered composite. This strategy is also widely applied to build other kinds of bioinspired materials, like extremely strong and tough
1130:, which then grow to occupy the maximum space available there. The mechanisms of mineral deposition within the organic portion of the bone are still under investigation. Three possible suggestions are that nucleation is either due to the precipitation of calcium phosphate solution, caused by the removal of biological inhibitors or occurs because of the interaction of calcium-binding proteins.
125:
the tissue. Due to this layering, loads and stresses are transferred throughout several length-scales, from macro to micro to nano, which results in the dissipation of energy within the arrangement. These scales or hierarchical structures are therefore able to distribute damage and resist cracking. Two types of biological tissues have been the target of extensive investigation, namely
874:
material that plays this role. Even though these tablets are usually illustrated as flat sheets, different microscopy techniques have shown that they are wavy in nature with amplitudes as large as half of the tablet's thickness. This waviness plays an important role in the fracture of nacre as it will progressively lock the tablets when they are pulled apart and induce hardening.
902:), and weaker strands inside nacre represent three hierarchical structures. On the microscale, the stacked tablet layers and the wavy interface between them are two other hierarchical structures. Lastly, on the nanoscale, the connecting organic material between the tablets as well as the grains from which they are made of is the final sixth hierarchical structure in nacre.
1367:, metal/ceramic, and polymer/ceramic hybrid biomimetic materials with fine lamellar or brick-and-mortar architectures. The "brick" layer is extremely strong but brittle and the soft "mortar" layer between the bricks generates limited deformation, thereby allowing for the relief of locally high stresses while also providing
865:, and it occupies 95% vol. Nacre is 3000 times tougher than aragonite and this has to do with the other component in nacre, the one that takes up 5% vol., which is the softer organic biopolymers. Furthermore, the nacreous layer also contains some strands of weaker material called growth lines that can deflect cracks.
133:
and atomic force microscopy are used to characterize these tissues. Although the degree of efficiency of biological hard tissues are yet unmatched by any man-made ceramic composites, some promising new techniques to synthesize them are currently under development. Not all mineralized tissues develop
955:
There are also two hierarchical structures on the nanoscale. The first being the structure inside the ultrastructure that are fibrils and extrafibrillar space, at a scale of several hundred nanometres. The second are the elementary components of mineralized tissues at a scale of tens of nanometres.
926:
and some other proteins. The hierarchical structural of bone spans across to a three tiered hierarchy of the collagen molecule itself. Different sources report different numbers of hierarchical level in bone, which is a complex biological material. The types of mechanisms that operate at different
1325:
scales are used to imitate these week interfaces with layered composite ceramic tablets that are held together by weak interface “glue”. Hence, these large scale models can overcome the brittleness of ceramics. Since other mechanisms like tablet locking and damage spreading also play a role in the
1304:
provides an additional toughening mechanism. Such a common strategy was perfected by nature itself over millions of years of evolution, giving us the inspiration for building the next generation of structural materials. There are several techniques used to mimic these tissues. Some of the current
1053:
Understanding the formation of biological tissues is inevitable in order to properly reconstruct them artificially. Even if questions remain in some aspects and the mechanism of mineralization of many mineralized tissues need yet to be determined, there are some ideas about those of mollusc shell,
873:
The
Microscale can be imagined by a three-dimensional brick and mortar wall. The bricks would be 0.5 μm thick layers of microscopic aragonite polygonal tablets approximately 5-8 μm in diameter. What holds the bricks together are the mortars and in the case of nacre, it is the 20-30 nm organic
828:
Hierarchical structures are distinct features seen throughout different length scales. To understand how the hierarchical structure of mineralized tissues contributes to their remarkable properties, those for nacre and bone are described below. Hierarchical structures are characteristic of biology
124:
present in teeth and bones. Although one might think that the mineral content of these tissues can make them fragile, studies have shown that mineralized tissues are 1,000 to 10,000 times tougher than the minerals they contain. The secret to this underlying strength is in the organized layering of
1466:
occurs on a synthetic surface with some success. The technique occurs at low temperature and in an aqueous environment. Self-assembling films form templates that effect the nucleation of ceramic phases. The downside with this technique is its inability to form a segmented layered microstructure.
1467:
Segmentation is an important property of nacre used for crack deflection of the ceramic phase without fracturing it. As a consequence, this technique does not mimic microstructural characteristics of nacre beyond the layered organic/inorganic layered structure and requires further investigation.
1246:
in order to understand its alteration with aging. These alterations lead to “transparent” dentin, which is also called sclerotic. It was shown that a ‘‘dissolution and reprecipitation’’ mechanism reigns the formation of transparent dentin. The causes and cures of these conditions can possibly be
1338:
process - dedicated cells deposit minerals to a soft polymeric (protein) matrix to strengthen, harden and/or stiffen it. Thus, biomimetic mineralization is an obvious and effective process for building synthetic materials with superior mechanical properties. The general strategy is started with
1475:
The various studies have increased progress towards understanding mineralized tissues. However, it is still unclear which micro/nanostructural features are essential to the material performance of these tissues. Also constitutive laws along various loading paths of the materials are currently
1382:
encompasses a family of technologies that draw on computer designs to build structures layer by layer. Recently, a lot of bioinspired materials with elegant hierarchical motifs have been built with features ranging in size from tens of micrometers to one submicrometer. Therefore, the
1400:
Layer-by-layer deposition is a technique that as suggested by its name consists of a layer-by-layer assembly to make multilayered composites like nacre. Some examples of efforts in this direction include alternating layers of hard and soft components of TiN/Pt with an
2995:
Fantner G.E.; Hassenkam T.; Kindt J.H.; Weaver J.C.; Birkedal H.; Pechenik L.; Cutroni J.A.; Cidade G.A.G.; Stucky G.D.; Morse D.E. & P.K. Hansma (2005). "Sacrificial bonds and hidden length dissipate energy as mineralized fibrils separate during bone fracture".
857:. The latter is hard and thus prevents any penetration through the shell, but is subject to brittle failure. On the other hand, nacre is softer and can uphold inelastic deformations, which makes it tougher than the hard outer shell. The mineral found in nacre is
100:
These tissues have been finely tuned to enhance their mechanical capabilities over millions of years of evolution. Thus, mineralized tissues have been the subject of many studies since there is a lot to learn from nature as seen from the growing field of
1012:
The organic part of mineralized tissues is made of proteins. In bone for example, the organic layer is the protein collagen. The degree of mineral in mineralized tissues varies and the organic component occupies a smaller volume as tissue
1166:
The mineral-protein interface with its underlying adhesion forces is involved in the toughening properties of mineralized tissues. The interaction in the organic-inorganic interface is important to understand these toughening properties.
1391:
of the whole structure. However, the time-consuming of manufacturing the hierarchical mechanical materials, especially on the nano- and micro-scale limited the further application of this technique in large-scale manufacturing.
1254:
Density-Dependent Colour
Scanning Electron Micrograph SEM (DDC-SEM) of cardiovascular calcification, showing in orange calcium phosphate spherical particles (denser material) and, in green, the extracellular matrix (less dense
2600:
Porter, A.; Nalla, R.; Minor, A.; Jinschek, J.; Kisielowski, C.; Radmilovic, V.; Kinney, J.; Tomsia, A.; Ritchie, R. (2005). "A transmission electron microscopy study of mineralization in age-induced transparent dentin".
1450:. There are three films deposited consecutively. Although the MEMS technology is expensive and more time-consuming, there is a high degree of control over the morphology and large numbers of specimens can be made.
1288:) are lightweight, strong, flexible, tough, fracture-resistant, and self-repair. The general underlying mechanism behind such advanced materials is that the highly oriented stiff components give the materials great
992:, and monosodium urate are examples of minerals found in biological tissues. In mollusc shells, these minerals are carried to the site of mineralization in vesicles within specialized cells. Although they are in an
886:
grains detected by scanning electron microscopy from which the tablets themselves are made of together represent another structural level. The organic material “gluing” the tablets together is made of proteins and
1409:
made by this sequential deposition technique do not have a segmented layered microstructure. Thus, sequential adsorption has been proposed to overcome this limitation and consists of repeatedly adsorbing
792:
The evolution of mineralized tissues has been puzzling for more than a century. It has been hypothesized that the first mechanism of animal tissue mineralization began either in the oral skeleton of
1339:
organic scaffolds with ion-binding sites that promote heterogeneous nucleation. Then localized mineralization can be achieved by controlled ion supersaturation on these ion-binding sites. In such a
1343:, mineral function as a highly strong and highly wear- and erosion-resistant surface layer. While the soft organic scaffolds provide a tough load-bearing base to accommodate excessive strains.
1238:
are used to provide information on the type of mineral phase and changes in mineral and matrix composition involved in the disease. Also, clastic cells are cells that cause mineralized tissue
1029:
or inhibition of hydroxyapatite formation. For example, the organic component in nacre is known to restrict the growth of aragonite. Some of the regulatory proteins in mineralized tissues are
1242:. If there is an unbalance of clastic cell, this will disrupt resorptive activity and cause diseases. One of the studies involving mineralized tissues in dentistry is on the mineral phase of
2923:
Belcherab A.M.; Hansmad P.K.; Stuckyac G.D. & D.E. Morsebe (1998). "First steps in harnessing the potential of biomineralization as a route to new high-performance composite materials".
853:
Some mollusc shells protect themselves from predators by using a two layered system, one of which is nacre. Nacre constitutes the inner layer while the other, outer, layer is made from
134:
through normal physiologic processes and are beneficial to the organism. For example, kidney stones contain mineralized tissues that are developed through pathologic processes. Hence,
964:
molecules, organic molecules such as lipids and proteins, and finally water. The hierarchical structure common to all mineralized tissues is the key to their mechanical performance.
804:
and basal bone, which is sometimes overlaid by enameloid. It is thought that the dermal skeleton eventually became scales, which are homologous to teeth. Teeth were first seen in
808:
and were made from all three components of the dermal skeleton, namely dentin, basal bone and enameloid. The mineralization mechanism of mammalian tissue was later elaborated in
947:
and small struts can be distinguished. The second hierarchical structure, the ultrastructure, at a scale of 5 to 10 μm, is the actual structure of the osteons and small struts.
1870:
Fratzl, P.; Fratzl-Zelman, N.; Klaushofer, K.; Vogl, G.; Koller, K. (1991). "Nucleation and growth of mineral crystals in bone studied by small-angle X-ray scattering".
1556:
Espinosa, H. D.; Rim, J. E.; Barthelat, F.; Buehler, M. J. (2009). "Merger of structure and material in nacre and bone – Perspectives on de novo biomimetic materials".
3043:"The degree of bone mineralization is maintained with single intravenous bisphosphonates in aged estrogen-deficient rats and is a strong predictor of bone strength"
2074:
Barthelat, F.; Tang, H.; Zavattieri, P.; Li, C.; Espinosa, H. (2007). "On the mechanics of mother-of-pearl: A key feature in the material hierarchical structure".
1264:
Natural structural materials comprising hard and soft phases arranged in elegant hierarchical multiscale architectures, usually exhibit a combination of superior
943:
There are two hierarchical structures on the microscale. The first, at a scale of 100 μm to 1 mm, is inside the compact bone where cylindrical units called
2235:
Addadi, L.; Joester, D.; Nudelman, F.; Weiner, S. (2006). "Mollusk shell formation: a source of new concepts for understanding biomineralization processes".
1822:
Barthelat, F. O.; Li, C. M.; Comi, C.; Espinosa, H. D. (2006). "Mechanical properties of nacre constituents and their impact on mechanical performance".
1045:. In nacre, the organic component is porous, which allows the formation of mineral bridges responsible for the growth and order of the nacreous tablets.
774:
2699:
Hua, Mutian; Wu, Shuwang; Ma, Yanfei; Zhao, Yusen; Chen, Zilin; Frenkel, Imri; Strzalka, Joseph; Zhou, Hua; Zhu, Xinyuan; He, Ximin (February 2021).
3261:
1422:
Thin film deposition focuses on reproducing the cross-lamellar microstructure of conch instead of mimicking the layered structure of nacre using
505:
2462:
Tang, H.; Barthelat, F.; Espinosa, H. (2007). "An elasto-viscoplastic interface model for investigating the constitutive behavior of nacre".
1326:
toughness of nacre, other models assemblies inspired by the waviness of microstructure of nacre have also been devised on the large scale.
1178:
analysis to investigate the behaviour of the interface. A model has shown that during tension, the back stress that is induced during the
2853:"Adhesion between biodegradable polymers and hydroxyapatite: Relevance to synthetic bone-like materials and tissue engineering scaffolds"
726:
1913:
Nalla, R.; Kruzic, J.; Ritchie, R. (2004). "On the origin of the toughness of mineralized tissue: microcracking or crack bridging?".
2432:
Mohanty, B.; Katti, K.; Katti, D. (2008). "Experimental investigation of nanomechanics of the mineral-protein interface in nacre".
1126:
solution having calcium and phosphate ions. The mineral nucleates, inside the hole area of the collagen fibrils, as thin layers of
1462:. In this process, raw materials readily available in nature are used to achieve stringent control of nucleation and growth. This
767:
129:
from mollusk shells and bone, which are both high performance natural composites. Many mechanical and imaging techniques such as
972:
The mineral is the inorganic component of mineralized tissues. This constituent is what makes the tissues harder and stiffer.
1784:
Barthelat, F.; Espinosa, H. D. (2007). "An
Experimental Investigation of Deformation and Fracture of Nacre–Mother of Pearl".
61:
that incorporate minerals into soft matrices. Typically these tissues form a protective shield or structural support. Bone,
914:
has a hierarchical structure that is also formed by the self-assembly of smaller components. The mineral in bone (known as
3271:"Occurrence, Formation and Function of Organic Sheets in the Mineral Tube Structures of Serpulidae (Polychaeta, Annelida)"
1004:
nucleates within the hole area of the collagen fibrils and then grows in these zones until it occupies the maximum space.
116:
part). There are approximately 60 different minerals generated through biological processes, but the most common ones are
3041:
Yao W.; Cheng Z.; Koester K.J.; Ager J.W.; Balooch M.; Pham A.; Chefo S.; Busse C.; Ritchie R.O. & N.E. Lane (2007).
2322:
Meyers, M.; Lin, A.; Chen, P.; Muyco, J. (2008). "Mechanical strength of abalone nacre: role of the soft organic layer".
1984:"A new technique for imaging Mineralized Fibrils on Bovine Trabecular Bone Fracture Surfaces by Atomic Force Microscopy"
760:
1186:
that is on the tablet surfaces provide resistance to interlamellar sliding and so strengthen the material. A surface
820:
will provide more insight into the evolution of mineralized tissues and clarify evidence from early fossil records.
3115:
927:
structural length scales are yet to be properly defined. Five hierarchical structures of bone are presented below.
1983:
2502:"Nano-analytical electron microscopy reveals fundamental insights into human cardiovascular tissue calcification"
2191:
Hellmich, C.; Ulm, F. J. (2002). "Micromechanical Model for
Ultrastructural Stiffness of Mineralized Tissues".
1423:
1314:
1296:, while the soft matrix “glues” the stiff components and transfer the stress to them. Moreover, the controlled
108:
Mineralized tissues combine stiffness, low weight, strength and toughness due to the presence of minerals (the
1179:
1170:
At the interface, a very large force (>6-5 nN) is needed to pull the protein molecules away from the
637:
632:
465:
266:
1182:
stretch of the material plays a big role in the hardening of the mineralized tissue. As well, the nanoscale
1355:
is a new method that uses the physics of ice formation to develop a layered-hybrid material. Specifically,
1206:, mineralized tissues not only develop through normal physiological processes, but can also be involved in
1000:, the mineral destabilizes as it passes out of the cell and crystallizes. In bone, studies have shown that
2204:
1174:
mineral in nacre, despite the fact that the molecular interactions are non-bonded. Some studies perform a
1078:. It is not an ordered structure. The acidic proteins play a role in the configuration of the sheets. The
1183:
460:
3346:
2112:
pradhan, Shashindra (July 18, 2012). "Structural
Hierarchy Controls Deformation Behavior of Collagen".
1626:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
1443:
747:
694:
1485:
1191:
688:
347:
2946:"Mineralized Collagen Fibrils: A Mechanical Model with a Staggered Arrangement of Mineral Particles"
2822:
T.G. Bromage (1991). "Issues related to mineralized tissue biology in human evolutionary research".
2636:
Wegst, Ulrike G. K.; Bai, Hao; Saiz, Eduardo; Tomsia, Antoni P.; Ritchie, Robert O. (January 2015).
1359:
suspensions are directionally frozen under conditions designed to promote the formation of lamellar
1190:
study has shown that progressive tablet locking and hardening, which are needed for spreading large
1736:
Glimcher, M. (1959). "Molecular
Biology of Mineralized Tissues with Particular Reference to Bone".
1458:
The method of self-assembly tries to reproduce not only the properties, but also the processing of
1142:
embryo has been used extensively in developmental biology studies. The larvae form a sophisticated
234:
1250:
470:
342:
1387:
of materials only can happen and propagate on the microscopic scale, which wouldn't lead to the
3331:
3116:"Sculpturing the architecture of mineralized tissues: soluble, insoluble and geometric signals"
1379:
659:
484:
1313:
The large scale model of materials is based on the fact that crack deflection is an important
3255:
2382:"Amorphous calcium carbonate transforms into calcite during sea urchin larval spicule growth"
1265:
1235:
1175:
1042:
935:
Compact bone and spongy bone are on a scale of several millimetres to 1 or more centimetres.
222:
1158:
to a more stable form. Therefore, there are two mineral phases in larval spicule formation.
1082:
is highly ordered and is the framework of the matrix. The main elements of the overall are:
3282:
3184:
3042:
3005:
2957:
2783:
2712:
2649:
2566:
2513:
2471:
2393:
2083:
2019:
1831:
1745:
1633:
829:
and are seen in all structural materials in biology such as bone and nacre from seashells
254:
2852:
1210:
processes. Some diseased areas that include the appearance of mineralized tissues include
8:
3341:
1435:
1297:
1289:
3286:
3188:
3009:
2961:
2888:
2787:
2716:
2653:
2570:
2517:
2475:
2397:
2087:
2023:
1835:
1749:
1637:
1025:. Moreover, many proteins are regulators in the mineralization process. They act in the
3305:
3270:
3210:
3159:
3070:
3029:
2978:
2945:
2839:
2752:
2681:
2614:
2534:
2501:
2414:
2381:
2296:
2271:
1895:
1847:
1801:
1710:
1685:
1657:
1406:
1340:
1215:
882:
The 30 nm thick interface between the tablets that connects them together and the
709:
699:
550:
516:
433:
426:
337:
186:
109:
2969:
2936:
2358:"Nucleation and inhibition of hydroxyapatite formation by mineralized tissue proteins"
2042:
2007:
1086:
The silk gel fills the matrix to be mineralized before the mineralization takes place.
1021:
and break easily. Hence, the organic component of mineralized tissues increases their
3336:
3310:
3240:
3223:
3202:
3151:
3075:
3021:
2983:
2911:
2875:
2801:
2756:
2744:
2736:
2728:
2700:
2685:
2673:
2665:
2618:
2582:
2539:
2445:
2339:
2301:
2252:
2129:
2047:
1965:
1930:
1887:
1715:
1649:
1490:
1335:
1127:
1100:
1001:
997:
977:
714:
624:
293:
227:
152:
135:
117:
3163:
3033:
2843:
1805:
1062:
The main structural elements involved in the mollusk shell formation process are: a
3300:
3290:
3235:
3214:
3192:
3143:
3100:
3065:
3057:
3013:
2973:
2965:
2932:
2922:
2903:
2867:
2831:
2791:
2720:
2657:
2610:
2574:
2529:
2521:
2479:
2441:
2409:
2401:
2331:
2291:
2283:
2244:
2200:
2160:
2121:
2091:
2037:
2027:
1961:
1957:
1922:
1899:
1879:
1851:
1839:
1793:
1753:
1705:
1697:
1661:
1641:
1565:
1017:
increases. However, without this organic portion, the biological material would be
809:
674:
664:
644:
261:
181:
113:
58:
2357:
1701:
1569:
1442:. The MEMS technology repeatedly deposits a thin silicon film. The interfaces are
3295:
3224:"Ultrastructure and mineral composition of serpulid tubes (Polychaeta, Annelida)"
3147:
2871:
1239:
1219:
1211:
985:
813:
805:
540:
416:
330:
298:
130:
3134:
M.H. Shamos (1965). "The Origin of
Bioelectric Effects in Mineralized Tissues".
2907:
2335:
3061:
2724:
2483:
2165:
2148:
2095:
2012:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1926:
1771:
1352:
1231:
1227:
1070:
support. The silk gel is part of the protein portion and is mainly composed of
973:
957:
919:
682:
545:
532:
386:
359:
354:
121:
3105:
3088:
2796:
2771:
1797:
1757:
3325:
2994:
2851:
Neuendorf R.E.; Saiz E.; Pearce E.I.; Tomsia A.P. & R.O. Ritchie (2008).
2805:
2732:
2669:
1317:
of nacre. This deflection happens because of the weak interfaces between the
1123:
704:
649:
489:
452:
315:
273:
244:
239:
62:
3086:
2032:
1247:
found from further studies on the role of the mineralized tissues involved.
3314:
3206:
3079:
3025:
2987:
2915:
2879:
2850:
2748:
2677:
2637:
2622:
2586:
2543:
2405:
2343:
2305:
2287:
2256:
2248:
2133:
2051:
1969:
1934:
1719:
1653:
1645:
1411:
1360:
1223:
1143:
915:
719:
396:
391:
373:
191:
90:
70:
3155:
3087:
Nakamura H.K.; Chiou W.-A.; Saruwatari L.; Aita H. & T. Ogawa (2005).
2701:"Strong tough hydrogels via the synergy of freeze-casting and salting out"
1891:
1843:
1147:
922:
with a lot of carbonate ions, while the organic portion is made mostly of
2557:
Miller, J. D. (2013). "Cardiovascular calcification: Orbicular origins".
1459:
1447:
1439:
1322:
1203:
1113:
While crystals grow, some of the acidic proteins get trapped within them.
1063:
1038:
1034:
1030:
989:
669:
654:
597:
511:
278:
210:
102:
40:
3089:"The Microstructure of Mineralized Tissue on Titanium Implant Interface"
160:
3221:
2835:
1883:
1463:
1139:
1107:
1026:
249:
28:
24:
2740:
2125:
1430:
shell has the highest degree of structural organization. The mineral
19:
3017:
2661:
2578:
2525:
1431:
1368:
1364:
1318:
1293:
1207:
1194:
over large volumes, occurred because of the waviness of the tablets.
1171:
1022:
993:
883:
858:
817:
797:
592:
585:
479:
325:
283:
86:
3197:
3172:
1948:
Oyen, M. (2006). "Nanoindentation hardness of mineralized tissues".
816:
during bony fish evolution. It is expected that genetic analysis of
3040:
1624:
Barthelat, F. (2007). "Biomimetics for next generation materials".
1417:
1402:
1388:
1384:
1301:
1187:
1014:
961:
923:
845:
793:
580:
570:
305:
288:
2008:"Genetic basis for the evolution of vertebrate mineralized tissue"
1869:
1356:
1151:
1075:
1071:
1018:
944:
899:
854:
575:
500:
421:
310:
196:
74:
1686:"Infrared spectroscopic characterization of mineralized tissues"
1154:. The latter is a result of the transformation of amorphous CaCO
1110:
begins on the matrix, the calcium carbonate turns into crystals.
138:
is an important process to understand how these diseases occur.
1285:
1243:
1090:
1079:
1067:
981:
888:
801:
604:
94:
82:
78:
44:
36:
2272:"Notch sensitivity of mammalian mineralized tissues in impact"
1427:
1277:
1273:
895:
320:
126:
32:
2379:
894:
To summarize, on the macroscale, the shell, its two layers (
2380:
Beniash, E.; Aizenberg, J.; Addadi, L.; Weiner, S. (1997).
2234:
1555:
1281:
1269:
1096:
The components of the matrix are spatially distinguishable.
911:
438:
377:
48:
2889:"Fatigue of mineralized tissues: Cortical bone and dentin"
2324:
Journal of the
Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials
2073:
2599:
2886:
2386:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1821:
1414:
and rinsing the tablets, which results in multilayers.
1150:. Each of the spicules is a single crystal of mineral
2461:
2005:
1268:. For instance, many natural mechanical materials (
1234:or one analogous to it. Imaging techniques such as
2635:
2321:
2269:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
1912:
1334:All hard materials in animals are achieved by the
837:Nacre has several hierarchical structural levels.
2943:
2431:
1783:
3323:
3222:Vinn, O., ten Hove, H.A. and Mutvei, H. (2008).
2776:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
1817:
1815:
1683:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1418:Thin film deposition: microfabricated structures
1346:
849:Hierarchical structure: brick and mortar concept
112:part) in soft protein networks and tissues (the
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2058:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1230:. All physiologic deposits contain the mineral
1197:
2464:Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids
2427:
2425:
2076:Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids
1731:
1729:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1308:
1161:
910:Like nacre and the other mineralized tissues,
2317:
2315:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2107:
2105:
1812:
1777:
1446:by reactive ion etching and then filled with
768:
3260:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3113:
2821:
2593:
2173:
2006:Kawasaki, K.; Suzuki, T.; Weiss, K. (2004).
1999:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1576:
1395:
1329:
1066:silk gel, aspartic acid rich protein, and a
3173:"Biomaterials: Sacrificial bonds heal bone"
3133:
2896:Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials
2698:
2457:
2455:
2422:
2373:
2270:Currey, J.; Brear, K.; Zioupos, P. (2004).
2190:
1726:
1502:
1093:determines the orientation of the crystals.
956:The components are the mineral crystals of
2312:
2263:
2211:
2102:
775:
761:
97:are some examples of mineralized tissues.
3304:
3294:
3239:
3228:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
3196:
3170:
3104:
3069:
2977:
2795:
2533:
2413:
2295:
2164:
2041:
2031:
1858:
1709:
1668:
1623:
1374:
823:
16:Biological tissues incorporating minerals
3268:
2772:"Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review"
2499:
2452:
1941:
1906:
1735:
1259:
1249:
1048:
844:
18:
2887:Kruzic J.J. & R.O. Ritchie (2007).
2769:
2205:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(2002)128:8(898)
2111:
1424:micro-electro mechanical systems (MEMS)
3324:
2556:
1122:In bone, mineralization starts from a
800:. The dermal skeleton is just surface
2495:
2493:
2146:
1947:
1133:
1007:
967:
2153:Materials Science and Engineering C
2149:"Why is Nacre so strong and tough?"
1772:The Biomimetic Materials Laboratory
1684:Boskey, A.; Mendelsohn, R. (2005).
1434:and organic matrix are replaced by
1371:without too much loss in strength.
938:
930:
13:
2770:Frazier, William E. (2014-06-01).
2763:
2692:
2638:"Bioinspired structural materials"
2629:
2615:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.05.059
2500:Bertazzo, S.; et al. (2013).
2490:
2147:Katti, Kalpana (October 5, 2005).
950:
14:
3358:
2944:Jäger I. & P. Fratzl (2000).
2434:Mechanics Research Communications
1103:is the first form of the mineral.
868:
840:
3241:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00421.x
2446:10.1016/j.mechrescom.2007.09.006
2276:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2193:Journal of Engineering Mechanics
1453:
1057:
877:
796:or the dermal skeleton of early
742:
741:
159:
2815:
2550:
2350:
2140:
1976:
1305:techniques are described here.
996:mineral phase while inside the
506:microbial calcite precipitation
3123:European Cells & Materials
1962:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2005.09.011
1872:Calcified Tissue International
1764:
1:
2970:10.1016/S0006-3495(00)76426-5
2937:10.1016/S1359-6454(97)00253-X
2237:Chemistry: A European Journal
1824:Journal of Materials Research
1702:10.1016/j.vibspec.2005.02.015
1570:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2009.05.001
1558:Progress in Materials Science
1496:
1470:
1347:Ice templation/Freeze casting
466:marine biogenic calcification
3296:10.1371/journal.pone.0075330
3148:10.1177/00220345650440060901
3093:Microscopy and Microanalysis
2872:10.1016/j.actbio.2008.04.006
1426:. Among mollusk shells, the
1198:Diseased mineralized tissues
787:
120:found in mollusk shells and
7:
2908:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2007.04.002
2336:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2007.03.001
1479:
1309:Large scale model materials
1162:Organic-inorganic interface
695:Biomineralising polychaetes
461:amorphous calcium carbonate
147:Part of a series related to
10:
3363:
3062:10.1016/j.bone.2007.06.021
2725:10.1038/s41586-021-03212-z
2484:10.1016/j.jmps.2006.12.009
2166:10.1016/j.msec.2005.08.013
2096:10.1016/j.jmps.2006.07.007
1927:10.1016/j.bone.2004.02.001
1300:of the soft matrix during
727:Burgess Shale preservation
3106:10.1017/S143192760550833X
2797:10.1007/s11665-014-0958-z
1798:10.1007/s11340-007-9040-1
1758:10.1103/RevModPhys.31.359
1738:Reviews of Modern Physics
1486:Shell growth in estuaries
1396:Layer-by-layer deposition
1330:Biomimetic mineralization
1117:
689:Cupriavidus metallidurans
1690:Vibrational Spectroscopy
1041:, bone sialoprotein and
832:
410:Teeth, scales, tusks etc
2033:10.1073/pnas.0404279101
1950:Journal of Biomechanics
905:
471:calcareous nannofossils
267:Choanoflagellate lorica
2406:10.1098/rspb.1997.0066
2288:10.1098/rspb.2003.2634
2249:10.1002/chem.200500980
1786:Experimental Mechanics
1646:10.1098/rsta.2007.0006
1380:Additive manufacturing
1375:Additive manufacturing
1321:tiles. Systems on the
1256:
850:
824:Hierarchical structure
660:Magnetotactic bacteria
485:oolitic aragonite sand
343:scaly-foot snail shell
51:
3114:U. Ripamonti (2003).
1844:10.1557/JMR.2006.0239
1266:mechanical properties
1260:Bioinspired materials
1253:
1236:infrared spectroscopy
1054:bone and sea urchin.
1049:Formation of minerals
848:
23:Mineralized tissues:
22:
1315:toughening mechanism
1176:finite element model
1146:that is made of two
1043:dentin phosphophoryn
3287:2013PLoSO...875330V
3189:2001Natur.414..699C
3010:2005NatMa...4..612F
2962:2000BpJ....79.1737J
2788:2014JMEP...23.1917F
2717:2021Natur.590..594H
2654:2015NatMa..14...23W
2571:2013NatMa..12..476M
2518:2013NatMa..12..576B
2476:2007JMPSo..55.1410T
2398:1997RSPSB.264..461B
2088:2007JMPSo..55..306B
2024:2004PNAS..10111356K
2018:(31): 11356–11361.
1836:2006JMatR..21.1977B
1750:1959RvMP...31..359G
1638:2007RSPTA.365.2907B
1632:(1861): 2907–2919.
1298:plastic deformation
1290:mechanical strength
1089:The highly ordered
387:Vertebrate skeleton
177:Mineralized tissues
55:Mineralized tissues
3171:J. Currey (2001).
2860:Acta Biomaterialia
2836:10.1007/BF02435617
1884:10.1007/BF02556454
1341:composite material
1257:
1216:tumoral calcinosis
851:
551:diatomaceous earth
517:Great Calcite Belt
434:Scale microfossils
427:otolithic membrane
338:small shelly fauna
311:echinoderm stereom
187:Biocrystallization
65:, deep sea sponge
52:
3347:Biomineralization
3269:Vinn, O. (2013).
2711:(7847): 594–599.
2609:(36): 7650–7660.
2392:(1380): 461–465.
2282:(1538): 517–522.
2126:10.1021/bm300801a
2114:Biomacromolecules
1956:(14): 2699–2702.
1491:Biomineralization
1336:biomineralization
1134:Sea urchin embryo
1128:calcium phosphate
1101:calcium carbonate
1008:Organic component
1002:calcium phosphate
978:calcium carbonate
968:Mineral component
785:
784:
715:permineralization
700:Mineral nutrients
625:Mineral evolution
294:foraminifera test
153:Biomineralization
136:biomineralization
118:calcium carbonate
3354:
3318:
3308:
3298:
3265:
3259:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3218:
3200:
3167:
3142:(6): 1114–1115.
3130:
3120:
3110:
3108:
3083:
3073:
3047:
3037:
3018:10.1038/nmat1428
2998:Nature Materials
2991:
2981:
2956:(4): 1737–1746.
2940:
2919:
2893:
2883:
2866:(5): 1288–1296.
2857:
2847:
2810:
2809:
2799:
2782:(6): 1917–1928.
2767:
2761:
2760:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2662:10.1038/nmat4089
2642:Nature Materials
2633:
2627:
2626:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2579:10.1038/nmat3663
2559:Nature Materials
2554:
2548:
2547:
2537:
2526:10.1038/nmat3627
2506:Nature Materials
2497:
2488:
2487:
2459:
2450:
2449:
2429:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2319:
2310:
2309:
2299:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2232:
2209:
2208:
2188:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2159:(8): 1317–1324.
2144:
2138:
2137:
2120:(8): 2562–2569.
2109:
2100:
2099:
2071:
2056:
2055:
2045:
2035:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1867:
1856:
1855:
1819:
1810:
1809:
1781:
1775:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1733:
1724:
1723:
1713:
1696:(1–2): 107–114.
1681:
1666:
1665:
1621:
1574:
1573:
1564:(8): 1059–1100.
1553:
810:actinopterygians
777:
770:
763:
750:
745:
744:
665:Magnetoreception
645:Ballast minerals
240:Cephalopod shell
235:Brachiopod shell
182:Remineralisation
163:
144:
143:
3362:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3351:
3322:
3321:
3253:
3252:
3246:
3244:
3198:10.1038/414699a
3136:Dental Research
3118:
3045:
2925:Acta Materialia
2891:
2855:
2830:(12): 165–174.
2824:Human Evolution
2818:
2813:
2768:
2764:
2697:
2693:
2634:
2630:
2598:
2594:
2555:
2551:
2498:
2491:
2460:
2453:
2430:
2423:
2378:
2374:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2320:
2313:
2268:
2264:
2233:
2212:
2189:
2174:
2145:
2141:
2110:
2103:
2072:
2059:
2004:
2000:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1946:
1942:
1911:
1907:
1868:
1859:
1820:
1813:
1782:
1778:
1769:
1765:
1734:
1727:
1682:
1669:
1622:
1577:
1554:
1503:
1499:
1482:
1473:
1456:
1420:
1398:
1377:
1351:Ice temptation/
1349:
1332:
1311:
1262:
1228:salivary stones
1220:dermatomyositis
1212:atherosclerotic
1200:
1164:
1157:
1136:
1120:
1060:
1051:
1010:
986:calcium oxalate
970:
953:
941:
933:
908:
880:
871:
864:
843:
835:
826:
814:sarcopterygians
806:chondrichthyans
790:
781:
740:
733:
732:
731:
619:
611:
610:
609:
565:
557:
556:
555:
541:biogenic silica
535:
525:
524:
523:
508:
496:
475:
455:
445:
444:
443:
411:
403:
402:
401:
381:
366:
365:
364:
331:gastropod shell
299:testate amoebae
289:diatom frustule
214:
203:
202:
201:
171:
141:
131:nanoindentation
57:are biological
17:
12:
11:
5:
3360:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3320:
3319:
3281:(10): e75330.
3266:
3234:(4): 633–650.
3219:
3168:
3131:
3111:
3084:
3056:(5): 804–812.
3038:
3004:(8): 612–616.
2992:
2941:
2931:(3): 733–736.
2920:
2884:
2848:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2762:
2691:
2628:
2592:
2565:(6): 476–478.
2549:
2512:(6): 576–583.
2489:
2451:
2440:(1–2): 17–23.
2421:
2372:
2349:
2311:
2262:
2243:(4): 980–987.
2210:
2172:
2139:
2101:
2057:
1998:
1975:
1940:
1921:(5): 790–798.
1905:
1857:
1811:
1776:
1763:
1744:(2): 359–393.
1725:
1667:
1575:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1488:
1481:
1478:
1472:
1469:
1455:
1452:
1419:
1416:
1397:
1394:
1376:
1373:
1353:Freeze casting
1348:
1345:
1331:
1328:
1310:
1307:
1261:
1258:
1232:hydroxyapatite
1199:
1196:
1163:
1160:
1155:
1135:
1132:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1104:
1097:
1094:
1087:
1059:
1056:
1050:
1047:
1009:
1006:
974:Hydroxyapatite
969:
966:
960:, cylindrical
958:hydroxyapatite
952:
949:
940:
939:The microscale
937:
932:
931:The macroscale
929:
920:hydroxyapatite
907:
904:
879:
876:
870:
869:The microscale
867:
862:
842:
841:The macroscale
839:
834:
831:
825:
822:
789:
786:
783:
782:
780:
779:
772:
765:
757:
754:
753:
752:
751:
735:
734:
730:
729:
724:
723:
722:
717:
707:
702:
697:
692:
685:
680:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
641:
640:
638:immobilization
635:
633:mineralization
627:
621:
620:
617:
616:
613:
612:
608:
607:
602:
601:
600:
590:
589:
588:
583:
573:
567:
566:
563:
562:
559:
558:
554:
553:
548:
546:siliceous ooze
543:
537:
536:
533:Silicification
531:
530:
527:
526:
522:
521:
520:
519:
514:
509:
497:
495:
494:
493:
492:
487:
476:
474:
473:
468:
463:
457:
456:
451:
450:
447:
446:
442:
441:
436:
431:
430:
429:
419:
413:
412:
409:
408:
405:
404:
400:
399:
394:
389:
383:
382:
372:
371:
368:
367:
363:
362:
357:
355:Sponge spicule
352:
351:
350:
348:estuary shells
345:
340:
335:
334:
333:
328:
323:
313:
303:
302:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
271:
270:
269:
259:
258:
257:
252:
247:
237:
232:
231:
230:
225:
216:
215:
209:
208:
205:
204:
200:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
173:
172:
169:
168:
165:
164:
156:
155:
149:
148:
122:hydroxyapatite
63:mollusc shells
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3359:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3332:Bone products
3330:
3329:
3327:
3316:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3257:
3242:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3183:(6865): 699.
3182:
3178:
3174:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2890:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2854:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2819:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2766:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2695:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2596:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2553:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2496:
2494:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2456:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2426:
2416:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2376:
2359:
2353:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2316:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2106:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2002:
1985:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1878:(6): 407–13.
1877:
1873:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1816:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1767:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1730:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1501:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1477:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1454:Self-assembly
1451:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1415:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1393:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1344:
1342:
1337:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1306:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1159:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1124:heterogeneous
1112:
1109:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1058:Mollusk shell
1055:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
965:
963:
959:
951:The nanoscale
948:
946:
936:
928:
925:
921:
917:
913:
903:
901:
897:
892:
890:
885:
878:The nanoscale
875:
866:
860:
856:
847:
838:
830:
821:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
778:
773:
771:
766:
764:
759:
758:
756:
755:
749:
739:
738:
737:
736:
728:
725:
721:
718:
716:
713:
712:
711:
710:Fossilization
708:
706:
705:Microbial mat
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
690:
686:
684:
681:
679:
677:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
650:Magnetofossil
648:
646:
643:
639:
636:
634:
631:
630:
628:
626:
623:
622:
615:
614:
606:
603:
599:
596:
595:
594:
591:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
577:
574:
572:
569:
568:
561:
560:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
538:
534:
529:
528:
518:
515:
513:
510:
507:
504:
503:
502:
499:
498:
491:
490:aragonite sea
488:
486:
483:
482:
481:
478:
477:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
458:
454:
453:Calcification
449:
448:
440:
437:
435:
432:
428:
425:
424:
423:
420:
418:
415:
414:
407:
406:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
384:
379:
375:
374:Endoskeletons
370:
369:
361:
358:
356:
353:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
318:
317:
316:mollusc shell
314:
312:
309:
308:
307:
304:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
276:
275:
274:Protist shell
272:
268:
265:
264:
263:
260:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
245:cirrate shell
243:
242:
241:
238:
236:
233:
229:
226:
224:
221:
220:
218:
217:
212:
207:
206:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
174:
167:
166:
162:
158:
157:
154:
151:
150:
146:
145:
142:
139:
137:
132:
128:
123:
119:
115:
111:
106:
104:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
21:
3278:
3274:
3256:cite journal
3245:. Retrieved
3231:
3227:
3180:
3176:
3139:
3135:
3126:
3122:
3096:
3092:
3053:
3049:
3001:
2997:
2953:
2949:
2928:
2927:(abstract).
2924:
2899:
2895:
2863:
2859:
2827:
2823:
2816:Bibliography
2779:
2775:
2765:
2708:
2704:
2694:
2648:(1): 23–36.
2645:
2641:
2631:
2606:
2603:Biomaterials
2602:
2595:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2509:
2505:
2467:
2463:
2437:
2433:
2389:
2385:
2375:
2364:. Retrieved
2352:
2330:(1): 76–85.
2327:
2323:
2279:
2275:
2265:
2240:
2236:
2196:
2192:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2117:
2113:
2079:
2075:
2015:
2011:
2001:
1990:. Retrieved
1978:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1875:
1871:
1827:
1823:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1770:
1766:
1741:
1737:
1693:
1689:
1629:
1625:
1561:
1557:
1474:
1457:
1421:
1412:electrolytes
1405:system. The
1399:
1378:
1361:ice crystals
1350:
1333:
1312:
1263:
1208:pathological
1201:
1192:deformations
1169:
1165:
1144:endoskeleton
1137:
1121:
1061:
1052:
1011:
971:
954:
942:
934:
916:bone mineral
909:
893:
881:
872:
852:
836:
827:
791:
720:petrifaction
687:
675:
670:Microfossils
417:Limpet teeth
397:Ossification
392:Bone mineral
326:chiton shell
211:Exoskeletons
192:Biointerface
176:
140:
107:
99:
91:tooth enamel
71:radiolarians
66:
54:
53:
3099:: 184–185.
2950:Biophysical
2902:(1): 3–17.
2470:(7): 1410.
1830:(8): 1977.
1460:bioceramics
1448:photoresist
1440:photoresist
1436:polysilicon
1323:macroscopic
1218:, juvenile
1204:vertebrates
1064:hydrophobic
1039:osteocalcin
1035:osteopontin
1031:osteonectin
990:whitlockite
655:Magnetosome
598:phosphorite
564:Other forms
512:calcite sea
279:coccosphere
223:exoskeleton
103:biomimetics
67:Euplectella
41:radiolarian
3342:Physiology
3326:Categories
3247:2014-01-09
2366:2010-08-14
2199:(8): 898.
2082:(2): 306.
1992:2010-08-14
1792:(3): 311.
1497:References
1471:The future
1464:nucleation
1407:composites
1255:material).
1240:resorption
1184:asperities
1140:sea urchin
1108:nucleation
1099:Amorphous
1027:nucleation
250:cuttlebone
219:Arthropod
29:sea shells
25:sea sponge
2806:1544-1024
2757:232048202
2733:1476-4687
2686:263363492
2670:1476-4660
1432:aragonite
1369:ductility
1365:hydrogels
1319:aragonite
1294:stiffness
1214:plaques,
1172:aragonite
1023:toughness
994:amorphous
884:aragonite
859:aragonite
818:agnathans
798:agnathans
788:Evolution
676:engrailed
593:Phosphate
586:oil shale
480:Aragonite
284:coccolith
110:inorganic
87:cartilage
69:species,
3337:Pedology
3315:24116035
3275:PLOS ONE
3207:11742376
3164:45177549
3129:: 29–30.
3080:17825637
3034:20835743
3026:16025123
2988:11023882
2916:19627767
2880:18485842
2844:83595216
2749:33627812
2678:25344782
2623:16005961
2587:23695741
2544:23603848
2344:19627773
2306:15129962
2257:16315200
2134:22808993
2052:15272073
1970:16253265
1935:15121010
1806:16707485
1720:16691288
1654:17855221
1480:See also
1403:ion beam
1389:fracture
1302:fracture
1188:topology
1148:spicules
1015:hardness
998:vesicles
962:collagen
924:collagen
794:conodont
748:Category
629:In soil
581:alginite
571:Bone bed
306:Seashell
213:(shells)
3306:3792063
3283:Bibcode
3215:4387468
3185:Bibcode
3156:5216237
3071:3883569
3006:Bibcode
2979:1301068
2958:Bibcode
2784:Bibcode
2741:1774154
2713:Bibcode
2650:Bibcode
2567:Bibcode
2535:5833942
2514:Bibcode
2472:Bibcode
2415:1688267
2394:Bibcode
2297:1691617
2084:Bibcode
2020:Bibcode
1900:7104547
1892:2070275
1852:4275259
1832:Bibcode
1746:Bibcode
1711:1459415
1662:2184491
1634:Bibcode
1357:ceramic
1180:plastic
1152:calcite
1076:alanine
1072:glycine
1019:brittle
945:osteons
900:calcite
855:calcite
618:Related
576:Kerogen
501:Calcite
422:Otolith
255:gladius
228:cuticle
197:Biofilm
170:General
114:organic
75:diatoms
59:tissues
3313:
3303:
3213:
3205:
3177:Nature
3162:
3154:
3078:
3068:
3032:
3024:
2986:
2976:
2914:
2878:
2842:
2804:
2755:
2747:
2739:
2731:
2705:Nature
2684:
2676:
2668:
2621:
2585:
2542:
2532:
2412:
2342:
2304:
2294:
2255:
2132:
2050:
2043:509207
2040:
1968:
1933:
1898:
1890:
1850:
1804:
1718:
1708:
1660:
1652:
1444:etched
1286:Bamboo
1284:, and
1244:dentin
1224:kidney
1091:chitin
1080:chitin
1068:chitin
982:silica
889:chitin
861:, CaCO
802:dentin
746:
605:Pyrena
262:Lorica
95:dentin
83:tendon
81:bone,
79:antler
45:antler
37:dentin
3211:S2CID
3160:S2CID
3119:(PDF)
3046:(PDF)
3030:S2CID
2892:(PDF)
2856:(PDF)
2840:S2CID
2753:S2CID
2682:S2CID
2361:(PDF)
1987:(PDF)
1896:S2CID
1848:S2CID
1802:S2CID
1658:S2CID
1428:conch
1385:crack
1278:Teeth
1274:Nacre
1106:Once
918:) is
896:nacre
833:Nacre
683:Druse
378:bones
321:nacre
127:nacre
33:conch
3311:PMID
3262:link
3203:PMID
3152:PMID
3076:PMID
3050:Bone
3022:PMID
2984:PMID
2912:PMID
2876:PMID
2802:ISSN
2745:PMID
2737:OSTI
2729:ISSN
2674:PMID
2666:ISSN
2619:PMID
2583:PMID
2540:PMID
2340:PMID
2302:PMID
2253:PMID
2130:PMID
2048:PMID
1966:PMID
1931:PMID
1915:Bone
1888:PMID
1716:PMID
1650:PMID
1438:and
1292:and
1282:Silk
1270:Bone
1226:and
1138:The
1118:Bone
1074:and
912:bone
906:Bone
898:and
812:and
678:gene
439:Tusk
360:Test
93:and
49:bone
3301:PMC
3291:doi
3236:doi
3232:154
3193:doi
3181:414
3144:doi
3101:doi
3066:PMC
3058:doi
3014:doi
2974:PMC
2966:doi
2933:doi
2904:doi
2868:doi
2832:doi
2792:doi
2721:doi
2709:590
2658:doi
2611:doi
2575:doi
2530:PMC
2522:doi
2480:doi
2442:doi
2410:PMC
2402:doi
2390:264
2332:doi
2292:PMC
2284:doi
2280:271
2245:doi
2201:doi
2197:128
2161:doi
2122:doi
2092:doi
2038:PMC
2028:doi
2016:101
1958:doi
1923:doi
1880:doi
1840:doi
1794:doi
1754:doi
1706:PMC
1698:doi
1642:doi
1630:365
1566:doi
1202:In
3328::
3309:.
3299:.
3289:.
3277:.
3273:.
3258:}}
3254:{{
3230:.
3226:.
3209:.
3201:.
3191:.
3179:.
3175:.
3158:.
3150:.
3140:44
3138:.
3125:.
3121:.
3097:11
3095:.
3091:.
3074:.
3064:.
3054:41
3052:.
3048:.
3028:.
3020:.
3012:.
3000:.
2982:.
2972:.
2964:.
2954:79
2952:.
2948:.
2929:46
2910:.
2898:.
2894:.
2874:.
2862:.
2858:.
2838:.
2826:.
2800:.
2790:.
2780:23
2778:.
2774:.
2751:.
2743:.
2735:.
2727:.
2719:.
2707:.
2703:.
2680:.
2672:.
2664:.
2656:.
2646:14
2644:.
2640:.
2617:.
2607:26
2605:.
2581:.
2573:.
2563:12
2561:.
2538:.
2528:.
2520:.
2510:12
2508:.
2504:.
2492:^
2478:.
2468:55
2466:.
2454:^
2438:35
2436:.
2424:^
2408:.
2400:.
2388:.
2384:.
2338:.
2326:.
2314:^
2300:.
2290:.
2278:.
2274:.
2251:.
2241:12
2239:.
2213:^
2195:.
2175:^
2157:26
2155:.
2151:.
2128:.
2118:13
2116:.
2104:^
2090:.
2080:55
2078:.
2060:^
2046:.
2036:.
2026:.
2014:.
2010:.
1964:.
1954:39
1952:.
1929:.
1919:34
1917:.
1894:.
1886:.
1876:48
1874:.
1860:^
1846:.
1838:.
1828:21
1826:.
1814:^
1800:.
1790:47
1788:.
1752:.
1742:31
1740:.
1728:^
1714:.
1704:.
1694:38
1692:.
1688:.
1670:^
1656:.
1648:.
1640:.
1628:.
1578:^
1562:54
1560:.
1504:^
1280:,
1276:,
1272:,
1222:,
1037:,
1033:,
988:,
984:,
980:,
976:,
891:.
89:,
85:,
77:,
73:,
47:,
43:,
39:,
35:,
31:,
27:,
3317:.
3293::
3285::
3279:8
3264:)
3250:.
3238::
3217:.
3195::
3187::
3166:.
3146::
3127:5
3109:.
3103::
3082:.
3060::
3036:.
3016::
3008::
3002:4
2990:.
2968::
2960::
2939:.
2935::
2918:.
2906::
2900:I
2882:.
2870::
2864:4
2846:.
2834::
2828:6
2808:.
2794::
2786::
2759:.
2723::
2715::
2688:.
2660::
2652::
2625:.
2613::
2589:.
2577::
2569::
2546:.
2524::
2516::
2486:.
2482::
2474::
2448:.
2444::
2418:.
2404::
2396::
2369:.
2346:.
2334::
2328:1
2308:.
2286::
2259:.
2247::
2207:.
2203::
2169:.
2163::
2136:.
2124::
2098:.
2094::
2086::
2054:.
2030::
2022::
1995:.
1972:.
1960::
1937:.
1925::
1902:.
1882::
1854:.
1842::
1834::
1808:.
1796::
1760:.
1756::
1748::
1722:.
1700::
1664:.
1644::
1636::
1572:.
1568::
1156:3
863:3
776:e
769:t
762:v
380:)
376:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
