206:
years of education and belief in God in many developed countries such as
England, France and the US. They concluded that "these cross-country differences in the education-belief relationship can be explained by political factors (such as communism) which lead some countries to use state controlled education to discredit religion". The study also concludes that, in the United States and other developed nations, "education raises religious attendance at individual level," while "at the same time, there is a strong negative connection between attendance and education across religious groups within the U.S. and elsewhere." The authors suggest that "this puzzle is explained if education both increases the returns to social connection and reduces the extent of religious belief," causing more educated individuals to sort into less fervent denominations.
351:
but it is hardly the case that the professorial landscape is characterized by an absence of religion. In the study, 9.8% were atheists, 13.1% were agnostic, 19.2% believe in a higher power, 4.3% believe in God some of the time, 16.6% had doubts but believed in God, 34.9% believed in God and had no doubts. At "elite" doctoral universities 36.5% were either atheists or agnostics and 20.4% believed in God without any doubts. Furthermore, the authors noted, "religious skepticism represents a minority position, even among professors teaching at elite research universities." They also found that professors at elite doctoral universities are much less religious than professors teaching in other kinds of institutions with more atheists and agnostics in numbers. However, both groups were still a minority.
280:
347:
Sciences, Arts and
Humanities, and Undecided. The Religious were 31.8% of the total sample (40% from STEM, 27% from Social and Behavioral Sciences, 27% from Arts and Humanities, and 5% from Undecided); the Secular were 28.2% of the total sample (38% from STEM, 29% from Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30% from Arts and Humanities, and 3% from Undecided); the Spiritual were 32.4% of the total sample (29% from STEM, 36% from Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31% from Arts and Humanities, and 4% from Undecided).
339:'s 2002 Index of Leading Religious Indicators for the US, the relationship between education and religiosity are complex. For instance, there are slight differences in belief in God and membership in a congregation: 88% of those with postgraduate degrees believe in God or a universal spirit, compared to 97% of those with a high school education or less; 70% of postgraduate degree holders say they are members of a congregation, compared to 64% of those with a high school education or less.
698:
indeed corrode religious faith and practice. But many studies more recently have shown that conventional wisdom about baby boomers does not apply to today's youth. Higher education no longer seem to diminish religion in emerging adults." "In every case, emerging adults are slightly more religious than those who are not in college, although only the differences in overall religiousness and service attendance are statistically significant. In short, if anything, it is
50:
For example, one international study states that in some
Western nations the intensity of beliefs decreases with education, but attendance and religious practice increases. Other studies indicate that the religious have higher education than the non-religious. Other studies find that the positive correlation with low or non religiosity and education has been reversed in the past few decades.
276:
religious services increased 15%, the likelihood of reading the Bible at least occasionally increased by 9%. The likelihood of switching to a mainline
Protestant denomination increased by 13%. Schwadel said, "With more years of education, you aren’t relatively more likely to say, ‘I don’t believe in God. But you are relatively more likely to say, ‘I believe in a higher power.’"
331:
have by far the lowest education. Evangelicals are somewhat below the national average. The religiously unaffiliated are just slightly above average in levels of college education. Sociological research by
Patricia Snell and Christian Smith on many dimensions of general American youth have noted that
49:
Different studies lead to contrasting conclusions regarding the relationship, depending on whether "religiosity" is measured by religious practices (attendance at places of worship, for example) or specific religious beliefs (belief in miracles, for example), with notable differences between nations.
527:
in the US show that
Mormons with higher education attend church more regularly than less-educated Mormons. Survey research indicated that 41% of Mormons with only elementary school education attend church regularly, compared to 76% of Mormon college graduates and 78% of Mormons who went beyond their
697:
However, something very interesting emerged when scholars took a second look at the question more recently. They found that the religiously undermining effect of higher education on recent generation of youth disappeared. Most of the older research was conducted on baby boomers for whom college did
540:
Edward Dutton studied findings that indicate that universities that are particularly transitional and prestigious tend to have (in contrast to less transitional universities), tightly differentiated and ‘fundamentalist’ student evangelical groups and higher levels of conversion while at university.
350:
Research by Neil Gross and Solon
Simmons done on more than 1,400 professors from 20 disciplinary fields and religiosity found that the majority of professors, even at "elite" universities were religious believers. As a whole, university professors were less religious than the general US population,
242:
Research in nonreligion in
Britain has shown that the positive relationship between education and non-religion has been reversed with generations after 1955. In other words, the nonreligious populations tend to have less education and religious populations tend to have higher education, even though
78:
also have the highest number of post-secondary degrees per capita (61%). Based on the study data, Hindus have the lowest level of formal schooling among all major religious. 41% of the world Hindus have no formal schooling, which makes them the least educated religious group in the world. About 36%
384:. He also found that evangelicals were the least likely to have high school education or less, the nonreligious were the most likely to have high school education or less, and higher proportions of evangelicals had studied at the graduate level than fundamentalists, liberals, and the nonreligious.
379:
Sociologist W. Bradford Wilcox said that people with less education have decreased in religiosity in
America. Their views on family and work have been associated with this effect. Research on secularity has noted that, in America, agnostics have significant levels of education, while atheists have
342:
Research done by Barry Kosmin indicates that
Americans with post-graduate education have a similar religious distribution and affiliation to the general population, with a higher "public religiosity" (i.e., membership in congregations and worship attendance), but slightly less "belief." Advanced
205:
data by Edward Glaeser and Bruce Sacerdote noted that in 65 former socialist countries there is a negative relationship between years of education and belief in God, with similar negative correlations for other religious beliefs while, in contrast, there were strong positive correlations between
544:
In 1975, Norman Poythress studied a sample of 234 US college undergraduates, grouping them into relatively homogeneous religious types based on the similarity of their religious beliefs and compared their personality characteristics. He found that "Literally-oriented religious Believers did not
387:
Sociologist Philip Schwadel found that higher levels of education "positively affects religious participation, devotional activities, and emphasizing the importance of religion in daily life", education is not correlated with disbelief in God, and correlates with greater tolerance for atheists'
490:
attend religious services at the same rate as those who do not have them. Moreover, 75% of recent college graduates identify with an organized religion. On a scale measuring levels of religious commitment, over 70% of Christians in the United States who are educated demonstrate high levels of
346:
Research done by Barry Kosmin and Ariela Keysar on college students looked at three worldviews — Religious, Secular, and Spiritual — and looked students from levels from freshmen to post-graduates from majors such as STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics), Social and Behavioral
287:
Sociologist Bradley Wright reviewed results from the 2008 Pew US Religious Landscape Survey and noted that religious groups normally have significant levels of education compared to those who are non-religious. "The irony" he states "is that some of the religiously unaffiliated explain their
275:
According to the General Social Survey, which has collected data on Americans since 1972, people who are educated often are more religious by various measures. For instance, as of 2010 sociologist Philip Schwadel found that, with each additional year of education, the likelihood of attending
380:
relatively low levels of education. Sociologist Christian Smith has done research on American evangelicals and has found that, on average, self-identified evangelicals have more years of education than fundamentalists, liberals, Roman Catholics, and the nonreligious, but slightly less than
541:
He argued that Oxford University students are likely to be not just more intelligent in IQ terms than comparable students but more creative, more original in their thinking and more able to acquire knowledge — factors Dutton found made religious experience more likely in an individual.
332:
older research on baby boomers showed correlations where higher education undermined religiosity, however, studies on today's youth have consistently shown that this has disappeared and now students in college are more likely religious than people who do not go to college.
133:, in addition to the historical evidence that "Christian monks built libraries and, in the days before printing presses, preserved important earlier writings produced in Latin, Greek and Arabic". According to the same study, Christians have a significant amount of
545:
differ significantly from Mythologically-oriented Believers on measures of intelligence, authoritarianism, or racial prejudice. Religious Believers as a group were found to be significantly less intelligent and more authoritarian than religious Skeptics." He used
167:
have an average of 7.9 years of schooling, and around 12% of Buddhists have graduate and post-graduate degrees. According to the same study "there is a large and pervasive gap in educational attainment between Muslims and Christians in
160:
and those who describe their religion as "nothing in particular"—ranked as the third most educated religious group with an average of 8.8 years of schooling, and around 16% of unaffiliated have graduate and post-graduate degrees.
948:
1342:
With more years of education, you aren't relatively more likely to say, 'I don't believe in God,'" he said. "But you are relatively more likely to say, 'I believe in a higher power.'
1329:
977:
1374:
It therefore appears that the typical socioeconomic profile of churchgoing is indeed somewhat distinctive in the United States when compared with other wealthy countries.
922:
798:
1427:
Stan L. Albrecht, "The Consequential Dimension of Mormon Religiosity" Latter-Day Saint Social Life, Social Research on the LDS Church and its Members (Provo, Utah: BYU
372:
conducted a study that found in their polling sample of "credentialed" U.S. adults (12% had Ph.Ds and 62% were college graduates) 64% believed in God, and there was a
391:
Cross-national sociological research by Norris and Inglehart notes a positive correlation between religious attendance among the more educated in the United States.
557:
Contrary to the researchers' expectations, fundamentalist 'converts' were not less educated people. However, a weak 'negative correlation' between education and
1134:
1185:
39:
860:
773:
1149:
512:
53:
In terms of university professors, one study concluded that in the US, the majority of professors, even at "elite" universities, were religious.
1091:
Christians are hate-filled hypocrites-- and other lies you've been told : a sociologist shatters myths from the secular and christian media
653:
David Voas and Siobhan McAndrew (2014). "Three Puzzles of Non-religion in Britain". In Arweck, Elisabeth; Bullivant, Stephen; Lee, Lois (eds.).
1469:
1337:
981:
1411:
1386:
195:, the most religious had lower levels of education, however, religious people in general were a majority in all educational levels.
823:
83:
have the lowest average levels of higher education than any other major religious group, with only 8% and 10% respectively have
1363:
1245:
361:
354:
A study noted positive correlations, among nonreligious Americans, between levels of education and not believing in a deity.
109:
degrees per capita while in absolute numbers ranked in the first place (220 million). According to the study, Christians in
896:
343:
education in U.S. does not seem to produce much religious skepticism since so many post-graduates are religious believers.
288:
rejection of religion in terms of superior learning, but several religious groups have much higher levels of education."
1011:
634:
222:
218:
1186:"Atheism, Secularity, and Well-Being: How the Findings of Social Science Counter Negative Stereotypes and Assumptions"
1370:
The effects of income become insignificant, however, the impact of education actually reverses in the United States:
1098:
690:
662:
214:
515:
have a far greater level of religious commitment (92%) compared to those who only graduated from high school (78%).
388:
public opposition to religion and greater skepticism of "exclusivist religious viewpoints and biblical literalism".
423:
300:
217:, over 20% were Jewish, and 10.5% were atheists, agnostics, or freethinkers. According to a study that was done by
1293:
Schwadel, Philip (2011). "The Effects of Education on Americans' Religious Practices, Beliefs, and Affiliations".
702:
attending college that is associated with lower levels of religious practice, though those differences are slight.
561:
was found by Burton et al. (1989), a study comparing the religious beliefs and educational achievements of white,
97:
ranked as the second most educated religious group around in the world with an average of 9.3 years of schooling.
1534:
1077:
1115:
267:
A 2012 study suggested that in Ireland, the non-religious have a greater level of education than the religious.
1027:
1150:"Religious, Spiritual and Secular: The emergence of three distinct worldviews among American college students"
1208:
1053:
578:
495:, 87% of college graduates have high levels of religiosity as do 62% of college graduates who identify as
453:
A 2006 study by Barry Kosmin and Ariela Keysar ranked the three most college educated religious groups as
369:
851:
1539:
137:
in educational attainment, and the study suggests that one of the reasons is the encouragement of the
74:
are the most educated religious group around in the world with an average of 13.4 years of schooling;
427:
304:
1428:
1262:
908:
566:
558:
1283:. Hartford, CT: Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture (ISSSC), 2007. p. 36.
454:
431:
411:
130:
43:
279:
328:
198:
An EU survey finds a positive correlation between leaving school early and believing in a God.
185:
492:
482:, highly educated Christians in the United States are a few percentage points more likely to
1443:"Why does Jesus go to Oxford University? Conversion Experience, Creativity and Intelligence"
129:
regions are highly educated since many of the world universities were built by the historic
1467:
Poythress, Norman (1975). "Literal, Antiliteral, and Mythological Religious Orientations".
603:
138:
8:
1237:
479:
381:
202:
35:
834:
1494:
1310:
1000:
169:
142:
1442:
1002:
Religion in a Free Market Religious and Non-Religious Americans: Who, What, Why, Where
145:, which led to the eradication of illiteracy among females in Protestant communities.
1486:
1359:
1314:
1241:
1204:
1167:
1094:
1007:
686:
658:
630:
508:
483:
283:
Differences in educational attainment by religious groups in the U.S., 2001 ARIS data
1478:
1302:
1200:
725:
504:
336:
181:
46:
on this topic, because data on education is publicly accessible in many countries.
312:
1230:
1225:
496:
443:
403:
365:
259:
graduates do not believe in the existence of God, while another 30% do not know.
134:
102:
84:
486:
than those with lower education levels. As a whole, Americans who have obtained
229:
background. Since 1901–2013, 22% of all Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews.
529:
487:
357:
1306:
442:, and (24%) of those who say their religion is "nothing in particular" have a
1528:
1490:
1135:"Religion and the Intelligentsia: Post-graduate Educated Americans 1990-2008"
447:
407:
110:
106:
88:
729:
717:
126:
122:
683:
Souls in Transition: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of Emerging adults
373:
210:
118:
31:
70:
study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that
16:
Relationship between the level of religiosity and the level of education
1512:
1498:
824:"Losing our Religion? Two Thirds of People Still Claim to be Religious"
562:
500:
395:
256:
226:
177:
149:
98:
94:
67:
376:
indicating that religious conviction diminished with education level.
859:. Directorate General Research, European Union. 2005. pp. 7–11.
439:
316:
308:
164:
157:
1482:
1281:
Secularism & Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives
435:
419:
180:
counterparts, with scholars suggesting that this gap is due to the
153:
1330:"Study: More educated tend to be more religious, by some measures"
978:"Study: More educated tend to be more religious, by some measures"
923:"Less than half of passing IIT batch believes in God's existence"
524:
434:(46%). While according to the same study about (43%) of American
324:
320:
192:
80:
1448:. Journal for Interdisciplinary Research on Religion and Science
1168:"How Religious are America's College and University Professors?"
30:
The parameters of the two components are diverse: the "level of
652:
458:
399:
292:
173:
114:
1358:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 267–268.
799:"Hindus least educated religious group in world, says survey"
718:
The religiosity of American college and university professors
27:
has been studied since the second half of the 20th century.
1232:
How We Believe: Science, Skepticism, and the Search for God
1071:
462:
415:
296:
75:
71:
1372:
it is the more educated who attend church most frequently.
1333:
1263:"Less-educated Americans turning their backs on religion"
546:
79:
of the world Muslim population have no formal schooling,
993:
991:
34:" remains a concept which is difficult to differentiate
176:
adults in this region are far less educated than their
1412:"In America, Does More Education Equal Less Religion?"
949:"Profile 7 – Religion, Ethnicity and Irish Travellers"
468:
1141:
1093:. Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany House. pp. 87–88.
988:
602:
Sacerdote, Bruce; Glaeser, Edward L. (January 2001).
887:(2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p.57
620:
618:
616:
549:
scores as a measure of intelligence for this study.
213:
awarded between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 65.4% of
1356:
Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide
609:. National Bureau of Economic Research. p. 29.
597:
595:
593:
1387:"The most and least educated U.S. religious group"
1229:
1029:US Religious Landscape Survey: Diverse and Dynamic
999:
613:
1526:
1148:Kosmin, Barry; Keysar, Ariela (September 2013).
897:Nobel prize winners in physics from 1901 to 1990
601:
590:
101:were found to have the second highest number of
1511:Ronald Burton; Stephen Johnson; Joseph Tamney,
1353:
629:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 76–77.
627:American Evangelicalism: Embattled and Thriving
528:college degrees to do graduate study attending
513:the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
1126:
243:religious affiliation has decreased for both.
188:during the colonial era for fellow believers.
1279:Edited by Barry A. Kosmin and Ariela Keysar.
1116:"Does More Educated Really = Less Religious?"
685:. Oxford University Press. pp. 248–251.
676:
674:
1470:Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion
1165:
1147:
997:
816:
552:
909:"Jewish Biographies: Nobel Prize Laureates"
712:
710:
648:
646:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1035:, The Pew Forum, February 2008, p. 85
971:
969:
768:
766:
764:
762:
760:
758:
681:Smith, Christian; Snell, Patricia (2009).
680:
671:
1466:
1354:Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2011).
1183:
1177:
1051:
998:Kosmin, Barry A.; Keysar, Ariela (2006).
941:
774:"Religion and Education Around the World"
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
742:
740:
738:
1327:
1292:
1236:. New York: William H Freeman. pp.
1114:Winseman, Albert L. (February 4, 2003).
1113:
975:
779:. Pew Research Center. December 19, 2011
707:
643:
278:
1393:
1224:
966:
915:
1527:
1434:
1088:
1026:
735:
473:
315:have the highest levels of education.
19:The relationship between the level of
1006:. Ithaca, NY: Paramount Market Publ.
877:
853:Social values, Science and Technology
716:Neil Gross and Solon Simmons (2009).
624:
535:
362:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
191:According to a 2015 global survey by
1166:Gross, Neil; Simmons, Solon (2007).
469:In specific religious denominations
327:are at about the national average.
13:
1440:
1389:. Pew Research Center. 2016-10-16.
1260:
1132:
14:
1551:
1267:American Sociological Association
976:Kavanagh, Jim (August 11, 2011).
844:
732:(EISSN 1759-8818, ISSN 1069-4404)
491:religiosity. Specifically, among
478:According to a 2017 study by the
61:
1328:Kavanagh, Jim (11 August 2011).
1205:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2009.00247.x
1155:. Trinity College. pp. 8–9.
833:. April 13, 2015. Archived from
270:
223:Nobel prize laureates in physics
42:" is easier to compile, such as
1505:
1477:(3) (No. 3 ed.): 271–284.
1460:
1421:
1379:
1347:
1321:
1286:
1273:
1254:
1218:
1159:
1107:
1082:
1052:Leonhardt, David (2011-05-13).
1045:
1020:
901:
890:
866:from the original on 2011-04-30
215:Nobel laureates were Christians
791:
219:University of Nebraska–Lincoln
1:
1089:Wright, Bradley R.E. (2010).
1054:"Faith, Education and Income"
584:
398:study, about 77% of American
232:
1517:Review of Religious Research
1513:Education and Fundamentalism
1295:Review of Religious Research
579:Religiosity and intelligence
7:
1078:Faith, Education and Income
655:Secularity and Non-religion
572:
370:California State University
10:
1556:
954:. Census Statistics Office
518:
262:
251:A survey conducted by the
237:
56:
1307:10.1007/s13644-011-0007-4
911:. Jewish Virtual Library.
885:100 Years of Nobel Prizes
625:Smith, Christian (1998).
553:Christian fundamentalists
1429:Religious Studies Center
1184:Zuckerman, Phil (2009).
831:WIN/Gallup International
604:"Education and Religion"
567:Delaware County, Indiana
559:Christian fundamentalism
246:
225:from 1901 to 1990 had a
209:Statistical analysis of
150:religiously unaffiliated
1340:on September 15, 2011.
455:Unitarian Universalists
432:United Church of Christ
412:Unitarian Universalists
1535:Religion and education
1417:. Pew Research Center.
984:on September 15, 2011.
493:Evangelical Christians
284:
186:Christian missionaries
182:educational facilities
730:10.1093/socrel/srp026
722:Sociology of Religion
657:. London: Routledge.
282:
255:revealed that 22% of
184:that were created by
501:mainline Protestants
410:degree, followed by
382:mainline Protestants
193:Gallup International
139:Protestant Reformers
497:Catholic Christians
480:Pew Research Center
474:American Christians
329:Jehovah's Witnesses
313:Orthodox Christians
203:World Values Survey
201:In one analysis of
1058:The New York Times
883:Baruch A. Shalev,
840:on April 30, 2015.
536:Evangelical groups
507:. Highly educated
285:
170:sub-Saharan Africa
143:education of women
131:Christian churches
40:level of education
1540:Religious studies
1365:978-1-107-64837-1
1247:978-0-7167-3561-8
1193:Sociology Compass
724:, 70(2):101-129.
505:Black Protestants
335:According to the
141:in promoting the
23:and the level of
1547:
1520:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1447:
1441:Dutton, Edward.
1438:
1432:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1408:
1391:
1390:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1336:. Archived from
1325:
1319:
1318:
1290:
1284:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1261:Fowler, Daniel.
1258:
1252:
1251:
1235:
1226:Shermer, Michael
1222:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1207:. Archived from
1190:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1111:
1105:
1104:
1086:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1034:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1005:
995:
986:
985:
980:. Archived from
973:
964:
963:
961:
959:
953:
945:
939:
938:
936:
934:
919:
913:
912:
905:
899:
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888:
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875:
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872:
871:
865:
858:
848:
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841:
839:
828:
820:
814:
813:
811:
810:
795:
789:
788:
786:
784:
778:
770:
733:
714:
705:
704:
678:
669:
668:
650:
641:
640:
622:
611:
610:
608:
599:
221:in 1998, 60% of
152:—which includes
1555:
1554:
1550:
1549:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1510:
1506:
1483:10.2307/1384909
1465:
1461:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1435:
1426:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1409:
1394:
1385:
1384:
1380:
1366:
1352:
1348:
1326:
1322:
1291:
1287:
1278:
1274:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1223:
1219:
1211:
1188:
1182:
1178:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1152:
1146:
1142:
1133:Kosmin, Barry.
1131:
1127:
1112:
1108:
1101:
1087:
1083:
1076:
1072:
1062:
1060:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1021:
1014:
996:
989:
974:
967:
957:
955:
951:
947:
946:
942:
932:
930:
929:. 16 April 2015
921:
920:
916:
907:
906:
902:
895:
891:
882:
878:
869:
867:
863:
856:
850:
849:
845:
837:
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