1409:' condemnations of ceremonial acts, lacking true intention and performed by the morally corrupt, as testimony that rites have no inherent quality. Geiger centered his philosophy on the Prophets' teachings (he had already named his ideology "Prophetic Judaism" in 1838), regarding morality and ethics as the stable core of a religion in which ritual observance transformed radically through the ages. However, practices were seen as a means to elation and a link to the heritage of the past, and Reform generally argued that rituals should be maintained, discarded or modified based on whether they served these higher purposes. This stance allowed a great variety of practice both in the past and the present. In "Classical" times, personal observance was reduced to little beyond nothing. The postwar "New Reform" lent renewed importance to practical, regular action as a means to engage congregants, abandoning the sanitized forms of the "Classical".
2396:), they had almost their entire liturgy solely in the vernacular, in a far greater proportion compared to the Hamburg rite. And chiefly, they felt little attachment to the traditional Messianic doctrine and possessed a clearly heterodox religious understanding. In their new prayerbook, authors Harby, Abram Moïse and David Nunes Carvalho unequivocally excised pleas for the restoration of the Jerusalem Temple; during his inaugural address on 21 November 1825, Harby stated their native country was their only Zion, not "some stony desert", and described the rabbis of old as "Fabulists and Sophists... Who tortured the plainest precepts of the Law into monstrous and unexpected inferences". The Society was short-lived, and they merged back into Beth Elohim in 1833. As in Germany, the reformers were laymen, operating in a country with little rabbinic presence.
1241:
and reject any fixed, permanent set of beliefs, laws or practices. A clear description of Reform
Judaism became particularly challenging since the turn toward a policy that favored inclusiveness ("Big Tent" in the United States) over a coherent theology in the 1970s. This transition largely overlapped with what researchers termed the transition from "Classical" to "New" Reform Judaism in America, paralleled in the other, smaller branches of Judaism that exist across the world. The movement ceased stressing principles and core beliefs, focusing more on the personal spiritual experience and communal participation. This shift was not accompanied by a distinct new doctrine or by the abandonment of the former, but rather with ambiguity. The leadership allowed and encouraged a wide variety of positions, from selective adoption of
3377:". To accommodate all, ten liturgies for morning service and six for the evening were offered for each congregation to choose of, from very traditional to one that retained the Hebrew text for God but translated it as "Eternal Power", condemned by many as de facto humanistic. "Gates of Prayer" symbolized the movement's adoption of what would be termed "Big Tent Judaism", welcoming all, over theological clarity. In the following year, an attempt to draft a new platform for the CCAR in San Francisco ended with poor results. Led by Borowitz, any notion of issuing guidelines was abandoned in favour of a "Centenary Perspective" with few coherent statements. The "Big Tent", while taking its toll on the theoreticians, did substantially bolster constituency. The UAHC slowly caught up with
2688:, was common among moderate Orthodox and conservatives too – were authored in Germany for mass usage, demonstrating the prevalence of the new religious ideology. And yet, Geiger and most of the conferences' participants were far more moderate than Holdheim. While he administered in a homogeneous group, they had to serve in unified communities, in which traditionalists held separate services but still had to be respected. Changes were decidedly restrained. Liturgists were often careful when introducing their changes into the Hebrew text of prayers, less than with the German translation, and some level of traditional observance was maintained in public. Except Berlin, where the term "Reform" was first used as an adjective, the rest referred to themselves as "Liberal".
1393:, centered on a complex, personal relationship with the creator, and a more sober and disillusioned outlook. The identification of human reason with Godly inspiration was rejected in favour of views such as Rosenzweig's, who emphasized that the only content of revelation is it in itself, while all derivations of it are subjective, limited human understanding. However, while granting higher status to historical and traditional understanding, both insisted that "revelation is certainly not Law giving" and that it did not contain any "finished statements about God", but, rather, that human subjectivity shaped the unfathomable content of the Encounter and interpreted it under its own limitations. The senior representative of postwar Reform theology,
3284:, a "Declaration of Principles" (eschewing the more formal, binding "platform"), promoted a greater degree of ritual observance, supported Zionism – considered by the Classicists in the past as, at best, a remedy for the unemancipated Jewish masses in Russia and Romania, while they did not regard the Jews as a nation in the modern sense – and opened not with theology, but by the statement, "Judaism is the historical religious experience of the Jewish people". The Columbus Principles signified the transformation from "Classical" to the "New Reform Judaism", characterized by a lesser focus on abstract concepts and a more positive attitude to practice and traditional elements.
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education was scarce and civil equality nonexistent, retaining a strong sense of Jewish ethnicity. Even the ideological secularists among them, all the more so the common masses which merely turned lax or nonobservant, had a very traditional understanding of worship and religious conduct. The leading intellectuals of
Eastern European Jewish nationalism castigated western Jews in general, and Reform Judaism in particular, not on theological grounds which they as laicists wholly rejected, but for what they claimed to be assimilationist tendencies and the undermining of peoplehood. This sentiment also fueled the manner in which the denomination is perceived in
1422:
Reform closely resembled
Protestant surroundings. Later, it was applied to encourage adherents to seek their own means of engaging Judaism. "New Reform" embraced the criticism levied by Rosenzweig and other thinkers at extreme individualism, laying a greater stress on community and tradition. Though by no means declaring that members were bound by a compelling authority of some sort – the notion of an intervening, commanding God remained foreign to denominational thought. The "New Reform" approach to the question is characterized by an attempt to strike a mean between autonomy and some degree of conformity, focusing on a dialectic relationship between both.
31:
3120:, which offered upper-class Jews a universal, enlightened belief. Meyer noted that while he had original strains, Montefiore was largely dependent on Geiger and his concepts of progressive revelation, instrumentality of ritual et cetera. His Liberal Judaism was radical and puristic, matching and sometimes exceeding the Berlin and American variants. They sharply abridged liturgy and largely discarded practice. Langton has argued for the distinctly Anglo-Jewish character of the movement, which was dominated by Montefiore's idiosyncratic ideas. In 1907, the former
2624:, it declared intermarriage permissible as long as children could be raised Jewish; this measure effectively banned such unions without offending Christians, as no state in Germany allowed mixed-faith couples to have non-Christians education for offspring. It enraged critics anyhow. A small group of traditionalists also attended, losing all votes. On the opposite wing were sympathizers of Holdheim, who declared on 17 June that "science already demonstrated that the Talmud has no authority either from the dogmatic or practical perspective... The men of the
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would later become, somewhat misleadingly (and not exclusively), identified with Reform institutions via association with the elimination of prayers for the
Jerusalem Temple – closed in 1813. Jacobson moved to Berlin and established a similar synagogue, which became a hub for like-minded intellectuals, interested in the betterment of religious experience. Though the prayerbook used in Berlin did introduce several deviations from the received text, it did so without an organizing principle. In 1818, Jacobson's acquaintance Edward Kley founded the
1605:"New Reform", both in the United States and in Britain and the rest of the world, is characterized by larger affinity to traditional forms and diminished emphasis on harmonizing them with prevalent beliefs. Concurrently, it is also more inclusive and accommodating, even towards beliefs that are officially rejected by Reform theologians, sometimes allowing alternative differing rites for each congregation to choose from. Thus, prayerbooks from the mid–20th century onwards incorporated more Hebrew, and restored such elements as blessing on
3097:), finally institutionalizing the current that until then was active as a loose tendency. The Union had some 10,000 registered members in the 1920s. In 1912, Seligmann drafted a declaration of principles, "Guiding Lines towards a Program for Liberal Judaism" (Richtlinien zu einem Programm für das liberale Judentum). It stressed the importance of individual consciousness and the supremacy of ethical values to ritual practice, declared a belief in a messianic age and was adopted as "a recommendation", rather than a binding decision.
1920:
1347:, this notion offered a conceptual framework for reconciling the acceptance of critical research with the maintenance of a belief in some form of divine communication, thus preventing a rupture among those who could no longer accept a literal understanding of revelation. No less importantly, it provided the clergy with a rationale for adapting, changing and excising traditional mores and bypassing the accepted conventions of Jewish Law, rooted in the orthodox concept of the explicit transmission of both scripture and its
2668:. After his withdrawal, the conference adopted another key doctrine that Frankel opposed, and officially enshrined the idea of a future Messianic era rather than a personal redeemer. Rabbi David Einhorn elucidated a further notion, that of the Mission to bring ethical monotheism to all people, commenting that, "Exile was once perceived as a disaster, but it was progress. Israel approached its true destiny, with sanctity replacing blood sacrifice. It was to spread the Word of the Lord to the four corners of the earth."
1429:(traditional jurisprudence) argumentation, both due to the need for precedent to counter external accusations and the continuity of heritage. Instead, the movement had largely made ethical considerations or the spirit of the age the decisive factor in determining its course. The German founding fathers undermined the principles behind the legalistic process, which was based on a belief in an unbroken tradition through the ages merely elaborated and applied to novel circumstances, rather than subject to change. Rabbi
2839:
generation was still somewhat traditional, their
Americanized children were keen on a new religious expression. Reform quickly spread even before the Civil War. While fueled by the condition of immigrant communities, in matters of doctrine, wrote Michael Meyer, "However much a response to its particular social context, the basic principles are those put forth by Geiger and the other German Reformers – progressive revelation, historical-critical approach, the centrality of the Prophetic literature."
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and committed to the "ongoing study of the whole array of
Commandments and to the fulfillment of those that address us as individuals and as a community. Some of these sacred obligations have long been observed by Reform Jews; others, both ancient and modern, demand renewed attention." While the wording was carefully crafted in order not to displease the estimated 20%–25% of membership that retained Classicist persuasions, it did raise condemnation from many of them. In 2008, the
1546:, portraying it as a culture created by the Jewish people, rather than a God-given faith defining them, Reform theologians decidedly rejected their position – although it became popular and even dominant among rank-and-file members. Like the Orthodox, they insisted that the People Israel was created by divine election alone, and existed solely as such. The 1999 Pittsburgh Platform and other official statements affirmed that the "Jewish people is bound to God by an eternal
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1602:
the vernacular translation, treating the original text with great care and sometimes having problematic passages in small print and untranslated. When institutionalized and free of such constraints, it was able to pursue a more radical course. In
American "Classical" or British Liberal prayerbooks, a far larger vernacular component was added and liturgy was drastically shortened, and petitions in discord with denominational theology eliminated.
73:
1303:
spoke of "One, living God who rules the world". Even the 1976 San
Francisco Centenary Perspective, drafted at a time of great discord among Reform theologians, upheld "the affirmation of God... Challenges of modern culture have made a steady belief difficult for some. Nevertheless, we ground our lives, personally and communally, on God's reality." The 1999 Pittsburgh Statement of Principles declared the "reality and oneness of God". British
67:
1397:, regarded theophany in postmodern terms and closely linked it with quotidian human experience and interpersonal contact. He rejected the notion of "progressive revelation" in the meaning of comparing human betterment with divine inspiration, stressing that past experiences were "unique" and of everlasting importance. Yet he stated that his ideas by no means negated the concept of ongoing, individually experienced revelation by all.
1358:, from which its founders drew much inspiration: belief in humanity marching toward a full understanding of itself and the divine, manifested in moral progress towards perfection. This highly rationalistic view virtually identified human reason and intellect with divine action, leaving little room for direct influence by God. Geiger conceived revelation as occurring via the inherent "genius" of the People Israel, and his close ally
7224:
2808:
1082:
3307:, when lack of such raised suspicion of leftist or communist sympathies. The "Return to Tradition", as it was termed, smoothed the path for many such into UAHC. It grew from 290 communities with 50,000 affiliated households in 1937 to 560 with 255,000 in 1956. A similar shift to nostalgic traditionalism was expressed overseas. Even the purist Liberals in Britain introduced minor customs that bore sentimental value;
1784:, which made her America's first female rabbi ordained by a rabbinical seminary, and the second formally ordained female rabbi in Jewish history, after Regina Jonas. Reform also pioneered family seating, an arrangement that spread throughout American Jewry but was only applied in continental Europe after World War II. Egalitarianism in prayer became universally prevalent in the WUPJ by the end of the 20th century.
1495:. Parallel to that, it sought to diminish all components of Judaism that it regarded as overly particularist and self-centered: petitions expressing hostility towards gentiles were toned down or excised, and practices were often streamlined to resemble surrounding society. "New Reform" laid a renewed stress on Jewish particular identity, regarding it as better suiting popular sentiment and need for preservation.
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1191:, flourishing from the 1860s to the 1930s in an era known as "Classical Reform". Since the 1970s, the movement has adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as many as possible to partake in its communities rather than adhering to strict theoretical clarity. It is strongly identified with progressive and liberal agendas in political and social terms, mainly under the traditional Jewish rubric
3062:
1858:: all children born to a couple in which a single member was Jewish, whether mother or father, was accepted as a Jew on condition that they received corresponding education and committed themselves as such. Conversely, offspring of a Jewish mother only are not accepted if they do not demonstrate affinity to the faith. A Jewish status is conferred unconditionally only on the children of two Jewish parents.
2508:. Having concluded the belief in an unbroken tradition back to Sinai or a divinely dictated Torah could not be maintained, he began to articulate a theology of progressive revelation, presenting the Pharisees as reformers who revolutionized the Saducee-dominated religion. His other model were the Prophets, whose morals and ethics were to him the only true, permanent core of Judaism. He was not alone:
2405:
2368:
1692:"New Reform" saw the establishment and membership lay greater emphasis on the ceremonial aspects, after the former sterile and minimalist approach was condemned as offering little to engage in religion and encouraging apathy. Numerous rituals became popular again, often after being recast or reinterpreted, though as a matter of personal choice for the individual and not an authoritative obligation.
1525:. The movement maintained the idea of the Chosen People of God, but recast it in a more universal fashion: it isolated and accentuated the notion (already present in traditional sources) that the mission of Israel was to spread among all nations and teach them divinely-inspired ethical monotheism, bringing them all closer to the Creator. One extreme "Classical" promulgator of this approach, Rabbi
79:
2417:
2222:
1374:, reduced revelation to "inspiration", according intrinsic value only to the worth of its content, while "it is not the place where they are found that makes them inspired". Common to all these notions was the assertion that present generations have a higher and better understanding of divine will, and they can and should unwaveringly change and refashion religious precepts.
2785:
1567:, while the founding thinkers of Reform Judaism, like Montefiore, all shared this belief, the existence of a soul became harder to cling to with the passing of time. In the 1980s, Borowitz could state that the movement had nothing coherent to declare in the matter. The various streams of Reform still largely, though not always or strictly, uphold the idea. The
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Germany, even
Holdheim, declared circumcision obligatory. Similar groups sprang in Breslau and Berlin. These developments, and the need to bring uniformity to practical reforms implemented piecemeal in the various communities, motivated Geiger and his like-minded supporters into action. Between 1844 and 1846, they convened three rabbinical assemblies, in
2297:. Faith and observance were eroded for decades both by Enlightenment criticism and apathy, but Jacobson himself did not bother with those. He was interested in decorum, believing its lack in services was driving the young away. Many of the aesthetic reforms he pioneered, like a regular vernacular sermon on moralistic themes, would be later adopted by the
2561:" was total. He declared mixed marriage permissible – almost the only Reform rabbi to do so in history; his contemporaries and later generations opposed this – for the Talmudic ban on conducting them on Sabbath, unlike offering sacrifice and other acts, was to him sufficient demonstration that they belonged not to the category of sanctified obligations (
1898:
holidays and
Halakha. Conversions are finalized with a meeting of the Beit Din and usually a Brit Milah and a Tevilah, though the extent to which the practice of Brit Milah is observed varies from country to country. Furthermore, the acceptance of Reform converts by other sects is rare, with many Orthodox and Masorti temples rejecting Reform Converts.
3140:
progressive revelation, willingness to adapt ancient forms to contemporary needs". The conference was attended by representatives of the German Liberal Union, the British JRU, the American UAHC and CCAR, and Lévy from France. After weighing their options, they chose "Progressive", rather than either "Liberal" or "Reform", as their name, founding the
2729:, was scarcely prone to anything beyond aesthetic modifications and de facto tolerance of the laity's apathy. Further to the east, among the unemancipated and unacculturated Jewish masses in Poland, Romania and Russia, the stimulants that gave rise either to Reform or modernist Orthodoxy were scarce. The few rich and westernized Jews in cities like
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tolerance, rejecting "intermarriage, but not the intermarried", hoping to convince gentile spouses to convert. In 1983, the CCAR accepted patrilineal descent, a step taken by British Liberals already in the 1950s. UAHC membership grew by 23% in 1975–1985, to 1.3 million. An estimated 10,000 intermarried couples were joining annually.
2993:
ratified by either the UAHC or HUC, and many of their members even attempted to disassociate from it, fearing that its radical tone would deter potential allies. It indeed motivated a handful of conservatives to cease any cooperation with the movement and withdraw their constituencies from the UAHC. Those joined Kohut and
1340:, generally considered the founder of the movement. After critical research led him to regard scripture as a human creation, bearing the marks of historical circumstances, he abandoned the belief in the unbroken perpetuity of tradition derived from Sinai and gradually replaced it with the idea of progressive revelation.
1657:, and held its Sabbath services on Sunday. In the late 19th and early 20th century, American "Classical Reform" often emulated Berlin on a mass scale, with many communities conducting prayers along the same style and having additional services on Sunday. An official rescheduling of Sabbath to Sunday was advocated by
1885:. Outside North America and Britain, patrilineal descent was not accepted by most. As in other fields, small WUPJ affiliates are less independent and often have to deal with more conservative Jewish denominations in their countries, such as vis-à-vis the Orthodox rabbinate in Israel or continental Europe.
3420:
On 26 May 1999, after a prolonged debate and six widely different drafts rejected, a "Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism" was adopted in Pittsburgh by the Central Conference of American Rabbis. It affirmed the "reality and oneness of God", the Torah as "God's ongoing revelation to our people"
3416:
admitted that measures aimed at curbing intermarriage rates by various sanctions, whether on the concerned parties or on rabbis assisting or acknowledging them (ordinances penalizing such involvement were passed in 1909, 1947 and 1962), were no longer effective. He called for a policy of outreach and
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not just to defend the prayerbook against the Orthodox, but also to denounce it, stating the time of mainly aesthetic and unsystematic reforms has passed. In 1842, the power of progressive forces was revealed again: when Geiger's superior Rabbi Solomon Tiktin attempted to dismiss him from the post of
2141:
deduced there were 756,000 adult Jewish synagogue members – about a quarter of households had an unconverted spouse (according to 2001 findings), adding some 90,000 non-Jews and making the total constituency roughly 850,000 – and further 1,154,000 "Reform-identified non-members" in the United States.
1897:
Converts through Reform Judaism are accepted based on their sincerity, regardless of their background or previous beliefs. Studying with a rabbi is the norm and can take anywhere from several months to several years. The process focuses on participation in congregational activities and observation of
1876:
and the like. In American Reform, 17% of synagogue-member households have a converted spouse, and 26% an unconverted one. Its policy on conversion and Jewish status led the WUPJ into conflict with more traditional circles, and a growing number of its adherents are not accepted as Jewish by either the
1482:
Reform sought to accentuate and greatly augment the universalist traits in Judaism, turning it into a faith befitting the Enlightenment ideals ubiquitous at the time it emerged. The tension between universalism and the imperative to maintain uniqueness characterized the movement throughout its entire
2873:
congregation purchased a local church building and retained sitting arrangements. While it was gradually adopted even by many Orthodox Jews in America, and remained so well into the 20th century, the same was not applied in Germany until after World War II. Wise attempted to reach consensus with the
2580:
era were intensifying. In 1842, a group of radical laymen determined to achieve full acceptance into society was founded in Frankfurt, the "Friends of Reform". They abolished circumcision and declared that the Talmud was no longer binding. In response to pleas from Frankfurt, virtually all rabbis in
2556:
distinguished himself as a radical proponent of change. While the former stressed continuity with the past and described Judaism as an entity that gradually adopted and discarded elements along time, Holdheim accorded present conditions the highest status, sharply dividing the universalist core from
2340:
The massive Orthodox reaction halted the advance of early Reform, confining it to the port city for the next twenty years. As acculturation and resulting religious apathy spread, many synagogues introduced mild aesthetic changes, such as vernacular sermons or somber conduct, yet these were carefully
2125:
entered the WUPJ as an observer. Espousing another religious worldview, it became the only non-Reform member. The WUPJ claims to represent a total of at least 1.8 million people – these figures do not take into account the 2013 PEW survey, and rely on the older URJ estimate of a total of 1.5 million
1302:
described the "One God... The God-Idea as taught in our sacred Scripture" as consecrating the Jewish people to be its priests. It was grounded on a wholly theistic understanding, although the term "God-idea" was excoriated by outside critics. So was the 1937 Columbus Declaration of Principles, which
3425:
was founded to mobilize and coordinate those who preferred the old universalist, ethics-based and less-observant religious style, with its unique aesthetic components. SCRJ leader, Rabbi Howard A. Berman, claimed that the neo-traditional approach, adopted by the URJ, alienated more congregants than
3139:
Seligmann first suggested the creation of an international organization. On 10 July 1926, representatives from around the world gathered in London. Rabbi Jacob K. Shankman wrote they were all "animated by the convictions of Reform Judaism: emphasized the Prophets' teachings as the cardinal element,
2992:
were proclaimed on 19 November. It added virtually nothing new to the tenets of Reform, but rather elucidated them, declaring unambiguously that: "Today, we accept as binding only the moral laws, and maintain only such ceremonies as elevate and sanctify our lives." The platform was never officially
2932:
The proponents of Reform or progressive forms of Judaism had consistently claimed since the early nineteenth-century that they sought to reconcile Jewish religion with the best of contemporary scientific thought. The science of evolution was arguably the scientific idea that drew the most sustained
1240:
Its inherent pluralism and the importance it places on individual autonomy impedes any simplistic definition of Reform Judaism; its various strands regard Judaism throughout the ages as a religion that was derived from a process of constant evolution. They warrant and obligate further modifications
3020:
However, change loomed on the horizon. From 1881 to 1924, over 2,400,000 immigrants from Eastern Europe drastically altered American Jewry, increasing it tenfold. The 40,000 members of Reform congregations became a small minority overnight. The newcomers arrived from backward regions, where modern
3008:
The Pittsburgh Platform is considered a defining document of the sanitized and rationalistic "Classical Reform", dominant from the 1860s to the 1930s. At its height, some forty congregations adopted the Sunday Sabbath and UAHC communities had services without most traditional elements, in a manner
2535:
must go". In 1841, the Hamburg Temple issued a second edition of its prayerbook, the first Reform liturgy since its predecessor of 1818. Orthodox response was weak and quickly defeated. Most rabbinic posts in Germany were now manned by university graduates susceptible to rationalistic ideas, which
2305:
that employed an organ and a choir during prayer and introduced some German liturgy. While Jacobson was far from full-fledged Reform Judaism, this day was adopted by the movement worldwide as its foundation date. The Seesen temple – a designation quite common for prayerhouses at the time; "temple"
1601:
In its early stages, when Reform Judaism was more a tendency within unified communities in Central Europe than an independent movement, its advocates had to practice considerable moderation, lest they provoke conservative animosity. German prayerbooks often relegated the more contentious issues to
2679:
While eliciting protest from the Orthodox, Frankfurt and Breslau also incensed the radical laity, which regarded them as too acquiescent. In March 1845, a small group formed a semi-independent congregation in Berlin, the Reformgemeinde. They invited Holdheim to serve as their rabbi, though he was
2671:
The last meeting, convened in Breslau (13–24 July 1846), was the most innocuous. The Sabbath, widely desecrated by the majority of German Jews, was discussed. Participants argued whether leniencies for civil servants should be enacted but could not agree and released a general statement about its
1893:
Conversion within Reform Judaism has been seen as controversial by the Orthodox and Masorti sects. Due to the Reform movement's progressive views on what it means to be a Jew, the conversion process has been criticized and often unrecognized by more conservative sects, yet conversions through the
1869:
affirmed it in 2015. The various strands also adopted a policy of embracing the intermarried and their spouses. British Liberals offer "blessing ceremonies" if the child is to be raised Jewish, and the MRJ allows its clergy to participate in celebration of civil marriage, though none allow a full
1767:
Reform Judaism is considered to be the first major Jewish denomination to adopt gender equality in religious life. As early as 1846, the Breslau conference announced that women must enjoy identical obligations and prerogatives in worship and communal affairs, though this decision had virtually no
1597:
text, to ensure the congregants understood the petitions they expressed; and some new prayers were composed to reflect the spirit of changing times. But chiefly, liturgists sought to reformulate the prayerbooks and have them express the movement's theology. Blessings and passages referring to the
1417:
philosophy and the great weight it lent to personal judgement and free will. This highly individualistic stance also proved one of the movement's great challenges, for it impeded the creation of clear guidelines and standards for positive participation in religious life and definition of what was
1228:(WUPJ). Founded in 1926, the WUPJ estimates it represents at least 1.8 million people in 50 countries, about 1 million of which are registered adult congregants, and the rest are unaffiliated but identify with the movement. This makes Reform the second-largest Jewish denomination worldwide, after
3244:
and revelation, which the latter denied. Cohon valued Jewish particularism over universalist leanings, encouraging the reincorporation of traditional elements long discarded, not as part of a comprehensive legalistic framework but as means to rekindle ethnic cohesion. His approach echoed popular
2882:
Synod, he was at first acquiescent to Leeser, but reverted immediately after the other departed. The enraged Leeser disavowed any connection with him. Yet Wise's harshest critic was Einhorn, who arrived from Europe in the same year. Demanding clear positions, he headed the radical camp as Reform
1421:
The notion of autonomy coincided with the gradual abandonment of traditional practice (largely neglected by most members, and the Jewish public in general, before and during the rise of Reform) in the early stages of the movement. It was a major characteristic during the "Classical" period, when
2838:
was founded by German-Jewish immigrants in Baltimore. Adopting the Hamburg rite, it was the first synagogue established as Reformed on the continent. In the new land, there were neither old state-mandated communal structures, nor strong conservative elements among the newcomers. While the first
2718:
but soon dispersed. Only in Germany, commented Steven M. Lowenstein, did the extinction of old Jewish community life led to the creation of a new, positive religious ideology that advocated principled change. In Western and Central Europe, personal observance disappeared, but the public was not
2654:
Frankel was convinced to attend the next conference, held in Frankfurt on 15–28 July 1845, after many pleas. But he walked out after it passed a resolution that there were subjective, but no objective, arguments for retaining Hebrew in the liturgy. While this was quite a trivial statement, well
2111:
In 1926, British Liberals, American Reform and German Liberals consolidated their worldwide movement – united in affirming tenets such as progressive revelation, supremacy of ethics above ritual and so forth – at a meeting held in London. Originally carrying the provisional title "International
1708:(ritual baths). A renewed interest in dietary laws (though by no means in the strict sense) also surfaced at the same decades, as were phylacteries, prayer shawls and head coverings. Reform is still characterized by having the least service attendance on average: for example, of those polled by
1533:
for a celebration, regarding the destruction of Jerusalem as fulfilling God's scheme to bring his word, via his people, to all corners of the earth. Highly self-centered affirmations of Jewish exceptionalism were moderated, although the general notion of "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation"
2683:
Practice and liturgy were modified in numerous German congregations. Until the conferences, the only Reform prayerbooks ever printed in Europe were the two Hamburg editions. In the 1850s and 1860s, dozens of new prayerbooks which omitted or rephrased the cardinal theological segments of temple
2094:
The term "Reform" was first applied institutionally – not generically, as in "for reform" – to the Berlin Reformgemeinde (Reform Congregation), established in 1845. Apart from it, most German communities that were oriented in that direction preferred the more ambiguous "Liberal", which was not
1817:
has become the central venue for active participation for many affiliates, even leading critics to negatively describe Reform as little more than a means employed by Jewish liberals to claim that commitment to their political convictions was also a religious activity and demonstrates fealty to
1558:
As part of its philosophy, Reform Judaism anchored reason in divine influence, accepted scientific criticism of hallowed texts and sought to adapt Judaism to modern notions of rationalism. Judaism was viewed by Enlightenment thinkers both as irrational and an import from ancient middle-eastern
1743:
Some branches of Reform, while subscribing to its differentiation between ritual and ethics, chose to maintain a considerable degree of practical observance, especially in areas where a conservative Jewish majority had to be accommodated. Most Liberal communities in Germany maintained dietary
1559:
pagans. The only perceived form of retribution for the wicked, if any, was the anguish of their soul after death, and vice versa, bliss was the single accolade for the spirits of the righteous. Angels and heavenly hosts were also deemed a foreign superstitious influence, especially from early
1412:
Another key aspect of Reform doctrine is the personal autonomy of each adherent, who may formulate their own understanding and expression of their religiosity. Reform is unique among all Jewish denominations in placing the individual as the authorized interpreter of Judaism. This position was
1254:
The declining importance of the theoretical foundation, in favour of pluralism and equivocalness, drew large crowds of newcomers. It also diversified Reform to a degree that made it hard to formulate a clear definition of it. Early and "Classical" Reform were characterized by a move away from
3163:
arrived in Britain, bringing with them both the moderation of German Liberal Judaism (few mingled with the radical JRU) and a cadre of trained rabbis. Only then did British Reform emerge as a movement. 1942 saw the founding of the Associated British Synagogues, which joined the WUPJ in 1945.
2707:, though officially non-denominational, as a rabbinical seminary. While common, noted Michael Meyer, the designation "Liberal Jew" was more associated with political persuasion than religious conviction. The general Jewish public in Germany demonstrated little interest, especially after the
2549:, 15 of 17 rabbis consulted by the board stated his unorthodox views were congruous with his post. He himself differentiated between his principled stance and quotidian conduct. Believing it could be implemented only carefully, he was moderate in practice and remained personally observant.
2271:, or allow it to dissipate entirely. A more palatable course was the reform of worship in synagogues, making them more attractive to a generation whose aesthetic and moral taste became attuned to that of Christian surroundings. The first considered to have implemented such a course was the
1255:
traditional forms of Judaism combined with a coherent theology; "New Reform" sought, to a certain level, the reincorporation of many formerly discarded elements within the framework established during the "Classical" stage, though this very doctrinal basis became increasingly obfuscated.
2341:
crafted to assuage conservative elements (though the staunchly Orthodox opposed them anyhow; secular education for rabbis, for example, was much resisted). One of the first to adopt such modifications was Hamburg's own Orthodox community, under the newly appointed modern Rabbi
2142:
There are also 30,000 in Canada. Based on these, the URJ claims to represent 2.2 million people. It has 845 congregations in the U.S. and 27 in Canada, the vast majority of the 1,170 affiliated with the WUPJ that are not Reconstructionist. Its rabbinical arm is the
2651:, who feared Reform on two accounts: it could stem the massive tide of conversions, and loosen Jewish piety in favor of liberal, semi-secularized religion that they opposed among Christians as well, reducing the possibility they would ever accept new dogma fully.
1589:, in his extensive survey of Progressive liturgy, listed several key principles that defined it through the years and many transformations it underwent. The prayers were abridged, whether by omitting repetitions, excising passages or reintroducing the ancient
3408:, was ordained at HUC. In 1977, the CCAR declared that the biblical ban on male same-sex intercourse referred only to the pagan customs prevalent at the time it was composed, and gradually accepted openly LGBT constituents and clergy. The first LGBT rabbi,
1584:
The first and primary field in which Reform convictions were expressed was that of prayer forms. From its beginning, Reform Judaism attempted to harmonize the language of petitions with modern sensibilities and what the constituents actually believed in.
2103:
suggested in 1871 that "Progressive Judaism" was a better epithet. When the movement was institutionalized in Germany between 1898 and 1908, its leaders chose "Liberal" as self-designation, founding the Vereinigung für das Liberale Judentum. In 1902,
3088:
established the Union of Liberal Rabbis (Vereinigung der liberalen Rabbiner). It numbered 37 members at first and grew to include 72 by 1914, about half of Germany's Jewish clergy, a proportion maintained until 1933. In 1908, Vogelstein and Rabbi
2866:, who while sharing deeply heterodox views was more an organizer than a thinker. Wise was distinct from the others, arriving early in 1846 and lacking much formal education. He was of little ideological consistency, often willing to compromise.
1451:
and his supporters reintroduced such elements, but they too regarded Jewish Law as too rigid a system. Instead, they recommended that selected features will be readopted and new observances established in a piecemeal fashion, as spontaneous
2603:, made already in 1826, that could assess and eliminate various ancient decrees and prohibitions. A total of forty-two people attended the three meetings, including moderates and conservatives, all quite young, usually in their thirties.
3032:
the Reform ones, the Eastern Europeans did slowly integrate. Growing numbers did begin to enter UAHC prayerhouses. The CCAR soon readopted elements long discarded in order to appeal to them: In the 1910s, inexperienced rabbis in the
2928:
was adopted in 1895. The movement spread rapidly: in 1860, when it began its ascent, there were few Reform synagogues and 200 Orthodox in the United States. By 1880, a mere handful of the existing 275 were not affiliated with it.
2665:
a broad stream that embraced all opponents of the premodern status quo... to a more clearly marked current which rejected not only the religious mentality of the ghetto, but also the modernist Orthodoxy which altered form but not
2169:
respectively had 16,125 and 7,197 member households in 45 and 39 communities, or 19.4% and 8.7% of British Jews registered at a synagogue. Other member organizations are based in forty countries around the world. They include the
1772:, who served as a driving force behind British Liberal Judaism and WUPJ, was the first woman in recorded history to deliver a sermon at a synagogue in 1918, and set another precedent when she conducted a prayer two years later.
2655:
grounded in canonical sources, Frankel regarded it as a deliberate breach with tradition and irreverence toward the collective Jewish sentiment. The 1840s, commented Meyer, saw the crystallization of Reform, narrowing from
2557:
all other aspects that could be unremittingly disposed of. Declaring that old laws lost their hold on Jews as it were and the rabbi could only act as a guide for voluntary observance, his principle was that the concept of "
1727:
ceremonies for boys and girls, in emulation of parallel Christian initiation rite. These soon spread outside the movement, though many of a more traditional leaning rejected the name "confirmation". In the "New Reform",
2116:
on 12 July, at the conclusion of a vote. The WUPJ established further branches around the planet, alternatively under the names "Reform", "Liberal" and "Progressive". In 1945, the Associated British Synagogues (later
3314:
World War II shattered many of the assumptions about human progress and benevolence held by liberal denominations, Reform included. A new generation of theologians attempted to formulate a response. Thinkers such as
2286:" prayer, beseeching God to take revenge upon the gentiles. The short-lived community employed fully traditional ("orthodox") argumentation to legitimize its actions, but is often regarded a harbinger by historians.
2095:
exclusively associated with Reform Judaism. It was more prevalent as an appellation for the religiously apathetic majority among German Jews, and also to all rabbis who were not clearly Orthodox (including the rival
1689:'s Jewish Religious Union, established at Britain in 1902. The Vereinigung für das Liberale Judentum in Germany, which was more moderate, declared virtually all personal observance voluntary in its 1912 guidelines.
2941:, who offered an alternative theistic account of transmutation to that of Darwinism, which he dismissed as ‘homo-brutalism’. Other Reform rabbis who were more sympathetic to Darwinian conceptions of evolution were
1266:, a means to demonstrate some affinity to one's heritage in which even rabbinical students do not have to believe in any specific theology or engage in any particular practice, rather than a defined belief system.
3257:, which was to offer "guidance, not governance"; Freehof advocated replacing the sterile mood of community life, allowing isolated practices to emerge spontaneously and reincorporating old ones. He redrafted the
2387:
and other associates, they formed their own prayer group, "The Reformed Society of Israelites". Apart from strictly aesthetic matters, like having sermons and synagogue affairs delivered in English, rather than
1598:
coming of the Messiah, return to Zion, renewal of sacrificial practices, resurrection of the dead, reward and punishment and overt particularism of the People Israel were replaced, recast or excised altogether.
1850:(CCAR), estimated in 2012 that about half of their rabbis partake in such ceremonies. The need to cope with this phenomenon – 80% of all Reform-raised Jews in the United States wed between 2000 and 2013 were
4736:
Langton, Daniel R. "Discourses of Doubt: The Place of Atheism, Scepticism and Infidelity in Nineteenth-Century North American Reform Jewish Thought" in Hebrew Union College Annual (2018) Vol.88. pp. 203-253.
1802:
American Reform, especially, turned action for social and progressive causes into an important part of religious commitment. From the second half of the 20th century, it employed the old rabbinic notion of
1534:
retained. On the other hand, while embracing a less strict interpretation compared to the traditional one, Reform also held to this tenet against those who sought to deny it. When secularist thinkers like
1335:
are a further link in the chain of revelation, capable of reaching new insights: religion can be renewed without necessarily being dependent on past conventions. The chief promulgator of this concept was
2329:. The Hamburg reformers, still attempting to play within the limits of rabbinic tradition, cited canonical sources in defence of their actions; they had the grudging support of one liberal-minded rabbi,
2252:
in Central Europe during the late 18th century, and the breakdown of traditional Jewish life, the proper response to the changed circumstances became a heated concern. Radical, second-generation Berlin
2436:
into the Jewish religious discourse, attempting to draw from the means it employed to reconcile Christian faith and modern sensibilities. But it was the new scholarly, critical Science of Judaism (
2894:, the belief in Resurrection, and a personal Messiah were denied. A practical, far-reaching measure, not instituted in the home country until 1910, was acceptance of civil marriage and divorce. A
2606:
The conferences made few concrete far-reaching steps, albeit they generally stated that the old mechanisms of religious interpretation were obsolete. The first, held on 12–19 June 1844, abolished
3370:, declaring that for him Judaism was a cultural tradition, not a faith. Knowing that many in their audience held quite overlapping ideas, the pressure on the CCAR to move toward nontheism grew.
1685:, which declared all ceremonial acts binding only if they served to enhance religious experience. From 1890, converts were no longer obligated to be circumcised. Similar policy was pursued by
2672:
sanctity. Holdheim shocked the assembled when he proposed his "Second Sabbath" scheme, astonishing even the radical wing, and his motion was rejected offhand. They did vote to eliminate the
2442:) that became the focus of controversy. Its proponents vacillated whether and to what degree it should be applied against the contemporary plight. Opinions ranged from the strictly Orthodox
2725:
all closed due to lack of applicants, replaced by modern seminaries; the new academically trained rabbinate, whether affirming basically traditional doctrines or liberal and influenced by
1619:, with the optional "give life to all/revive the dead" formula. The CCAR stated this passage did not reflect a belief in Resurrection, but Jewish heritage. On the other extreme, the 1975
3172:", which succeeded the JRU. Tens of thousands of refugees from Germany brought their Liberal Judaism to other lands as well. In 1930, the first Liberal congregation, Temple Beth Israel
2569:), where the Law of the Land applied. Another measure he offered, rejected almost unanimously by his colleagues in 1846, was the institution of a "Second Sabbath" on Sunday, modeled on
1834:
is very active in the judicial field, often using litigation both in cases concerning civil rights in general and the official status of Reform Judaism within the state, in particular.
1201:
is a central motto of Reform Judaism, and acting in its name is one of the main channels for adherents to express their affiliation. The movement's most significant center today is in
2616:, still administered by rabbis, and established a committee to determine "to which degree the Messianic ideal should be mentioned in prayer". Repeating the response of the 1806 Paris
3303:, became anachronistic. Military service exposed recruits to the family-oriented, moderate religiosity of middle-class America. Many sought an affiliation in the early years of the
2741:
indoors, rather than under the sky, were introduced. Regarded as boldly innovative in their environs, these were long since considered trivial even by the most Orthodox in Germany,
2108:
termed the doctrine espoused by his new Jewish Religious Union as "Liberal Judaism", too, though it belonged to the more radical part of the spectrum in relation to the German one.
2639:
declared "they have blasphemed against the Divinity of the Law, they are no Israelites and equal to Gentiles". Yet they also managed to antagonize more moderate progressives. Both
1764:
Its philosophy of continuous revelation made Progressive Judaism, in all its variants, much more able to embrace change and new trends than any of the other major denominations.
3295:
reinforced the tendency. The Americanization and move to the suburbs in the 1950s facilitated a double effect: the secular Jewish ideologies of the immigrants' generation, like
2099:). The title "Reform" became much more common in the United States, where an independent denomination under this name was fully identified with the religious tendency. However,
1795:
in 1977, and openly gay clergy were admitted by the end of the 1980s. Same-sex marriage was sanctioned by the year 2000. In 2015, the URJ adopted a Resolution on the Rights of
3280:
effected a religious revival in communities long plagued by apathy and assimilation. The great changes convinced the CCAR to adopt a new set of principles. On 29 May 1937, in
1776:, ordained in 1935 by later chairman of the Vereinigung der liberalen Rabbiner Max Dienemann, was the earliest known female rabbi to officially be granted the title. In 1972,
2081:
1518:
of universal harmony and perfection. The considerable loss of faith in human progress around World War II greatly shook this ideal, but it endures as a precept of Reform.
1625:
substituted "the Eternal One" for "God" in the English translation (though not in the original), a measure that was condemned by several Reform rabbis as a step toward
2446:, who subjugated research to the predetermined sanctity of the texts and refused to allow it practical implication over received methods; via the Positive-Historical
3117:
1443:
While Reform rabbis in 19th-century Germany had to accommodate conservative elements in their communities, at the height of "Classical Reform" in the United States,
1744:
standards and the like in the public sphere, both due to the moderation of their congregants and threats of Orthodox secession. A similar pattern characterizes the
2680:
often at odds with the board led by Sigismund Stern. They instituted a drastically abridged prayerbook in German and allowed the abolition of most ritual aspects.
2137:
survey calculated it represented about 35% of all 5.3 million Jewish adults in the U.S., making it the single most numerous Jewish religious group in the country.
2862:, who participated in the 1844–1846 conferences and was very much influenced by Holdheim (though utterly rejecting mixed marriage), and the moderate pragmatist
3116:
in Britain. Montefiore was greatly influenced by the ideas of early German Reformers. He and his associates were mainly driven by the example and challenge of
2772:" and was utterly opposite to continental developments. Only a century later did they and other synagogues embrace mainland ideas and established the British
2364:, set the pace for most of Central and Western Europe. They significantly altered custom, but wholly avoided dogmatic issues or overt injury to Jewish Law.
2684:
sacrifice, ingathering of exiles, Messiah, resurrection and angels – rather than merely abbreviating the service; excising non-essential parts, especially
3090:
2485:. Believing that Judaism became stale and had to be radically transformed if it were to survive modernity, he found little use in the legal procedures of
3149:
4250:
4163:
3348:
2890:. Described by Meyer as American Reform's "declaration of independence", they stated their commitment to the principles already formulated in Germany:
2179:
2003:
1753:
1221:
1826:
has incorporated only leftist, socialist-like elements. In truth, it is political, basically a mirror of the most radically leftist components of the
3351:
was registered in 1971, and the worldwide movement moved the WUPJ's headquarters to Jerusalem in 1974, signalling its growing attachment to Zionism.
2074:
1514:. This was later refined when the notion of a personal Messiah who would reign over Israel was officially abolished and replaced by the concept of a
1440:
principle must be universally applied and subject virtually everything to current norms and needs, far beyond its weight in conventional Jewish Law.
1405:
Reform Judaism emphasizes the ethical facets of the faith as its central attribute, superseding the ceremonial ones. Reform thinkers often cited the
6714:
3010:
1809:, "repairing the world", as a slogan under which constituents were encouraged to partake in various initiatives for the betterment of society. The
4093:
Women Rabbis: Exploration & Celebration: Papers Delivered at an Academic Conference Honoring Twenty Years of Women in the Rabbinate, 1972–1992
2704:
1791:
people and ordination of LGBT rabbis were also pioneered by the movement. Intercourse between consenting adults was declared as legitimate by the
7104:
4437:
1458:(custom) emerging by trial and error and becoming widespread if it appealed to the masses. The advocates of this approach also stress that their
1295:. This tendency has grown since the mid-20th century among both clergy and constituents, leading to broader, dimmer definitions of the concept.
3381:
on the path toward becoming the largest American denomination. Yet it did not erase boundaries completely and rejected outright those who held
3358:
and the weakening of organized religion in favour of personal spirituality. A growing "return to ethnicity" among the young made items such as
3347:
and other progressive causes. In 1954, the first permanent Reform congregation was established in the State of Israel, again at Jerusalem. The
2375:
An isolated, yet much more radical step in the same direction as Hamburg's, was taken across the ocean in 1824. The younger congregants in the
5787:
5009:
4697:
Daniel R. Langton, "A Question of Backbone: Contrasting Christian Influences upon the Origins of Reform and Liberal Judaism in England", in:
4484:
The Sabbath service and miscellaneous prayers, adopted by the Reformed society of Israelites, founded in Charleston, S. C., November 21, 1825
3412:, was instated in 1988, and full equality was declared in 1990. Same-sex marriage guidelines were published in 1997. In 1978, UAHC President
3268:, when many congregations teetered on the threshold of collapse. Growing Antisemitism in Europe led German Liberals on similar paths. Rabbis
1720:
1637:
During its formative era, Reform was oriented toward lesser ceremonial obligations. In 1846, the Breslau rabbinical conference abolished the
2719:
interested in bridging the gap between themselves and the official faith. Secular education for clergy became mandated by mid-century, and
2175:
2067:
2013:
1799:
and Gender Non-Conforming People, urging clergy and synagogue attendants to actively promote tolerance and inclusion of such individuals.
1665:
was declared redundant and the civil one recognized as sufficient by American Reform in 1869, and in Germany by 1912; the laws concerning
7064:
3169:
2628:
had jurisdiction only for their time. We possess the same power, when we express the spirit of ours." The majority was led by Geiger and
1998:
4058:
1712:
in 2013, only 34% of registered synagogue members (and only 17% of all those who state affinity) attend services once a month and more.
5582:
4622:
The Mannheimer Prayerbooks and Modern Central European Communal Liturgies: A Representative Comparison of Mid-Nineteenth Century Works
1732:
largely replaced it as part of the re-traditionalization, but many young congregants in the United States still perform one, often at
4271:
2126:
presumed to have affinity, since updated to 2.2 million – both registered synagogue members and non-affiliates who identify with it.
2045:
1810:
1183:
and his associates formulated its early principles, attempting to harmonize Jewish tradition with modern sensibilities in the age of
2714:
Outside Germany, Reform had little to no influence in the rest of the continent. Radical lay societies sprang in Hungary during the
5611:
4132:
1188:
7110:
3164:
Preserving the relative traditionalism of Germany, they later adopted the name "Reform Synagogues of Great Britain" (since 2005,
3129:
2462:, who rejected any limitations on objective research or its application. He is considered the founding father of Reform Judaism.
2171:
2025:
6210:
5664:
5474:
Tabory, Ephraim (2004). "The Israel Reform and Conservative Movements and the Marker for the Liberal Judaism". In Rebhum, Uzi;
4512:
2998:
2901:
1366:
also spoke of the "special insight" of Israel, almost fully independent from direct divine participation, and English thinker
6205:
5253:
5175:
4327:
3014:
2904:(since 2003, Union for Reform Judaism), the denominational body. In 1875, he established the movement's rabbinical seminary,
2761:
2380:
2143:
1847:
1792:
1351:. While also subject to change and new understanding, the basic premise of progressive revelation endures in Reform thought.
598:
5383:
Profiles in American Judaism: the Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist traditions in historical perspective
4572:
Steven M. Lowenstein, "The 1840s and the Creation of the German-Jewish Religious Reform Movement", in: Werner E. Mosse ed.,
2371:
A passage from the Reformed Society's prayerbook, which was mostly in English and theologically more radical than Hamburg's.
1894:
Reform movement are legally recognized by the Israeli government and thus entitled to citizenship under the Law of Return.
3422:
2008:
1362:
described it as the awakening of oneself into full consciousness of one's religious understanding. The American theologian
956:
6114:
5137:
Reform Judaism Today (Reform Judaism Today, Reform in the Process of Change, What We Believe, How We Live, Leader's Guide)
3401:, which excised all references to God from its liturgy, was denied UAHC membership by a landslide vote of 113:15 in 1994.
3084:. Immigration from Eastern Europe also strengthened traditional elements. In 1898, seeking to counter these trends, Rabbi
6225:
6220:
5644:
3185:
3141:
2827:
was appointed minister. At first traditional, but around 1841, he excised the Resurrection of the Dead and abolished the
2113:
1965:
1909:
1830:
platform, causing many to say that Reform Judaism is simply 'the Democratic Party with Jewish holidays'." In Israel, the
1498:
One major expression of that, which is the first clear Reform doctrine to have been formulated, is the idea of universal
1323:, the defining event in traditional interpretation. According to this view, all holy scripture of Judaism, including the
1225:
1001:
4359:
3180:. In June 1931, the South African Jewish Religious Union for Liberal Judaism was organised, soon employing HUC-ordained
2182:(5,000 members in 2000, 35 communities); the Movement for Progressive Judaism (Движение прогрессивного Иудаизма) in the
7037:
5914:
5309:
3522:
2749:. In the east, the belated breakdown of old mores led not to the remodification of religion, but to the formulation of
2183:
1851:
3228:, was emblematic of the new generation of East European-descended clergy within American Reform. Deeply influenced by
6065:
5919:
5464:
5437:
5355:
5279:
5207:
5144:
5068:
4888:
4867:
4846:
4101:
3925:
3672:
3642:
3593:
3547:
3487:
3261:
in 1940 to include more old formulae and authored many responsa, though he always stressed compliance was voluntary.
3133:
3045:
prayers without blowing the instrument. The five-day workweek soon made the Sunday Sabbath redundant. Temples in the
2030:
1563:
sources, and denied. Notions of afterlife according to Enlightenment thinkers were given to be reduced merely to the
1462:
are of non-binding nature, and their recipients may adapt them as they see fit. Freehof's successors, such as Rabbis
1381:, this rationalistic and optimistic theology was challenged and questioned. It was gradually replaced, mainly by the
1112:
35:
2858:, and others all played a role both in Germany and across the ocean – and led by two individuals: the radical Rabbi
2516:
was apparently the first to deny inherent sanctity to any text when he wrote in 1844 that, "The Pentateuch is not a
5974:
5882:
5392:
5328:. Understanding American Judaism: Toward the Description of a Modern Religion, vol. 2. New York: KTAV Publ. House.
1984:
1827:
1217:
2489:, arguing that hardline rabbis often demonstrated they will not accept major innovations anyway. His venture into
7139:
6333:
4044:
3192:, first branch in South America, was established in 1936. German refugees also founded a Liberal community named
3034:
4973:
3542:. Lincoln, Na; Philadelphia, Pa: University of Nebraska Press; The Jewish Publication Society. pp. 7, 315.
1704:
for menstruating women gained great grassroots popularity at the turn of the century, and some synagogues built
6015:
5575:
5414:
5333:
5229:
5107:
4797:
4390:
1843:
1831:
1307:
affirms the "Jewish conception of God: One and indivisible, transcendent and immanent, Creator and Sustainer".
7116:
6437:
4072:
2322:
were quite systematically omitted. The Hamburg edition is considered the first comprehensive Reform liturgy.
1993:
17:
4247:
3240:, rather than a religion, though he and other Reform sympathizers of Kaplan fully maintained the notions of
2976:
rejected the need for the Jews to exist as a differentiated group. On the right, the recently arrived Rabbi
1447:
considerations could be virtually ignored and Holdheim's approach embraced. In the 1930s and onwards, Rabbi
7179:
7047:
7042:
6230:
6215:
5979:
5934:
5679:
4347:
4286:
974:
4315:
7144:
7129:
6010:
5870:
5268:
3536:
3165:
2984:, lambasted it for having abandoned traditional Judaism. Einhorn's son-in-law and chief ideologue, Rabbi
2773:
2162:
2118:
1979:
1866:
1745:
1213:
399:
5426:
2310:. Here, changes in the rite were eclectic no more and had severe dogmatic implications: prayers for the
2129:
Worldwide, the movement is mainly centered in North America. The largest WUPJ constituent by far is the
2112:
Conference of Liberal Jews", after deliberations between "Liberal", "Reform" and "Modern", it was named
1168:
as non-binding and the individual Jew as autonomous, and by a great openness to external influences and
7098:
6992:
6643:
6537:
6245:
6178:
5739:
5629:
2715:
2673:
2541:
2438:
2376:
1939:
1638:
1137:
185:
89:
2869:
Quite haphazardly, Wise instituted a major innovation when introducing family pews in 1851, after his
7214:
7154:
7052:
7032:
6902:
6827:
6687:
6554:
6240:
6200:
5568:
5100:
Reform Judaism in America: A Biographical Dictionary and Sourcebook (Jewish Denominations in America)
5013:
4339:
4027:
3696:
3440:
3339:, "repairing of the world", into the practical expression of affiliation, leading involvement in the
3241:
3237:
2659:
who wished to modernize Judaism to some degree or other (including both Frankel and the Neo-Orthodox
2122:
1855:
1701:
1522:
205:
148:
2524:
to the inspiration His consciousness had on our forebears." Many others shared similar convictions.
2133:(until 2003: Union of American Hebrew Congregations) in the United States and Canada. As of 2013, a
7134:
6965:
6264:
6139:
3917:
3435:
2921:
2737:
constructed modern synagogues where mild aesthetic reforms, like vernacular sermons or holding the
2730:
2130:
1960:
1862:
1678:
1209:
1066:
964:
687:
4272:
https://urj.org/press-room/reform-movement-statement-conversion-issue-law-return-grandchild-clause
2768:. While the title "Reform" was occasionally applied to them, their approach was described as "neo-
7250:
7087:
7076:
6670:
6591:
6296:
6195:
6134:
6020:
5993:
4900:
3213:
3001:. It united all non-Reform currents in the country and would gradually develop into the locus of
2969:
2958:
2828:
2734:
2558:
2326:
2216:
1586:
1568:
1487:
and the belief that all religions would unite into one, and it later faced the challenges of the
1437:
215:
115:
4747:
Reform Judaism and Darwin: How Engaging with Evolutionary Theory shaped American Jewish Religion
4386:, urj.org. For the mutually exclusive of list of Reconstructionist congregations worldwide, see
2961:
as well as with proponents of biological evolutionary theory, with the result that a distinctly
1224:(IMPJ) in Israel, and the UJR-AmLat in Latin America; these are united within the international
7123:
7093:
6156:
5447:
Tabory, Ephraim (2004) . "Reform and Conservative Judaism in Israel". In Goldscheider, Calvin;
5274:. Lincoln, Na; Philadelphia, Pa: University of Nebraska Press; The Jewish Publication Society.
4059:"America's First Female Rabbi Reflects on Four Decades Since Ordination - eJewish Philanthropy"
3398:
3373:
In 1975, the lack of consensus surfaced during the compilation of a new standard prayer book, "
3344:
3132:, a small congregation that numbered barely a hundred families. It eventually evolved into the
3046:
2968:
In 1885, Reform Judaism in America was confronted by challenges from both flanks. To the left,
2896:
2835:
2819:
At Charleston, the former members of the Reformed Society gained influence over the affairs of
2648:
2151:
1662:
1056:
692:
5189:
3575:
3041:
ram horns fitted with a trumpet mouthpiece, seventy years after the Reformgemeinde first held
2174:, which had some 4,500 members in 2010 and incorporates 25 congregations, one in Austria; the
7149:
7070:
6852:
6559:
6442:
6183:
6173:
6166:
6151:
6037:
4476:
4091:
3469:
3340:
3156:
2859:
2800:
2660:
2512:
argued that Revelation was God's influence on human psyche, rather than encapsulated in law;
2357:
2346:
2298:
2294:
1813:
became an important lobby in service of progressive causes such as the rights of minorities.
1526:
1382:
1287:. Despite this official position, some voices among the spiritual leadership have approached
1105:
1061:
979:
30:
5479:
5452:
5163:
3125:
2699:
respectively, were marked with a cautious tone. Their only outcome was the bypassing of the
2540:. They formed the backbone of the nascent Reform rabbinate. Geiger intervened in the Second
7184:
7174:
6677:
5649:
3378:
3327:
was ever-present, it remained confined to a small group, and official positions retained a
3113:
3085:
3002:
2912:. He and Einhorn also quarreled in the matter of liturgy, each issuing his own prayerbook,
2905:
2847:
2834:
Apart from that, the American Reform movement was chiefly a direct German import. In 1842,
2166:
2147:
2096:
1878:
1781:
1371:
1331:, inserted their understanding and reflected the spirit of their consecutive ages. All the
1304:
1176:
1157:
1036:
969:
124:
2264:
8:
6832:
6800:
6726:
6635:
6581:
6188:
5988:
5722:
5687:
5369:
4433:
4372:"Nearly 2.2 million Americans and Canadians identify as Reform Jews": The Reform Movement
3514:
3413:
3073:
2989:
2954:
2509:
2443:
2319:
2245:
2233:
2134:
1709:
1682:
1359:
1299:
1184:
1153:
991:
682:
455:
291:
4328:"International conference of liberal Jews, Saturday, July 10th – Monday July 12th, 1926"
1861:
This decision was taken by the British Liberal Judaism in the 1950s. The North American
1715:
The Proto-Reform movement did pioneer new rituals. In the 1810s and 1820s, the circles (
7164:
7159:
6970:
6692:
6569:
6564:
6549:
6519:
6472:
6395:
6301:
6161:
5734:
5639:
5606:
5325:
The Sectors of American Judaism: Reform, Orthodoxy, Conservatism, and Reconstructionism
4978:
3701:
3394:
3332:
3324:
3224:
was appointed HUC Chair of Theology in his stead, serving until 1956. Cohon, born near
3181:
3121:
2824:
2315:
1626:
1615:
1499:
1406:
1328:
1288:
1248:
1051:
381:
195:
158:
50:
6447:
6323:
3112:, founded the Jewish Religious Union (JRU) in London. It served as the cornerstone of
2161:
The next in size, by a wide margin, are the two British WUPJ-affiliates. In 2010, the
1571:, for example, used the somewhat ambiguous formula "the spirit within us is eternal".
6948:
6879:
6761:
6746:
6529:
6400:
6365:
5654:
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5433:
5410:
5388:
5381:
5351:
5329:
5305:
5285:
5275:
5249:
5225:
5203:
5171:
5140:
5113:
5103:
5086:
5064:
5040:
Platforms and Prayer Books: Theological and Liturgical Perspectives on Reform Judaism
4884:
4863:
4842:
4793:
4508:
4496:
4483:
4097:
3967:
3921:
3868:
Platforms and Prayer Books: Theological and Liturgical Perspectives on Reform Judaism
3668:
3638:
3589:
3553:
3543:
3518:
3483:
3390:
3367:
3258:
3101:
3065:
2981:
2925:
2765:
2754:
2750:
2644:
2629:
2586:
2447:
2429:
2393:
2105:
2018:
1686:
1670:
1367:
1187:. Brought to America by German-trained rabbis, the denomination gained prominence in
474:
269:
177:
2676:, noting it was both an irrelevant rabbinic ordinance and scarcely observed anyway.
2178:, with 3,500 affiliates in 10 communities; the 13 Liberal synagogues in France; the
1164:, it is characterized by little stress on ritual and personal observance, regarding
7014:
6982:
6943:
6914:
6897:
6847:
6648:
6457:
6390:
6343:
6291:
6259:
6250:
6235:
6109:
6084:
6060:
5944:
5875:
5792:
5659:
5297:
5263:
5239:
5217:
5185:
5047:
5035:
4383:
3814:
3658:
3585:
3531:
3355:
3265:
2973:
2950:
2938:
2909:
2870:
2863:
2788:
2711:
under which communal affiliation and paying parish taxes were no longer mandatory.
2537:
2490:
2260:
2100:
2055:
1919:
1882:
1819:
1749:
1697:
1543:
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1390:
1344:
1292:
1259:
1229:
1098:
760:
659:
395:
356:
341:
97:
72:
5350:. Judaism in Cold War America, 1945–1990, vol. 6. New York; London: Garland Publ.
5162:, eds. (2017) . "Americans in the Israeli Reform and Conservative Denominations".
3866:
Leon A. Morris, "Beyond Autonomy: the Texts and Our Lives", in: Dana Evan Kaplan,
3637:. Judaism in Cold War America, 1945–1990, vol. 6. New York; London: Garland Publ.
1593:
for reading the Torah; vernacular segments were added alongside or instead of the
6924:
6919:
6731:
6658:
6491:
6462:
6385:
6375:
6338:
6313:
6129:
6124:
6119:
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6099:
6089:
6074:
5865:
5782:
5749:
5707:
5697:
5480:
5475:
5453:
5402:
5365:
5323:
5243:
5197:
5170:. Studies of Israeli Society, 7 (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge.
5164:
5155:
5132:
4500:
4394:
4254:
4243:
4023:
4019:
3727:
3662:
3579:
3506:
3477:
3374:
3316:
3292:
3277:
3246:
3233:
3221:
3109:
3022:
2985:
2977:
2942:
2855:
2851:
2812:
2769:
2617:
2570:
2553:
2513:
2482:
2433:
2421:
2290:
2138:
1716:
1658:
1621:
1594:
1590:
1564:
1539:
1448:
1430:
1394:
1363:
1355:
996:
904:
798:
351:
143:
108:
4371:
1315:
The basic tenet of Reform theology is a belief in a continuous, or progressive,
7228:
7203:
7024:
6931:
6889:
6869:
6857:
6837:
6751:
6741:
6709:
6702:
6653:
6625:
6620:
6586:
6496:
6420:
6410:
6348:
6146:
6094:
6005:
6000:
5762:
5757:
5692:
5621:
4952:
4616:
4553:
4268:
Reform Movement Statement on Conversion Issue / Law of Return Grandchild Clause
4164:"Reform Judaism Just Became the Country's Most Trans-Inclusive Religious Group"
3956:
Prayerbook Reform in Europe: the Liturgy of European Liberal and Reform Judaism
3405:
3320:
3300:
3281:
3276:
and Seligmann himself turned to stressing Jewish peoplehood and tradition. The
3072:
In Germany, Liberal communities stagnated since mid-century. Full and complete
2946:
2640:
2625:
2459:
2409:
2389:
2307:
2050:
1777:
1642:
1503:
1337:
1316:
1180:
1086:
860:
655:
544:
450:
346:
222:
210:
153:
103:
3954:, Frank & Timme GmbH, 2005. pp. 63–98; and especially: J. J. Petuchowski,
3331:
approach. But the main focus in American Reform lay elsewhere: in 1946, Rabbi
3323:, portraying humans in a fragile, complex relationship with the divine. While
2337:, though even he never acceded to the removal of prayers for the sacrifices.
1459:
7244:
6997:
6842:
6769:
6576:
6510:
6483:
6432:
6380:
6353:
6328:
6318:
6079:
6025:
5959:
5939:
5929:
5924:
5897:
5843:
5772:
5717:
5448:
5343:
5319:
5289:
5193:
5159:
5078:
5051:
4834:
4206:
3630:
3557:
3473:
3273:
3229:
3093:
also founded a congregational arm, the Union for Liberal Judaism in Germany (
3077:
2994:
2962:
2843:
2342:
2334:
2283:
2249:
2202:
and several thousands of regular constituents; and many other, smaller ones.
2187:
1641:; during the same years, the Berlin Reform congregation held prayers without
1535:
1515:
1202:
1169:
1141:
912:
827:
336:
236:
200:
66:
5117:
5090:
4222:
6977:
6774:
6736:
6697:
6286:
6030:
5969:
5949:
5909:
5892:
5860:
5848:
5809:
5727:
5702:
5428:
Modern Jewish Religious Movements: A History of Emancipation and Abjustment
4908:
3613:
Jakob Josef Petuchowski, "The Concept of Revelation in Reform Judaism", in
3409:
3363:
3160:
3105:
3042:
2988:, invited leading rabbis to formulate a response. The eight clauses of the
2887:
2875:
2636:
2594:
2582:
2493:
led him to regard the Pentateuch as reflecting power struggles between the
2330:
2311:
2237:
1773:
1769:
1724:
1693:
1507:
1492:
1463:
1386:
1378:
1354:
In its early days, this notion was greatly influenced by the philosophy of
1320:
1284:
1046:
1041:
986:
865:
770:
730:
677:
631:
435:
244:
4209:, ?בית המשפט ובג"ץ: תל פיות לתנועה הרפורמית, in: Rosenak ed., pp. 439–479.
3189:
3144:. It began to sponsor new chapters globally. The first was founded in the
6987:
6502:
6427:
6405:
6308:
5902:
5831:
5826:
5814:
5804:
5432:(3rd rev. ed.). New York: Behrman House. pp. 156–185, 285–316.
4227:
3823:
3336:
3308:
3145:
2924:) respectively, which they hoped to make standard issue. Eventually, the
2708:
2613:
2384:
2353:
2155:
1846:
in principle, officials of the major Reform rabbinical organisation, the
1805:
1796:
1737:
1729:
1560:
1530:
1502:. The belief in redemption was unhinged from the traditional elements of
1467:
1279:
In regard to God, the Reform movement has always officially maintained a
1193:
672:
129:
4839:"Guidance, Not Governance": Rabbi Solomon B. Freehof and Reform Responsa
4478:
A Selection from the Miscellaneous Writings of the Late Isaac Harby, Esq
4287:
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-tenets-of-reform-judaism#Belief
3884:
2454:
a role, but only in deference to tradition, and opposed analysis of the
1700:
for converts and newborn babies became virtually mandated in the 1980s;
78:
7081:
6788:
6370:
5964:
5712:
5634:
5459:(Reprint ed.). Eugene, Or: Wipf and Stock Publ. pp. 240–258.
4792:(London: Vallentine Mitchell), Parkes-Wiener Series on Jewish Studies.
4558:
Rabbi Esriel Hildesheimer and the Creation of a Modern Jewish Orthodoxy
3511:
Tradition and Change: A History of Reform Judaism in Britain, 1840–1995
3029:
2608:
2478:
2455:
1348:
1165:
1145:
1140:
that emphasizes the evolving nature of Judaism, the superiority of its
917:
667:
460:
255:
4248:"Members and Motives: Who Joins American Jewish Congregations and Why"
3818:
3208:
2933:
interest. A good example is the series of twelve sermons published as
2577:
1148:
which is closely intertwined with human reason and not limited to the
7002:
6467:
6358:
6269:
5887:
5821:
3482:(Reprint ed.). Eugene, Or: Wipf and Stock Publ. pp. 83–93.
3382:
3288:
3269:
3250:
3197:
3177:
3173:
2879:
2599:
2528:
2494:
2383:" were disgruntled by present conditions and demanded change. Led by
2279:
2275:
2272:
1511:
1510:
and the sacrificial cult therein, and turned into a general hope for
1149:
885:
584:
430:
407:
39:
5838:
5555:
5202:(Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. pp. 291–310.
5055:
4621:
4387:
4193:
4121:. Toronto Star Newspapers. Torstar Syndication Services. 1990-06-26.
4002:
6721:
6663:
6608:
6603:
6274:
5560:
5540:
5010:"Classical Reform revival pushes back against embrace of tradition"
3304:
3159:
affiliated with WUPJ. In the coming decade, waves of refugees from
2878:
in order to forge a single, unified, American Judaism. In the 1855
2700:
2696:
2691:
Two further rabbinical conferences much later, in 1869 and 1871 at
2685:
2635:
The harsh response from the strictly Orthodox came as no surprise.
2621:
2527:
In 1837, Geiger hosted a conference of like-minded young rabbis in
2498:
2465:
Geiger wrote that at seventeen already, he discerned that the late
2327:
dozens of rabbis throughout Europe united to ban the Hamburg Temple
2255:
1646:
1606:
1280:
942:
927:
890:
880:
875:
740:
626:
579:
565:
422:
371:
190:
163:
4529:
Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism
3914:
The Chosen People in America: A Study in Jewish Religious Ideology
3885:"Changing Attitudes of Liberal Judaism toward Halakhah and Minhag"
3664:
Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism
3025:
society, originally established on the basis of these ideologies.
2807:
2325:
While Orthodox protests to Jacobson's initiatives had been scant,
6936:
6820:
6815:
6805:
6793:
6613:
6598:
6542:
6477:
6452:
6415:
6279:
5954:
5853:
5777:
5669:
5595:
5535:
4028:"The Pew Survey Reanalyzed: More Bad News, but a Glimmer of Hope"
3952:
Liturgie als Theologie: das Gebet als Zentrum im jüdischen Denken
3296:
3216:, with some congregants wearing head coverings and prayer shawls.
3050:
2831:, five years before the same was done at the Breslau conference.
2746:
2742:
2738:
2721:
2703:
ceremony via a prenuptial agreement and the establishment of the
2692:
2647:
strongly condemned Braunschweig. Another discontented party were
2590:
2546:
2473:
2467:
2416:
2199:
2195:
1934:
1733:
1681:
and so forth were dispensed with, and openly revoked by the 1885
1666:
1414:
1298:
Early Reform thinkers in Germany clung to this precept; the 1885
1243:
1161:
1026:
932:
850:
755:
745:
700:
560:
555:
526:
514:
482:
361:
328:
312:
307:
297:
260:
58:
5545:
5083:
The Rise of Reform Judaism: A Sourcebook of its European Origins
2953:. These engaged with high-profile sceptics and atheists such as
2795:
2593:
respectively. Those were intended to implement the proposals of
7007:
6874:
6810:
5527:
4712:
Judaism Within Modernity: Essays on Jewish History and Religion
3359:
3328:
3080:
in 1871 largely diffused interest in harmonizing religion with
3061:
3038:
2532:
2502:
2361:
2350:
2302:
2228:
2221:
2191:
1872:
1705:
1654:
1650:
1454:
1031:
922:
870:
855:
845:
840:
813:
808:
791:
765:
750:
735:
710:
705:
621:
574:
549:
531:
445:
440:
417:
376:
366:
302:
279:
274:
3788:, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, 1979. pp. 104–105.
2404:
2367:
6958:
6953:
6907:
6862:
6783:
6778:
6042:
5797:
5767:
3853:, Rutgers University Press, 2009. pp. 41–42; Jonathan Sacks,
3386:
3335:
was appointed President of the UAHC. He turned the notion of
3225:
3053:, where the new crowd was scant, remained largely Classical.
2891:
2278:
congregation, "Adath Jessurun", In 1796. Emulating the local
2268:
1674:
1484:
1324:
937:
835:
784:
777:
641:
636:
616:
611:
606:
521:
509:
504:
499:
492:
487:
412:
284:
250:
5517:
5497:
3887:, Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies, 1993.
3588:, Series Editor. New York: Facts On File. pp. 419–422.
2536:
also permeated liberal Protestantism led by such figures as
1748:
in Britain, which attempted to appeal to newcomers from the
7057:
5591:
5550:
4421:
After Emancipation: Jewish Religious Responses to Modernity
2842:
The rabbinate was almost exclusively transplanted – Rabbis
2225:
A segment of the 1818 Hamburg prayer book. Stating "accept
1929:
1788:
1332:
1021:
536:
3883:, Rodef Shalom Press, 1988. pp. 90–94.; Michael A. Meyer,
3028:
While at first alienated from all native modernized Jews,
1433:
advocated a particularly radical stance, arguing that the
5482:
Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns
5302:
A Life of Meaning: Embracing Reform Judaism's Sacred Path
5245:
Contemporary American Judaism: Transformation and Renewal
4938:
Contemporary American Judaism: Transformation and Renewal
4008:
A Life of Meaning: Embracing Reform Judaism's Sacred Path
3870:, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002. pp. 271–284.
3765:
Contemporary American Judaism: Transformation and Renewal
2886:
On 3–6 November 1869, the two and their followers met in
2784:
4388:
Directory of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot
5507:
4574:
Revolution and Evolution, 1848 in German-Jewish History
4197:. CCAR Journal: The Reform Jewish Quarterly, Fall 2009.
3855:
Crisis and Covenant: Jewish Thought After the Holocaust
2965:
character of US Reform Jewish theology was observable.
2481:, attempting to diffuse its revolutionary potential by
1740:, now popular among all except strictly Orthodox Jews.
1736:. Confirmation for girls eventually developed into the
5512:
5387:. San Francisco, Ca: Harper & Row. pp. 1–78.
4223:"As Reform Jews Gather, Some Good News in the Numbers"
3786:
Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors to Our Descendants
2632:
and was keen on moderation and historical continuity.
1723:
and others) that gave rise to the movement introduced
4957:
Contemporary Reform Judaism: A Historical Perspective
3467:
3264:
Cohon and Freehof rose against the background of the
5166:
Israeli Judaism: The Sociology of Religion in Israel
5153:
4117:"Reform Jews open door to gay clergy: FIN Edition".
3470:"The Judaic Reformation as a Sociopolitical Process"
3461:
3095:
Vereinigung für das Liberale Judentum in Deutschland
1609:. More profound changes included restoration of the
1327:, were authored by human beings who, although under
5057:
The Reform Judaism Reader: North American Documents
4640:
Deutsch-jüdische Geschichte in der Neuzeit: Band 3'
3150:
Verbond voor Liberaal-Religieuze Joden in Nederland
2146:, with some 2,300 member rabbis, mainly trained in
1521:Another key example is the reinterpretation of the
1144:to its ceremonial ones, and belief in a continuous
5546:Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism
5522:
5502:
5425:
5380:
5270:The New Reform Judaism: Challenges and Reflections
5267:
4881:The New Reform Judaism: Challenges and Reflections
4089:
3974:, Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 624.; Kaplan,
3538:The New Reform Judaism: Challenges and Reflections
3535:
3349:Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism
2900:was no longer required. In 1873, Wise founded the
2289:A relatively thoroughgoing program was adopted by
2180:Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism
1754:Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism
1661:for some time, though he retracted it eventually.
1222:Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism
5523:Hebrew Union College Jewish Institute of Religion
5085:. New York: World Union for Progressive Judaism.
4749:(Berlin: de Gruyter, Walter GmbH & Co, 2019).
2150:. As of 2015, the URJ was led by President Rabbi
7242:
4615:. University of California Press, 2002. p. 167;
4531:, Wayne State University Press, 1995. pp. 89–99.
4384:Find a Congregation (under the rubric 'country')
3617:, Jewish Publication Society, 1998. pp. 101–112.
2399:
1901:
1470:, further elaborated the notion of "Progressive
1319:, occurring continuously and not limited to the
5224:. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
4940:, Columbia University Press, 2013, pp. 119–121.
4725:The American Synagogue: A Sanctuary Transformed
4438:The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
3778:Contemporary Debates in American Reform Judaism
3569:
3567:
3468:Goldscheider, Calvin; Zuckerman, Alan (2004) .
3253:, who advocated a selective rapprochement with
2779:
2301:. On 17 July 1810, he dedicated a synagogue in
1208:Various regional branches exist, including the
5486:. Brandeis University Press. pp. 285–314.
4699:Melilah; Manchester Journal for Jewish Studies
4000:For a concise introduction, see: Dalia Marks,
3574:Karesh, Sara E.; Hurvitz, Mitchell M. (2005).
5576:
4714:, Wayne State University Press, 2001. p. 108.
4194:Reform Judaism and the Jewish "Social Gospel"
3625:
3623:
3573:
3017:(CCAR), the denominational rabbinic council.
2705:Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums
2573:, as most people desecrated the day of rest.
2267:, proposed to reduce Judaism to little above
2075:
1477:
1106:
4507:. London; New York: Routledge. p. 525.
4283:Reform Judaism: The Tenets of Reform Judaism
4045:"Chapter 4: Religious Beliefs and Practices"
3972:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion
3958:, World Union for Progressive Judaism, 1968.
3840:, Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. 24–25.
3564:
2176:Nederlands Verbond voor Progressief Jodendom
7065:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation
4860:The Cambridge Companion to American Judaism
4560:, University of Alabama Press, 1990. p. 65.
4423:, Hebrew Union College Press, 2004. p. 103.
4191:, pp. 122–123. See also: Darren Kleinberg,
3838:The Emergence of Jewish Theology in America
3200:, but it joined the Conservatives by 1949.
3170:Union of Liberal and Progressive Synagogues
3128:who shared a similar worldview, formed the
2477:imposed a subjective interpretation on the
1865:(URJ) accepted it in 1983, and the British
1400:
1212:(URJ) in the United States and Canada, the
5583:
5569:
5556:Instituto de Formación Rabínica Reformista
5046:
4727:, Cambridge University Press, 2003. p. 43.
4495:
4489:
4096:. Hebrew Union College Press. p. 20.
3970:, "Resurrection", in: Adele Berlin (ed.),
3620:
2428:In the 1820s and 1830s, philosophers like
2082:
2068:
1483:history. Its earliest proponents rejected
1113:
1099:
5541:The Movement for Reform Judaism in the UK
5364:
4475:, pp. 232–235. See Harby's discourse in:
3362:fashionable again. In 1963, HUC-graduate
3203:
2760:In 1840, several British Jews formed the
1811:Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism
5612:Index of Jewish history-related articles
5423:
5222:American Reform Judaism: An Introduction
5131:
4825:, Oxford University Press, 1998. p. 354.
4217:
4215:
3851:American Reform Judaism: An Introduction
3651:
3404:In 1972, the first Reform female rabbi,
3207:
3060:
2806:
2794:
2783:
2415:
2403:
2366:
2345:. The less strict but still traditional
2220:
29:
7111:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
5748:
5378:
5342:
5318:
5248:. New York: Columbia University Press.
5097:
4883:, University of Nebraska Press (2013).
4790:Claude Montefiore: His Life and Thought
4693:
4691:
4505:Encyclopedia of new religious movements
3629:
2172:Union progressiver Juden in Deutschland
1569:1999 Pittsburgh Statement of Principles
14:
7243:
5473:
5446:
5407:Reform Judaism and Modernity: A Reader
5401:
5296:
5262:
5238:
5216:
5184:
5034:
4948:
4946:
4919:
4917:
4568:
4566:
4330:, Jewish Religious Union. pp. 118–130.
4239:
4237:
4133:"Reform rabbis affirm same-sex unions"
4083:
3908:
3906:
3857:, Manchester Uni. Press, 1992. p. 158.
3796:
3794:
3731:Reform Judaism and Modernity: A Reader
3530:
3505:
3319:and J.J. Petuchowski turned mainly to
2999:Jewish Theological Seminary of America
2902:Union of American Hebrew Congregations
1425:The movement never entirely abandoned
1262:, warned that Reform became more of a
5564:
5551:Unión del Judaísmo Reformista - Amlat
5513:Central Conference of American Rabbis
5077:
4974:"Rise of 23% Noted in Reform Judaism"
4841:, Hebrew Union College Press (2013).
4810:Essays in honor of Solomon B. Freehof
4212:
4003:(Jewish) Reform Liturgy: Then and now
3784:, pp. 27, 46, 148.; Elliot N. Dorff,
3667:. New York: Oxford University Press.
3657:
3615:Studies in Modern Theology and Prayer
3501:
3499:
3366:seceded to form the openly atheistic
3015:Central Conference of American Rabbis
2762:West London Synagogue of British Jews
2144:Central Conference of American Rabbis
1848:Central Conference of American Rabbis
1793:Central Conference of American Rabbis
1553:
1529:, substituted the lamentation on the
1175:The origins of Reform Judaism lie in
5590:
5139:. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
5102:. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
4862:, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
4688:
4161:
4073:"University of Southern Mississippi"
3609:
3607:
3605:
3423:Society for Classical Reform Judaism
3245:sentiment in the East Coast. So did
3212:Contemporary Reform service held in
2227:the uttering of our lips instead of
5508:World Union for Progressive Judaism
4943:
4914:
4894:
4873:
4638:, pp. 185–188, 210; Michael Meyer,
4628:
4563:
4326:For the protocol of the vote, see:
4234:
3941:, p. 168; Petuchowski, pp. 183–184.
3903:
3804:, Behrman House, 1993. pp. 147–148.
3791:
3584:. Encyclopedia of World Religions.
3142:World Union for Progressive Judaism
2114:World Union for Progressive Judaism
1247:observance to elements approaching
1226:World Union for Progressive Judaism
24:
7058:YIVO Institute for Jewish Research
7038:American Jewish Historical Society
5199:The Blackwell Companion to Judaism
5023:
4576:, Mohr Siebeck, 1981. pp. 258–266.
3496:
3354:The 1960s and 70s saw the rise of
3148:, where two synagogues formed the
3130:Union Libérale Israélite de France
3056:
3009:seen in Europe only at the Berlin
2531:. He told the assembled that the "
1837:
1283:stance, affirming the belief in a
25:
7262:
5491:
5348:The Reformation of Reform Judaism
4905:Reform Judaism: Undone by Revival
4613:The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000
3849:Dorff, p. 132; Dana Evan Kaplan,
3635:The Reformation of Reform Judaism
3602:
3134:Liberal Jewish Movement of France
2751:secular conceptions of Jewishness
36:Congregation Emanu-El of New York
7222:
7209:
7208:
5374:. Syracuse, New York: Macmillan.
5042:. Rowman & Littlefield Publ.
4775:, p. 214–215; Michael A. Meyer,
4668:, pp. 154–160, 168–170, 195–200.
4090:Zola, Gary Phillip, ed. (1996).
3716:American Reform: an Introduction
2883:turned into a distinct current.
2657:reformers (in the generic sense)
2232:" and omitting the traditional "
1918:
1080:
77:
71:
65:
4998:
4985:
4966:
4930:
4852:
4828:
4815:
4802:
4782:
4765:
4752:
4739:
4730:
4717:
4704:
4671:
4658:
4645:
4642:, C.H. Beck, 1997. pp. 100–110.
4611:For example: Todd M. Endelman,
4605:
4592:
4579:
4547:
4534:
4521:
4465:
4452:
4443:
4426:
4413:
4400:
4377:
4365:
4353:
4344:American Jewish Year Book, 1992
4333:
4320:
4304:
4291:
4276:
4260:
4200:
4182:
4155:
4125:
4110:
4065:
4051:
4037:
4013:
3994:
3981:
3961:
3944:
3931:
3890:
3873:
3860:
3843:
3830:
3807:
3770:
3757:
3745:
3695:, pp. 6–8. Quote from: Kaplan,
3104:and several friends, including
2483:linking it to the biblical text
2154:, and the CCAR headed by Rabbi
1994:Australia, New Zealand and Asia
7130:Relations with other religions
5518:American Conference of Cantors
5371:The Reform Movement in Judaism
5196:; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.).
4462:, pp. 55–58, 111–115, 150–157.
4360:A Portrait of Jewish Americans
3819:"In Praise of Reform Theology"
3736:
3708:
3681:
3393:, and also Sherwin Wine-style
3220:Kohler retired in 1923. Rabbi
3186:Congregação Israelita Paulista
3168:), distinct from the smaller "
2559:the Law of the Land is the Law
1235:
13:
1:
7117:Encyclopedia of the Holocaust
5455:Social Foundations of Judaism
4812:, Rodef Shalom, 1964. p. 129.
4499:(2006). "Reform Judaism". In
3479:Social Foundations of Judaism
3454:
3291:and the establishment of the
2552:Second only to Geiger, Rabbi
2520:of God's revelation, it is a
2400:Consolidation in German lands
2210:
1902:Organization and demographics
1888:
1632:
1310:
7048:Leo Baeck Institute New York
7043:American Sephardi Federation
4348:University of Nebraska Press
4270:. Union for Reform Judaism.
3881:Liberal Judaism and Halakhah
3780:, Routledge, 2013. p. 239.;
3013:. In 1889, Wise founded the
2874:traditionalist leader Rabbi
2780:America and Classical Reform
2293:, a philanthropist from the
1854:– led to the recognition of
1197:("repairing of the world").
7:
5871:Constantinopolitan Karaites
3472:. In Goldscheider, Calvin;
3429:
3166:Movement for Reform Judaism
2774:Movement for Reform Judaism
2163:Movement for Reform Judaism
2121:) joined as well. In 1990,
2119:Movement for Reform Judaism
1867:Movement for Reform Judaism
1759:
1746:Movement for Reform Judaism
1574:
1269:
1220:in the United Kingdom, the
1214:Movement for Reform Judaism
10:
7267:
7099:National Library of Israel
5740:Zionism, race and genetics
5379:Raphael, Marc Lee (1984).
5098:Raphael, Marc Lee (1993).
5006:Challenges and Reflections
4285:. Jewish Virtual Library.
3976:Platforms and Prayer Books
3782:Challenges and Reflections
3752:Challenges and Reflections
3733:, SCM Press, 2004. p. 145.
3720:Challenges and Reflections
3395:Secular Humanistic Judaism
2576:The pressures of the late
2542:Hamburg Temple controversy
2439:Wissenschaft des Judentums
2214:
2205:
2097:Positive-Historical School
1579:
1478:Messianic age and election
7197:
7053:Yeshiva University Museum
7033:Center for Jewish History
7023:
6888:
6760:
6634:
6528:
6059:
5678:
5620:
5602:
5536:Liberal Judaism in the UK
5424:Rudavsky, David (1979) .
5014:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
4340:American Jewish Committee
3249:, son to immigrants from
3238:Judaism as a Civilization
2565:) but to the civil ones (
2312:restoration of sacrifices
2229:our obligatory sacrifices
2123:Reconstructionist Judaism
1544:Judaism as a civilization
1413:originally influenced by
5645:Ancient Israel and Judah
5503:Union for Reform Judaism
5063:. New York: UAHC Press.
4777:Judaism Within Modernity
4679:Judaism Within Modernity
4587:Judaism Within Modernity
3937:Romain, p. 8; Borowitz,
3918:Indiana University Press
3449:
3436:Cantor in Reform Judaism
2392:(as was customary among
2282:custom, it omitted the "
2234:O gather our dispersions
2190:, with 61 affiliates in
2131:Union for Reform Judaism
1863:Union for Reform Judaism
1787:Religious inclusion for
1613:benediction in the 2007
1474:" along the same lines.
1401:Ritual, autonomy and law
1210:Union for Reform Judaism
1177:mid-19th-century Germany
6021:North African Sephardim
5994:Jewish tribes of Arabia
4927:, pp. 136–142, 242–270.
4257:, S3K Report, Fall 2006
3581:Encyclopedia of Judaism
3311:replaced confirmation.
3278:Nazis' takeover in 1933
2829:Second day of festivals
2674:Second Day of Festivals
2217:Hamburg Temple disputes
1832:Religious Action Center
1639:second day of festivals
1587:Jakob Josef Petuchowski
1565:immortality of the soul
1506:and restoration of the
1418:expected from members.
27:Denomination of Judaism
7124:Holocaust Encyclopedia
7094:Jewish Virtual Library
4419:David Harry Ellenson,
3399:Congregation Beth Adam
3345:Vietnam War opposition
3217:
3204:The New Reform Judaism
3076:granted to all in the
3069:
2836:Har Sinai Congregation
2816:
2804:
2792:
2649:Christian missionaries
2501:who had their own pre-
2425:
2413:
2372:
2241:
1643:blowing the Ram's Horn
1542:forwarded the view of
1438:Law of the Land is Law
1377:In the decades around
1274:
1264:Jewish activities club
43:
7071:Encyclopaedia Judaica
6853:Sefer Raziel HaMalakh
6038:Sephardic Bnei Anusim
5788:Udmurt and Tatar Jews
4773:Response to Modernity
4137:The Christian Century
3697:"Faith and Matrimony"
3341:civil rights movement
3211:
3157:West London Synagogue
3155:Already in 1930, the
3064:
2810:
2798:
2787:
2764:, headed by Reverend
2701:Loosening of the Shoe
2661:Samson Raphael Hirsch
2597:and others for a new
2497:on one hand, and the
2419:
2407:
2370:
2347:Isaac Noah Mannheimer
2295:Kingdom of Westphalia
2224:
1870:Jewish ceremony with
1383:Jewish existentialism
1345:liberal denominations
38:, the largest Reform
33:
5650:Second Temple period
4925:Contemporary Debates
4823:Modern British Jewry
4189:Contemporary Debates
3989:Contemporary Debates
3898:Reform Judaism Today
3802:Reform Judaism Today
3800:Eugene B. Borowitz,
3724:Contemporary Debates
3689:Contemporary Debates
3379:Conservative Judaism
3152:on 18 October 1931.
3086:Heinemann Vogelstein
3003:Conservative Judaism
2997:in establishing the
2916:(American Rite) and
2906:Hebrew Union College
2612:and the humiliating
2259:(Enlightened), like
2148:Hebrew Union College
1782:Hebrew Union College
1768:effect in practice.
1258:Critics, like Rabbi
7088:Jewish Encyclopedia
6833:Hekhalot literature
6644:Religious movements
6179:Judeo-Tripolitanian
5403:Romain, Jonathan A.
5156:Liebman, Charles S.
5133:Borowitz, Eugene B.
4821:Geoffrey Alderman,
4808:Jacob K. Shankman,
4788:Langton, Daniel R.
4762:, pp. 292–294, 350.
4745:Daniel R. Langton,
4432:Michael K. Silber,
4143:(13). 19 April 2000
4010:. CCAR Press, 2017.
3515:Vallentine Mitchell
3414:Alexander Schindler
3074:Jewish emancipation
2990:Pittsburgh Platform
2892:priestly privileges
2510:Solomon Formstecher
2450:, who did not deny
2444:Azriel Hildesheimer
2246:Jewish emancipation
2244:With the advent of
2135:Pew Research Center
1948:Regional affiliates
1912:Progressive Judaism
1856:patrilineal descent
1844:interfaith marriage
1683:Pittsburgh Platform
1360:Solomon Formstecher
1349:oral interpretation
1300:Pittsburgh Platform
1138:Jewish denomination
1134:Progressive Judaism
992:Abrahamic religions
891:Selichot (S'lichot)
683:Bar and bat mitzvah
186:Principles of faith
7229:Judaism portal
7165:Jews and Halloween
7160:Jews and Christmas
6550:Rabbinic authority
6302:Judaeo-Piedmontese
5735:Xueta Christianity
5640:Origins of Judaism
5607:Outline of Judaism
5016:, 9 December 2009.
4982:, 1 November 1985.
4979:The New York Times
4936:Dana Evan Kaplan,
4858:Dana Evan Kaplan,
4710:Michael A. Meyer,
4701:3(2004), pp. 1–47.
4527:Michael A. Meyer,
4514:9-78-0-415-26707-6
4497:Chryssides, George
4397:, jewishrecon.org.
4393:2015-12-22 at the
4310:Isaac Meyer Wise,
4253:2015-12-22 at the
4231:, 5 November 2015.
4170:. Pride Publishing
4034:, 2 November 2014.
3776:Dana Evan Kaplan,
3702:Jewish Ideas Daily
3693:New Reform Judaism
3517:. pp. 39–45.
3426:those it drew in.
3333:Maurice Eisendrath
3325:religious humanism
3218:
3182:Moses Cyrus Weiler
3126:Louis Germain Lévy
3070:
2825:Gustavus Poznanski
2817:
2805:
2793:
2755:nationalistic ones
2426:
2414:
2373:
2299:modernist Orthodox
2242:
1756:(IMPJ) in Israel.
1679:marital ordinances
1627:religious humanism
1595:Hebrew and Aramaic
1554:Soul and afterlife
1523:election of Israel
1329:divine inspiration
1321:theophany at Sinai
1249:religious humanism
1170:progressive values
1087:Judaism portal
1052:Holocaust theology
44:
7238:
7237:
7204:extinct languages
7105:YIVO Encyclopedia
6880:Hebrew literature
6848:Sefer HaEtz Chaim
6688:Reconstructionist
6366:Judaeo-Portuguese
6055:
6054:
6011:Eastern Sephardim
5655:Synagogal Judaism
5298:Kaplan, Dana Evan
5264:Kaplan, Dana Evan
5255:978-0-231-13728-7
5240:Kaplan, Dana Evan
5218:Kaplan, Dana Evan
5186:Kaplan, Dana Evan
5177:978-1-56000-178-2
5079:Plaut, W. Gunther
5052:Plaut, W. Gunther
5048:Meyer, Michael A.
5036:Kaplan, Dana Evan
4901:J. J. Petuchowski
4879:Dana Evan Kaplan
4723:Jack Wertheimer,
4362:, 1 October 2013.
4266:Frank, L. (2023)
4221:Steven M. Cohen,
4162:McDonald, James.
4047:. 1 October 2013.
3968:Martha Himmelfarb
3912:Arnold M. Eisen,
3836:Robert G. Goldy,
3659:Meyer, Michael A.
3532:Kaplan, Dana Evan
3391:Messianic Judaism
3368:Birmingham Temple
3259:Union Prayer Book
3176:, was founded in
3102:Claude Montefiore
3066:Claude Montefiore
2982:Zecharias Frankel
2980:, an adherent of
2926:Union Prayer Book
2766:David Woolf Marks
2645:Zecharias Frankel
2630:Ludwig Philippson
2587:Frankfurt am Main
2448:Zecharias Frankel
2430:Solomon Steinheim
2394:Western Sephardim
2265:David Friedländer
2106:Claude Montefiore
2092:
2091:
1966:Reconstructionist
1842:While opposed to
1687:Claude Montefiore
1663:Religious divorce
1368:Claude Montefiore
1189:the United States
1123:
1122:
475:Important figures
149:Reconstructionist
16:(Redirected from
7258:
7227:
7226:
7225:
7212:
7211:
6344:Judeo-Golpaygani
5945:Palestinian Jews
5920:Alexandrian Jews
5876:Crimean Karaites
5793:Unterlander Jews
5746:
5745:
5660:Rabbinic Judaism
5585:
5578:
5571:
5562:
5561:
5487:
5485:
5476:Waxman, Chaim I.
5470:
5458:
5443:
5431:
5420:
5398:
5386:
5375:
5366:Philipson, David
5361:
5339:
5315:
5293:
5273:
5259:
5235:
5213:
5190:"Reform Judaism"
5181:
5169:
5154:Deshen, Shlomo;
5150:
5121:
5094:
5074:
5062:
5043:
5017:
5002:
4996:
4989:
4983:
4970:
4964:
4950:
4941:
4934:
4928:
4921:
4912:
4898:
4892:
4877:
4871:
4856:
4850:
4835:Joan S. Friedman
4832:
4826:
4819:
4813:
4806:
4800:
4786:
4780:
4769:
4763:
4756:
4750:
4743:
4737:
4734:
4728:
4721:
4715:
4708:
4702:
4695:
4686:
4675:
4669:
4662:
4656:
4649:
4643:
4632:
4626:
4609:
4603:
4596:
4590:
4583:
4577:
4570:
4561:
4551:
4545:
4538:
4532:
4525:
4519:
4518:
4501:Clarke, Peter B.
4493:
4487:
4469:
4463:
4456:
4450:
4447:
4441:
4430:
4424:
4417:
4411:
4404:
4398:
4381:
4375:
4369:
4363:
4357:
4351:
4337:
4331:
4324:
4318:
4312:Reformed Judaism
4308:
4302:
4295:
4289:
4280:
4274:
4264:
4258:
4241:
4232:
4219:
4210:
4204:
4198:
4186:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4175:
4159:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4148:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4069:
4063:
4062:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4041:
4035:
4017:
4011:
3998:
3992:
3985:
3979:
3965:
3959:
3950:Walter Homolka,
3948:
3942:
3935:
3929:
3910:
3901:
3900:, pp. 81, 88–90.
3894:
3888:
3877:
3871:
3864:
3858:
3847:
3841:
3834:
3828:
3827:, 16 March 2011.
3815:Dana Evan Kaplan
3811:
3805:
3798:
3789:
3774:
3768:
3761:
3755:
3749:
3743:
3740:
3734:
3712:
3706:
3705:, 19 April 2013.
3685:
3679:
3678:
3655:
3649:
3648:
3627:
3618:
3611:
3600:
3599:
3586:J. Gordon Melton
3576:"Reform Judaism"
3571:
3562:
3561:
3541:
3528:
3507:Romain, Jonathan
3503:
3494:
3493:
3465:
3356:multiculturalism
3266:Great Depression
2974:Ethical Movement
2955:Robert Ingersoll
2951:Joseph Krauskopf
2939:Isaac Meyer Wise
2910:Cincinnati, Ohio
2864:Isaac Meyer Wise
2789:Isaac Meyer Wise
2538:Leberecht Uhlich
2491:higher criticism
2261:Lazarus Bendavid
2101:Isaac Meyer Wise
2084:
2077:
2070:
1922:
1906:
1905:
1828:Democratic Party
1820:Dana Evan Kaplan
1780:was ordained by
1750:United Synagogue
1698:Letting of Blood
1489:Ethical movement
1391:Franz Rosenzweig
1333:People of Israel
1293:secular humanism
1260:Dana Evan Kaplan
1230:Orthodox Judaism
1128:, also known as
1115:
1108:
1101:
1085:
1084:
1083:
357:Aruch HaShulchan
81:
75:
69:
46:
45:
34:The interior of
21:
7266:
7265:
7261:
7260:
7259:
7257:
7256:
7255:
7241:
7240:
7239:
7234:
7223:
7221:
7193:
7019:
6884:
6756:
6630:
6524:
6339:Judeo-Borujerdi
6314:Judeo-Malayalam
6260:Judeo-Aragonese
6231:Lishanid Noshan
6063:
6051:
5783:Oberlander Jews
5744:
5674:
5616:
5598:
5589:
5494:
5467:
5440:
5417:
5395:
5358:
5336:
5312:
5282:
5256:
5232:
5210:
5178:
5147:
5110:
5071:
5060:
5026:
5024:Further reading
5021:
5020:
5003:
4999:
4993:An Introduction
4990:
4986:
4972:Joseph Berger,
4971:
4967:
4961:היהדות הרפורמית
4959:, in: Rosenak,
4951:
4944:
4935:
4931:
4922:
4915:
4911:, January 1992.
4899:
4895:
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4857:
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4787:
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4757:
4753:
4744:
4740:
4735:
4731:
4722:
4718:
4709:
4705:
4696:
4689:
4681:, pp. 278–279;
4676:
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4457:
4453:
4448:
4444:
4431:
4427:
4418:
4414:
4405:
4401:
4395:Wayback Machine
4382:
4378:
4370:
4366:
4358:
4354:
4350:, 1992. p. 257.
4338:
4334:
4325:
4321:
4309:
4305:
4296:
4292:
4281:
4277:
4265:
4261:
4255:Wayback Machine
4244:Steven M. Cohen
4242:
4235:
4220:
4213:
4205:
4201:
4187:
4183:
4173:
4171:
4160:
4156:
4146:
4144:
4131:
4130:
4126:
4116:
4115:
4111:
4104:
4088:
4084:
4077:www.lib.usm.edu
4071:
4070:
4066:
4057:
4056:
4052:
4043:
4042:
4038:
4032:Mosaic Magazine
4024:Steven M. Cohen
4020:Jack Wertheimer
4018:
4014:
3999:
3995:
3986:
3982:
3966:
3962:
3949:
3945:
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3932:
3911:
3904:
3895:
3891:
3878:
3874:
3865:
3861:
3848:
3844:
3835:
3831:
3812:
3808:
3799:
3792:
3775:
3771:
3762:
3758:
3750:
3746:
3741:
3737:
3728:Jonathan Romain
3713:
3709:
3691:, pp. 136–142;
3686:
3682:
3675:
3656:
3652:
3645:
3628:
3621:
3612:
3603:
3596:
3572:
3565:
3550:
3529:
3525:
3504:
3497:
3490:
3466:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3432:
3375:Gates of Prayer
3317:Eugene Borowitz
3293:State of Israel
3247:Solomon Freehof
3234:Mordecai Kaplan
3222:Samuel S. Cohon
3214:Sinai Synagogue
3206:
3114:Liberal Judaism
3110:Israel Abrahams
3091:Cäsar Seligmann
3059:
3057:The World Union
2986:Kaufmann Kohler
2978:Alexander Kohut
2943:Kaufmann Kohler
2856:Kaufmann Kohler
2852:Gustav Gottheil
2813:Kaufmann Kohler
2782:
2716:1848 Revolution
2618:Grand Sanhedrin
2571:Second Passover
2554:Samuel Holdheim
2514:Aaron Bernstein
2434:German idealism
2422:Samuel Holdheim
2402:
2291:Israel Jacobson
2284:Father of Mercy
2236:... Conduct us
2219:
2213:
2208:
2167:Liberal Judaism
2139:Steven M. Cohen
2088:
2036:
1990:
1974:United Kingdom
1971:
1911:
1910:World Union for
1904:
1891:
1840:
1838:Jewish identity
1762:
1717:Israel Jacobson
1659:Kaufmann Kohler
1635:
1622:Gates of Prayer
1616:Mishkan T'filah
1591:triennial cycle
1582:
1577:
1556:
1540:Mordecai Kaplan
1480:
1449:Solomon Freehof
1431:Samuel Holdheim
1403:
1395:Eugene Borowitz
1372:Liberal Judaism
1364:Kaufmann Kohler
1356:German idealism
1313:
1305:Liberal Judaism
1277:
1272:
1238:
1218:Liberal Judaism
1142:ethical aspects
1130:Liberal Judaism
1119:
1081:
1079:
1072:
1071:
1017:
1016:
1007:
1006:
997:Judeo-Christian
960:
959:
957:Other religions
948:
947:
908:
907:
896:
895:
831:
830:
819:
818:
773:
726:
725:
716:
715:
697:
663:
662:
647:
646:
602:
601:
599:Religious roles
590:
589:
552:
548:
478:
477:
466:
465:
427:
403:
402:
387:
386:
352:Mishnah Berurah
332:
331:
320:
319:
294:
247:
240:
239:
228:
227:
181:
180:
169:
168:
100:
93:
92:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7264:
7254:
7253:
7251:Reform Judaism
7236:
7235:
7233:
7232:
7218:
7198:
7195:
7194:
7192:
7191:
7190:
7189:
7188:
7187:
7182:
7177:
7171:non-Christian
7169:
7168:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7152:
7147:
7142:
7127:
7120:
7113:
7108:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7084:
7079:
7074:
7067:
7062:
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7060:
7055:
7050:
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7018:
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7012:
7011:
7010:
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6995:
6990:
6985:
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6946:
6941:
6940:
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6911:
6910:
6905:
6894:
6892:
6886:
6885:
6883:
6882:
6877:
6872:
6870:Shulchan Aruch
6867:
6866:
6865:
6860:
6858:Sefer Yetzirah
6855:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6838:Pardes Rimonim
6835:
6828:Kabbalah texts
6825:
6824:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6798:
6797:
6796:
6791:
6786:
6772:
6766:
6764:
6758:
6757:
6755:
6754:
6749:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6718:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6706:
6705:
6695:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6674:
6673:
6668:
6667:
6666:
6661:
6640:
6638:
6632:
6631:
6629:
6628:
6623:
6621:Land of Israel
6618:
6617:
6616:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6595:
6594:
6584:
6579:
6574:
6573:
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6562:
6557:
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6534:
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6526:
6525:
6523:
6522:
6517:
6516:
6515:
6514:
6513:
6508:
6507:
6506:
6499:
6497:Judeo-Alsatian
6489:
6488:
6487:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6450:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6424:
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6418:
6408:
6403:
6398:
6393:
6388:
6383:
6378:
6373:
6368:
6363:
6362:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6349:Judeo-Hamedani
6346:
6341:
6336:
6326:
6324:Judaeo-Occitan
6321:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6305:
6304:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6283:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6265:Jewish English
6262:
6257:
6256:
6255:
6254:
6253:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6196:Judaeo-Aramaic
6193:
6192:
6191:
6186:
6184:Judeo-Tunisian
6181:
6176:
6174:Judeo-Moroccan
6171:
6170:
6169:
6167:Judeo-Baghdadi
6154:
6149:
6144:
6143:
6142:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6071:
6069:
6057:
6056:
6053:
6052:
6050:
6049:
6048:
6047:
6046:
6045:
6035:
6034:
6033:
6023:
6018:
6016:Livornese Jews
6013:
6003:
5998:
5997:
5996:
5986:
5985:
5984:
5983:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5907:
5906:
5905:
5895:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5879:
5878:
5873:
5863:
5858:
5857:
5856:
5846:
5841:
5836:
5835:
5834:
5829:
5819:
5818:
5817:
5812:
5802:
5801:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5763:Afrikaner-Jode
5754:
5752:
5743:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5731:
5730:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5684:
5682:
5676:
5675:
5673:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5626:
5624:
5618:
5617:
5615:
5614:
5609:
5603:
5600:
5599:
5588:
5587:
5580:
5573:
5565:
5559:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5529:Reform Judaism
5525:
5520:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5498:Reform Judaism
5493:
5492:External links
5490:
5489:
5488:
5471:
5465:
5449:Neusner, Jacob
5444:
5438:
5421:
5415:
5399:
5393:
5376:
5362:
5356:
5346:, ed. (1993).
5344:Neusner, Jacob
5340:
5334:
5322:, ed. (1975).
5320:Neusner, Jacob
5316:
5311:978-0881233131
5310:
5304:. CCAR Press.
5294:
5280:
5260:
5254:
5236:
5230:
5214:
5208:
5194:Neusner, Jacob
5182:
5176:
5160:Shokeid, Moshe
5151:
5145:
5128:
5127:
5123:
5122:
5108:
5095:
5075:
5069:
5044:
5038:, ed. (2002).
5031:
5030:
5025:
5022:
5019:
5018:
4997:
4995:, pp. 236–238.
4984:
4965:
4963:, pp. 499–509.
4953:Jonathan Sarna
4942:
4929:
4913:
4893:
4891:. pp. 260–263.
4872:
4870:. pp. 119–123.
4851:
4827:
4814:
4801:
4781:
4779:, pp. 309–324.
4764:
4751:
4738:
4729:
4716:
4703:
4687:
4670:
4657:
4644:
4627:
4617:David Ellenson
4604:
4591:
4578:
4562:
4554:David Ellenson
4546:
4544:, pp. 125–127.
4533:
4520:
4513:
4488:
4464:
4451:
4442:
4425:
4412:
4399:
4376:
4364:
4352:
4332:
4319:
4303:
4290:
4275:
4259:
4233:
4211:
4199:
4181:
4154:
4124:
4109:
4102:
4082:
4064:
4050:
4036:
4012:
3993:
3980:
3960:
3943:
3930:
3902:
3889:
3879:Walter Jacob,
3872:
3859:
3842:
3829:
3806:
3790:
3769:
3756:
3744:
3735:
3707:
3680:
3673:
3650:
3643:
3633:, ed. (1993).
3631:Neusner, Jacob
3619:
3601:
3594:
3563:
3548:
3524:978-0853032984
3523:
3495:
3488:
3474:Neusner, Jacob
3459:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3442:Reform Judaism
3438:
3431:
3428:
3406:Sally Priesand
3321:existentialism
3301:Labour Zionism
3282:Columbus, Ohio
3205:
3202:
3058:
3055:
3037:were given as
3011:Reformgemeinde
2947:Emil G. Hirsch
2935:The Cosmic God
2922:Burnt Offering
2914:Minhag America
2781:
2778:
2739:wedding canopy
2641:S. L. Rapoport
2626:Great Assembly
2460:Abraham Geiger
2410:Abraham Geiger
2401:
2398:
2390:Middle Spanish
2320:Return to Zion
2308:Hamburg Temple
2215:Main article:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2152:Richard Jacobs
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2079:
2072:
2064:
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2060:
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2048:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2028:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1982:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1963:
1956:
1955:North America
1950:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1924:
1923:
1915:
1914:
1903:
1900:
1890:
1887:
1839:
1836:
1778:Sally Priesand
1761:
1758:
1677:prerogatives,
1634:
1631:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1555:
1552:
1504:return to Zion
1479:
1476:
1402:
1399:
1338:Abraham Geiger
1312:
1309:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1237:
1234:
1181:Abraham Geiger
1179:, where Rabbi
1126:Reform Judaism
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1110:
1103:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1074:
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1070:
1069:
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1024:
1018:
1015:Related topics
1014:
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989:
983:
982:
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972:
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920:
915:
909:
905:Major holidays
903:
902:
901:
898:
897:
894:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
861:Birkat Hamazon
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843:
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832:
826:
825:
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821:
820:
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795:
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781:
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724:Ritual objects
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545:Rabbinic sages
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451:Chevra kadisha
448:
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394:
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347:Shulchan Aruch
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7155:Protestantism
7153:
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7016:
7013:
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6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6843:Sefer HaBahir
6841:
6839:
6836:
6834:
6831:
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6802:
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6781:
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6776:
6773:
6771:
6770:Sifrei Kodesh
6768:
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6759:
6753:
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6708:
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6652:
6651:
6650:
6647:
6646:
6645:
6642:
6641:
6639:
6637:
6633:
6627:
6626:Who is a Jew?
6624:
6622:
6619:
6615:
6612:
6611:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6593:
6590:
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6588:
6585:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6571:
6568:
6567:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6555:Chosen people
6553:
6551:
6548:
6544:
6541:
6540:
6539:
6536:
6535:
6533:
6531:
6527:
6521:
6518:
6512:
6511:Scots-Yiddish
6509:
6505:
6504:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6494:
6493:
6490:
6486:
6485:
6484:Klezmer-loshn
6481:
6479:
6476:
6474:
6471:
6469:
6466:
6465:
6464:
6461:
6460:
6459:
6456:
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6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
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6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
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6426:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6413:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6384:
6382:
6379:
6377:
6374:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6354:Judeo-Shirazi
6352:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6331:
6330:
6329:Judeo-Persian
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6319:Judeo-Marathi
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6303:
6300:
6299:
6298:
6297:Judeo-Italian
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6267:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6198:
6197:
6194:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6168:
6165:
6164:
6163:
6160:
6159:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6152:Judeo-Amazigh
6150:
6148:
6145:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6077:
6076:
6073:
6072:
6070:
6067:
6062:
6058:
6044:
6041:
6040:
6039:
6036:
6032:
6029:
6028:
6027:
6024:
6022:
6019:
6017:
6014:
6012:
6009:
6008:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5995:
5992:
5991:
5990:
5987:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5975:Hadhrami Jews
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5962:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5940:Mountain Jews
5938:
5936:
5935:Egyptian Jews
5933:
5931:
5930:Bukharan Jews
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5912:
5911:
5908:
5904:
5901:
5900:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5868:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5855:
5852:
5851:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5823:
5820:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5807:
5806:
5803:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5760:
5759:
5756:
5755:
5753:
5751:
5747:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5729:
5726:
5725:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5718:Lists of Jews
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5685:
5683:
5681:
5677:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5627:
5625:
5623:
5619:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5586:
5581:
5579:
5574:
5572:
5567:
5566:
5563:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5530:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5484:
5483:
5477:
5472:
5468:
5466:1-59244-943-3
5462:
5457:
5456:
5450:
5445:
5441:
5439:0-87441-286-2
5435:
5430:
5429:
5422:
5418:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5390:
5385:
5384:
5377:
5373:
5372:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5357:9780815300762
5353:
5349:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5331:
5327:
5326:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5281:9781461940500
5277:
5272:
5271:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5251:
5247:
5246:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5209:1-57718-058-5
5205:
5201:
5200:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5173:
5168:
5167:
5161:
5157:
5152:
5148:
5146:9780874413151
5142:
5138:
5134:
5130:
5129:
5125:
5124:
5119:
5115:
5111:
5105:
5101:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5070:0-8074-0732-1
5066:
5059:
5058:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5032:
5028:
5027:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5001:
4994:
4988:
4981:
4980:
4975:
4969:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4949:
4947:
4939:
4933:
4926:
4920:
4918:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4897:
4890:
4889:9780827611337
4886:
4882:
4876:
4869:
4868:9780521529518
4865:
4861:
4855:
4848:
4847:9780878204670
4844:
4840:
4836:
4831:
4824:
4818:
4811:
4805:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4785:
4778:
4774:
4768:
4761:
4755:
4748:
4742:
4733:
4726:
4720:
4713:
4707:
4700:
4694:
4692:
4684:
4680:
4674:
4667:
4661:
4654:
4648:
4641:
4637:
4631:
4624:
4623:
4618:
4614:
4608:
4602:, p. ix, 180.
4601:
4595:
4588:
4582:
4575:
4569:
4567:
4559:
4555:
4550:
4543:
4537:
4530:
4524:
4516:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4492:
4485:
4481:
4480:, 1829, p. 57
4479:
4474:
4468:
4461:
4455:
4449:Meyer, p. 42.
4446:
4439:
4435:
4429:
4422:
4416:
4409:
4403:
4396:
4392:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4373:
4368:
4361:
4356:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4336:
4329:
4323:
4317:
4313:
4307:
4300:
4294:
4288:
4284:
4279:
4273:
4269:
4263:
4256:
4252:
4249:
4245:
4240:
4238:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4218:
4216:
4208:
4207:Aviad haCohen
4203:
4196:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4169:
4165:
4158:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4128:
4120:
4113:
4105:
4103:0-87820-214-5
4099:
4095:
4094:
4086:
4078:
4074:
4068:
4061:. 8 May 2012.
4060:
4054:
4046:
4040:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4016:
4009:
4005:
4004:
3997:
3990:
3984:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3964:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3940:
3934:
3927:
3926:9780253114129
3923:
3919:
3915:
3909:
3907:
3899:
3893:
3886:
3882:
3876:
3869:
3863:
3856:
3852:
3846:
3839:
3833:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3816:
3810:
3803:
3797:
3795:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3766:
3760:
3753:
3748:
3742:Meyer, p. 96.
3739:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3711:
3704:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3684:
3676:
3674:9780195051674
3670:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3654:
3646:
3644:9780815300762
3640:
3636:
3632:
3626:
3624:
3616:
3610:
3608:
3606:
3597:
3595:0-8160-5457-6
3591:
3587:
3583:
3582:
3577:
3570:
3568:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3549:9781461940500
3545:
3540:
3539:
3533:
3526:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3502:
3500:
3491:
3489:1-59244-943-3
3485:
3481:
3480:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3460:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3427:
3424:
3418:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3385:beliefs like
3384:
3380:
3376:
3371:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3360:prayer shawls
3357:
3352:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3274:Max Dienemann
3271:
3267:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3215:
3210:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3194:Emet ve-Emuna
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3078:German Empire
3075:
3067:
3063:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3024:
3018:
3016:
3012:
3006:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2995:Sabato Morais
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2964:
2963:panentheistic
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2884:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2860:David Einhorn
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2844:Samuel Hirsch
2840:
2837:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2814:
2809:
2802:
2801:David Einhorn
2797:
2790:
2786:
2777:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2758:
2756:
2753:, especially
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2723:
2717:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2689:
2687:
2681:
2677:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2662:
2658:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2610:
2604:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2469:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2424:, circa 1850.
2423:
2418:
2412:, circa 1840.
2411:
2406:
2397:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2369:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2358:Michael Sachs
2355:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2343:Isaac Bernays
2338:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2257:
2251:
2250:acculturation
2247:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2223:
2218:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2188:Baltic States
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2109:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2085:
2080:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1940:Denominations
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1908:
1907:
1899:
1895:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1874:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1822:stated that "
1821:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1807:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1765:
1757:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1655:head covering
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1551:
1550:, covenant".
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1527:David Einhorn
1524:
1519:
1517:
1516:Messianic Age
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1410:
1408:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1373:
1370:, founder of
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1308:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1245:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1203:North America
1200:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1136:, is a major
1135:
1131:
1127:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1104:
1102:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1093:
1088:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1011:
1010:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
984:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
962:
958:
952:
951:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
913:Rosh Hashanah
911:
910:
906:
900:
899:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
833:
829:
823:
822:
815:
812:
810:
807:
806:
801:
800:
796:
794:
793:
789:
787:
786:
782:
780:
779:
775:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
728:
720:
719:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
698:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
665:
661:
657:
651:
650:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
604:
600:
594:
593:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
553:
551:
547:
546:
542:
541:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
519:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
480:
476:
470:
469:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
428:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
405:
401:
397:
391:
390:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
337:Mishneh Torah
335:
334:
330:
324:
323:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
295:
293:
290:
289:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
267:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
248:
246:
243:
242:
238:
232:
231:
224:
221:
217:
214:
213:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
183:
179:
173:
172:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
141:
138:
135:
131:
128:
127:
126:
123:
122:
117:
114:
110:
107:
106:
105:
102:
101:
99:
96:
95:
91:
85:
84:
80:
74:
68:
64:
63:
60:
57:
56:
52:
48:
47:
42:in the world.
41:
37:
32:
19:
18:Reform Jewish
7220:
7213:
7199:
7122:
7115:
7103:
7086:
7069:
6903:perspectives
6737:Samaritanism
6698:Neo-Hasidism
6682:
6678:Conservative
6592:Names of God
6501:
6482:
6292:Judaeo-Greek
6287:Judeo-Gascon
6226:Lishán Didán
6221:Lishana Deni
6189:Judeo-Yemeni
6157:Judeo-Arabic
6031:Meshuchrarim
5950:Persian Jews
5883:Kurdish Jews
5861:Kaifeng Jews
5810:Beta Abraham
5773:Galitzianers
5728:Antisemitism
5703:Israeli Jews
5688:Assimilation
5528:
5481:
5454:
5427:
5406:
5394:0-06066801-6
5382:
5370:
5347:
5324:
5301:
5269:
5244:
5221:
5198:
5165:
5136:
5099:
5082:
5056:
5039:
5005:
5000:
4992:
4987:
4977:
4968:
4960:
4956:
4937:
4932:
4924:
4909:First Things
4904:
4896:
4880:
4875:
4859:
4854:
4849:. pp. 68–80.
4838:
4830:
4822:
4817:
4809:
4804:
4789:
4784:
4776:
4772:
4767:
4759:
4754:
4746:
4741:
4732:
4724:
4719:
4711:
4706:
4698:
4682:
4678:
4673:
4665:
4660:
4652:
4651:Lowenstein,
4647:
4639:
4635:
4630:
4620:
4612:
4607:
4599:
4594:
4586:
4581:
4573:
4557:
4549:
4541:
4536:
4528:
4523:
4504:
4491:
4482:. See also:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4459:
4454:
4445:
4428:
4420:
4415:
4410:, pp. 16–22.
4407:
4402:
4379:
4367:
4355:
4343:
4335:
4322:
4311:
4306:
4298:
4293:
4282:
4278:
4267:
4262:
4226:
4202:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4172:. Retrieved
4167:
4157:
4145:. Retrieved
4140:
4136:
4127:
4119:Toronto Star
4118:
4112:
4092:
4085:
4076:
4067:
4053:
4039:
4031:
4015:
4007:
4001:
3996:
3988:
3983:
3975:
3971:
3963:
3955:
3951:
3946:
3938:
3933:
3928:. pp. 59–65.
3913:
3897:
3892:
3880:
3875:
3867:
3862:
3854:
3850:
3845:
3837:
3832:
3822:
3809:
3801:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3764:
3759:
3754:, pp. 34–36.
3751:
3747:
3738:
3730:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3710:
3700:
3692:
3688:
3683:
3663:
3653:
3634:
3614:
3580:
3537:
3510:
3478:
3463:
3441:
3419:
3410:Stacy Offner
3403:
3372:
3364:Sherwin Wine
3353:
3313:
3286:
3263:
3254:
3236:, he viewed
3219:
3193:
3161:Nazi Germany
3154:
3138:
3122:Consistorial
3118:Unitarianism
3106:Lily Montagu
3099:
3094:
3081:
3071:
3043:High Holiday
3027:
3019:
3007:
2967:
2934:
2931:
2917:
2913:
2895:
2888:Philadelphia
2885:
2876:Isaac Leeser
2868:
2848:Samuel Adler
2841:
2833:
2820:
2818:
2759:
2727:Wissenschaft
2726:
2720:
2713:
2690:
2682:
2678:
2670:
2664:
2656:
2653:
2637:Moshe Schick
2634:
2607:
2605:
2598:
2595:Aaron Chorin
2583:Braunschweig
2575:
2566:
2562:
2551:
2545:preacher in
2526:
2521:
2517:
2505:
2486:
2472:
2466:
2464:
2458:; and up to
2452:Wissenschaft
2451:
2437:
2427:
2374:
2339:
2331:Aaron Chorin
2324:
2288:
2254:
2243:
2226:
2160:
2128:
2110:
2093:
1999:South Africa
1896:
1892:
1879:Conservative
1871:
1860:
1852:intermarried
1841:
1823:
1814:
1804:
1801:
1786:
1774:Regina Jonas
1770:Lily Montagu
1766:
1763:
1752:, or to the
1742:
1725:confirmation
1714:
1694:Circumcision
1691:
1673:purity, the
1647:phylacteries
1636:
1620:
1614:
1610:
1607:phylacteries
1604:
1600:
1583:
1557:
1547:
1520:
1497:
1493:Unitarianism
1481:
1471:
1464:Walter Jacob
1453:
1444:
1442:
1434:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1411:
1404:
1387:Martin Buber
1379:World War II
1376:
1353:
1343:As in other
1342:
1314:
1297:
1285:personal God
1278:
1263:
1257:
1253:
1242:
1239:
1207:
1198:
1192:
1185:emancipation
1174:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1124:
1047:Anti-Judaism
1042:Antisemitism
987:Samaritanism
965:Christianity
866:Shehecheyanu
797:
790:
783:
776:
771:Four species
678:Pidyon haben
632:Rosh yeshiva
543:
436:Beth midrash
382:Noahide laws
136:
125:Conservative
7145:Catholicism
6727:Hellenistic
6565:Eschatology
6503:Lachoudisch
6428:Lotegorisch
6406:Lachoudisch
6396:Koiné Greek
6309:Judeo-Latin
6246:Palestinian
6140:Palestinian
5989:Mustaʿravim
5915:Afghan Jews
5903:Berber Jews
5827:Bene Israel
5815:Falash Mura
5805:Beta Israel
5723:Persecution
5665:Middle Ages
5029:Sourcebooks
4434:"Orthodoxy"
4228:The Forward
3824:The Forward
3726:, 136–142.;
3337:Tikkun Olam
3309:Bar Mitzvah
3146:Netherlands
2970:Felix Adler
2959:Felix Adler
2823:. In 1836,
2821:Beth Elohim
2614:Jewish oath
2385:Isaac Harby
2381:Beth Elohim
2379:synagogue "
2354:Stadttempel
2156:Denise Eger
2014:Netherlands
1824:Tikkun Olam
1815:Tikkun Olam
1806:Tikkun Olam
1797:Transgender
1738:Bat Mitzvah
1730:Bar Mitzvah
1721:Eduard Kley
1561:Zoroastrian
1531:Ninth of Av
1468:Moshe Zemer
1236:Definitions
1199:Tikkun olam
1194:tikkun olam
1156:. A highly
1154:Mount Sinai
731:Sefer Torah
693:Bereavement
673:Zeved habat
456:Holy Temple
396:Holy cities
130:Conservadox
7140:Anabaptism
7082:Jew (word)
6949:Leadership
6762:Literature
6747:Secularism
6693:Humanistic
6560:Conversion
6530:Philosophy
6371:Judeo-Urdu
6135:Babylonian
5980:Saada Jews
5965:Adeni Jews
5758:Ashkenazim
5713:Samaritans
5680:Population
5635:Israelites
5416:0334029481
5335:0870682792
5231:0813532191
5109:0313246289
4798:0853033765
4374:, urj.org.
3896:Borowitz,
3813:See also:
3767:, pp. 131.
3513:. London:
3455:References
3444:(magazine)
3230:Ahad Ha'am
3035:East Coast
3030:a fortiori
2937:(1876) by
2918:Olat Tamid
2609:Kol Nidrei
2479:Oral Torah
2456:Pentateuch
2377:Charleston
2240:" passage.
2211:Beginnings
1889:Conversion
1633:Observance
1536:Ahad Ha'am
1500:Messianism
1317:revelation
1311:Revelation
1216:(MRJ) and
1166:Jewish law
1160:strand of
1146:revelation
918:Yom Kippur
461:Tabernacle
206:Chosenness
178:Philosophy
159:Humanistic
7202:indicate
7150:Mormonism
7135:Christian
7015:Symbolism
7003:Synagogue
6983:Mythology
6944:Education
6915:Astronomy
6898:Astrology
6715:relations
6520:Zarphatic
6468:Galitzish
6270:Yeshivish
6147:Catalanic
6110:Samaritan
6085:Ashkenazi
6066:Diasporic
6061:Languages
6006:Sephardim
6001:Romaniote
5888:Krymchaks
5822:Desi Jews
5698:Buddhists
5290:857493257
5220:(2005) .
5188:(2003) .
5008:. p. 89;
4685:, p. 200.
4655:, p. 256.
4653:The 1840s
4589:, p. 135.
4301:, p. 425.
4174:9 January
4147:9 January
3991:, p. 106.
3978:, p. 217.
3722:, p. 36;
3718:, p. 29;
3558:857493257
3383:syncretic
3289:Holocaust
3270:Leo Baeck
3251:Chernihiv
3198:Jerusalem
3190:São Paulo
3178:Australia
3174:Melbourne
3100:In 1902,
3082:Zeitgeist
2920:(Regular
2880:Cleveland
2666:substance
2600:Sanhedrin
2529:Wiesbaden
2522:testimony
2518:chronicle
2495:Pharisees
2432:imported
2280:Sephardic
2276:Ashkenazi
2273:Amsterdam
2238:unto Zion
1818:Judaism.
1512:salvation
1291:and even
1289:religious
1150:Theophany
1037:Criticism
1002:Pluralism
980:Mormonism
886:Kol Nidre
660:education
585:Acharonim
431:Synagogue
408:Jerusalem
90:Movements
40:synagogue
7245:Category
7215:Category
7185:Hinduism
7175:Buddhism
7077:Genetics
6993:Politics
6966:Marriage
6925:Holidays
6920:Calendar
6801:Rabbinic
6777:/Hebrew
6722:Haymanot
6649:Orthodox
6636:Branches
6609:Kabbalah
6604:Haskalah
6582:Holiness
6458:dialects
6438:Shassagh
6401:Krymchak
6381:Kayliñña
6275:Yinglish
6251:Galilean
6241:Talmudic
6236:Biblical
6211:Betanure
6130:Biblical
6125:Mishnaic
6120:Medieval
6105:Tiberian
6100:Yemenite
6090:Sephardi
6026:Paradesi
5970:Ḥabbanim
5960:Teimanim
5925:Baghdadi
5898:Maghrebi
5866:Karaites
5844:Gruzínim
5832:Kochinim
5750:Diaspora
5708:Karaites
5693:Atheists
5630:Timeline
5531:magazine
5478:(eds.).
5451:(eds.).
5405:(2004).
5368:(1907).
5300:(2017).
5266:(2013).
5242:(2009).
5135:(1996).
5118:26212515
5091:39869725
5081:(1963).
5054:(2001).
5004:Kaplan,
4991:Kaplan,
4923:Kaplan,
4760:Response
4683:Response
4666:Response
4636:Response
4600:Response
4542:Response
4473:Response
4460:Response
4408:Response
4391:Archived
4314:, 1871.
4299:Response
4251:Archived
3987:Kaplan,
3920:(1983),
3763:Kaplan,
3714:Kaplan,
3687:Kaplan,
3661:(1988).
3534:(2013).
3509:(1995).
3476:(eds.).
3430:See also
3329:theistic
3305:Cold War
3242:Election
3049:and the
2972:and his
2722:yeshivas
2709:1876 law
2697:Augsburg
2686:piyyutim
2622:Napoleon
2503:Mishnaic
2499:Saducees
2471:and the
2256:maskilim
2056:Category
1883:Orthodox
1760:Openness
1702:ablution
1675:priestly
1671:personal
1575:Practice
1460:responsa
1445:halakhic
1435:halachic
1427:halachic
1407:Prophets
1281:theistic
1270:Theology
1244:halakhic
1067:Muhammad
970:Hinduism
943:Hanukkah
881:Tachanun
876:Havdalah
741:Tefillin
688:Marriage
580:Rishonim
566:Savoraim
423:Tiberias
372:Tzedakah
292:Rabbinic
191:Kabbalah
164:Haymanot
98:Orthodox
51:a series
49:Part of
7200:Italics
7025:Studies
6971:Divorce
6937:Kashrut
6932:Cuisine
6890:Culture
6821:Midrash
6816:Tosefta
6806:Mishnah
6794:Ketuvim
6789:Nevi'im
6752:Schisms
6742:Science
6732:Karaite
6703:Renewal
6664:Litvaks
6659:Hasidic
6614:Sefirot
6599:Halakha
6570:Messiah
6543:Mitzvah
6538:Beliefs
6492:Western
6478:Poylish
6473:Litvish
6463:Eastern
6453:Yiddish
6448:Shuadit
6433:Qwareña
6421:Tetuani
6416:Haketia
6391:Knaanic
6386:Kivruli
6334:Bukhori
6280:Heblish
6216:Hulaulá
6206:Barzani
6162:Yahudic
6095:Mizrahi
5955:Urfalim
5910:Mizrahi
5854:Neofiti
5849:Italkim
5778:Lita'im
5670:Zionism
5622:History
5596:Judaism
5126:Studies
4771:Meyer,
4758:Meyer,
4677:Meyer,
4664:Meyer,
4634:Meyer,
4598:Meyer,
4585:Meyer,
4540:Meyer,
4503:(ed.).
4471:Meyer,
4458:Meyer,
4406:Meyer,
4316:p. 261.
4297:Meyer,
3297:Bundism
3255:halakha
3051:Midwest
3039:shofars
3023:Israeli
2770:Karaite
2747:Moravia
2743:Bohemia
2693:Leipzig
2591:Breslau
2578:Vormärz
2567:memonot
2563:issurim
2547:Breslau
2506:halakha
2487:halakha
2474:Amoraim
2468:Tannaim
2349:of the
2316:Messiah
2314:by the
2206:History
2200:Belarus
2196:Ukraine
2046:Project
2009:Germany
1985:Liberal
1935:Judaism
1881:or the
1734:Shavuot
1706:mikvehs
1667:dietary
1651:mantles
1611:Gevorot
1580:Liturgy
1472:Halakha
1415:Kantian
1162:Judaism
1158:liberal
1027:Zionism
933:Shavuot
851:Kaddish
828:Prayers
761:Menorah
756:Mezuzah
746:Tzitzit
701:Yeshiva
656:Culture
561:Amoraim
556:Tannaim
527:Rebecca
515:Solomon
483:Abraham
362:Kashrut
313:Tosefta
308:Midrash
298:Mishnah
280:Piyutim
261:Ketuvim
256:Nevi'im
196:Messiah
154:Renewal
144:Karaite
109:Hasidic
59:Judaism
7008:Hazzan
6998:Prayer
6875:Siddur
6811:Talmud
6775:Tanakh
6710:Neolog
6683:Reform
6671:Modern
6654:Haredi
6577:Ethics
6443:Shassi
6411:Ladino
6376:Karaim
6359:Juhuri
6201:Targum
6115:Signed
6080:Modern
6075:Hebrew
6043:Xuetes
5839:Dönmeh
5798:Yekkes
5463:
5436:
5413:
5391:
5354:
5332:
5308:
5288:
5278:
5252:
5228:
5206:
5174:
5143:
5116:
5106:
5089:
5067:
4887:
4866:
4845:
4796:
4511:
4100:
4006:, in:
3924:
3671:
3641:
3592:
3556:
3546:
3521:
3486:
3184:. The
3124:rabbi
2949:, and
2871:Albany
2811:Rabbi
2799:Rabbi
2735:Warsaw
2731:Odessa
2533:Talmud
2420:Rabbi
2408:Rabbi
2362:Prague
2351:Vienna
2303:Seesen
2192:Russia
2051:Portal
2019:France
2004:Israel
1980:Reform
1961:Reform
1873:chupah
1508:Temple
1455:minhag
1032:Israel
928:Pesach
923:Sukkot
871:Hallel
856:Minyan
846:Aleinu
841:Amidah
814:Gartel
809:Kittel
792:Hadass
766:Shofar
751:Kippah
736:Tallit
711:Cheder
706:Kollel
622:Hazzan
575:Geonim
550:Chazal
532:Rachel
446:Sukkah
441:Mikveh
418:Hebron
400:places
377:Niddah
367:Tzniut
303:Talmud
275:Siddur
270:Ḥumash
245:Tanakh
201:Ethics
137:Reform
116:Modern
104:Haredi
76:
70:
7180:Islam
6988:Names
6978:Music
6959:Rebbe
6954:Rabbi
6908:Monen
6863:Zohar
6784:Torah
6779:Bible
5893:Lemba
5768:Chuts
5192:. In
5061:(PDF)
3939:Today
3450:Notes
3387:Jewbu
3226:Minsk
3047:South
2908:, at
2269:Deism
1548:B'rit
1485:Deism
1325:Torah
1062:Jesus
1057:Music
975:Islam
938:Purim
836:Shema
799:Arava
785:Lulav
778:Etrog
642:Kohen
637:Mohel
627:Dayan
617:Posek
612:Rebbe
607:Rabbi
522:Sarah
510:David
505:Aaron
500:Moses
493:Jacob
488:Isaac
413:Safed
285:Zohar
251:Torah
237:Texts
216:Names
5594:and
5592:Jews
5461:ISBN
5434:ISBN
5411:ISBN
5389:ISBN
5352:ISBN
5330:ISBN
5306:ISBN
5286:OCLC
5276:ISBN
5250:ISBN
5226:ISBN
5204:ISBN
5172:ISBN
5141:ISBN
5114:OCLC
5104:ISBN
5087:OCLC
5065:ISBN
4885:ISBN
4864:ISBN
4843:ISBN
4794:ISBN
4509:ISBN
4176:2024
4149:2024
4098:ISBN
3922:ISBN
3669:ISBN
3639:ISBN
3590:ISBN
3554:OCLC
3544:ISBN
3519:ISBN
3484:ISBN
3389:and
3287:The
3232:and
3108:and
2957:and
2695:and
2643:and
2589:and
2356:and
2335:Arad
2318:and
2263:and
2248:and
2198:and
2186:and
2165:and
2031:MJLF
2026:ULIF
1930:Jews
1789:LGBT
1669:and
1538:and
1491:and
1466:and
1389:and
1022:Jews
668:Brit
658:and
537:Leah
6587:God
4168:Out
4141:117
3299:or
3196:in
3188:of
2897:get
2745:or
2733:or
2620:to
2360:in
2333:of
2184:CIS
1710:Pew
1696:or
1653:or
1385:of
1275:God
1152:at
1132:or
342:Tur
329:Law
211:God
7247::
5409:.
5284:.
5158:;
5112:.
5050:;
5012:.
4976:,
4955:,
4945:^
4916:^
4907:,
4903:,
4837:,
4690:^
4619:,
4565:^
4556:,
4436:,
4346:,
4342:,
4246:,
4236:^
4225:,
4214:^
4166:.
4139:.
4135:.
4075:.
4030:,
4026:,
4022:,
3916:,
3905:^
3821:,
3817:,
3793:^
3699:,
3622:^
3604:^
3578:.
3566:^
3552:.
3498:^
3397:.
3343:,
3272:,
3136:.
3005:.
2945:,
2854:,
2850:,
2846:,
2776:.
2757:.
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