20:
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significantly over the past few decades. Now, with many experts in these fields approaching retirement age, action is needed to avoid a workforce gap in these critical fields, for example by building student interest in these careers, expanding the educational capacity of universities and colleges, and providing more specific on-the-job training.
604:
Nuclear and
Radiochemistry (NRC) is mostly being taught at the university level, usually first at the Master- and PhD-degree level. In Europe, substantial effort is being done to harmonize and prepare the NRC education for the industry's and society's future needs. This effort is being coordinated in
600:
Despite the growing use of nuclear medicine, the potential expansion of nuclear power plants, and worries about protection against nuclear threats and the management of the nuclear waste generated in past decades, the number of students opting to specialize in nuclear and radiochemistry has decreased
412:
While binding of a metal to the surfaces of the soil particles can prevent its movement through a layer of soil, it is possible for the particles of soil that bear the radioactive metal can migrate as colloidal particles through the soil. This has been shown to occur using soil particles labeled with
248:
to allow the radioactivity due to the matrix elements to decay before the measurement of the radioactivity. Since the matrix effect can be corrected by observing the decay spectrum, little or no sample preparation is required for some samples, making neutron activation analysis less susceptible to
326:
work, the isotope S was used, while for polonium Po was used. In some related work by the addition of Co to the bacterial culture, followed by isolation of the cobalamin from the bacteria (and the measurement of the radioactivity of the isolated cobalamin) it was shown that the bacteria convert
196:
Alpha can be stopped quite easily by a few centimetres of air or a piece of paper and is equivalent to a helium nucleus. Beta can be cut off by an aluminium sheet just a few millimetres thick and are electrons. Gamma is the most penetrating of the three and is a massless chargeless high-energy
330:
In medicine PET (Positron
Emission Tomography) scans are commonly used for diagnostic purposes in. A radiative tracer is injected intravenously into the patient and then taken to the PET machine. The radioactive tracer releases radiation outward from the patient and the cameras in the machine
331:
interpret the radiation rays from the tracer. PET scan machines use solid state scintillation detection because of their high detection efficiency, NaI(Tl) crystals absorb the tracer's radiation and produce photons that get converted into an electrical signal for the machine to analyze.
425:, one kilogram of soil typically contains the following amounts of the following three natural radioisotopes 370 Bq K (typical range 100–700 Bq), 25 Bq Ra (typical range 10–50 Bq), 25 Bq U (typical range 10–50 Bq) and 25 Bq Th (typical range 7–50 Bq).
855:
David L. Clark, Steven D. Conradson, D. Webster Keogh
Phillip D. Palmer Brian L. Scott and C. Drew Tait, "Identification of the Limiting Species in the Plutonium(IV) Carbonate System. Solid State and Solution Molecular Structure of the Ion",
339:
Radiochemistry also includes the study of the behaviour of radioisotopes in the environment; for instance, a forest or grass fire can make radioisotopes mobile again. In these experiments, fires were started in the exclusion zone around
799:
R. Pöllänen, M. E. Ketterer, S. Lehto, M. Hokkanen, T. K. Ikäheimonen, T. Siiskonen, M. Moring, M. P. Rubio
Montero and A. MartĂn Sánchez, "Multi-technique characterization of a nuclearbomb particle from the Palomares accident",
936:
Yul Roh, Shi V. Liu, Guangshan Li, Heshu Huang, Tommy J. Phelps, and
Jizhong Zhou, "Isolation and Characterization of Metal-Reducing Thermoanaerobacter Strains from Deep Subsurface Environments of the Piceance Basin, Colorado",
890:
M. C. Duff, D. B. Hunter, I. R. Triay, P. M. Bertsch, D. T. Reed, S. R. Sutton, G. Shea-McCarthy, J. Kitten, P. Eng, S. J. Chipera, and D. T. Vaniman, "Mineral
Associations and Average Oxidation States of Sorbed Pu on Tuff",
372:
and as a result, many different oxidation states can coexist at once. Some work has been done on the identification of the oxidation state and coordination number of plutonium and the other actinides under different
351:
on the air is responsible for the formation of radioisotopes (such as C and P), the decay of Ra forms Rn which is a gas which can diffuse through rocks before entering buildings and dissolve in water and thus enter
605:
projects funded by the
Coordinated Action supported by the European Atomic Energy Community's 7th Framework Program: The CINCH-II project - Cooperation in education and training In Nuclear Chemistry.
276:-32. In these experiments, stable phosphorus is replaced by the chemically identical radioactive P-32, and the resulting radioactivity is used in the analysis of the molecules and their behaviour.
252:
The effects of a series of different cooling times can be seen if a hypothetical sample that contains sodium, uranium, and cobalt in a 100:10:1 ratio was subjected to a very short pulse of
240:
A series of different experimental methods exist, these have been designed to enable the measurement of a range of different elements in different matrices. To reduce the effect of the
654:
N. Momoshima, Li-X. Song, S. Osaki and Y. Maeda, "Formation and emission of volatile polonium compound by microbial activity and polonium methylation with methylcobalamin",
873:
Jörg Rothe, Clemens
Walther, Melissa A. Denecke, and Th. Fanghänel, "XAFS and LIBD Investigation of the Formation and Structure of Colloidal Pu(IV) Hydrolysis Products ",
260:
15 h) but with increasing time the Np (half-life 2.4 d after formation from parent U with half-life 24 min) and finally the Co activity (5.3 yr) would predominate.
925:"Generic Procedures for Assessment and Response during a Radiological Emergency", International Atomic Energy Agency TECDOC Series number 1162, published in 2000
708:(2006) Resuspension and redistribution of radionuclides during grassland and forest fires in the Chernobyl exclusion zone: part I. Fire experiments
1025:
368:
The environmental chemistry of some radioactive elements such as plutonium is complicated by the fact that solutions of this element can undergo
908:
R. D. Whicker and S. A. Ibrahim, "Vertical migration of Cs bearing soil particles in arid soils: implications for plutonium redistribution",
1126:
225:
irradiation of objects, it is possible to induce radioactivity; this activation of stable isotopes to create radioisotopes is the basis of
1131:
520:
401:
46:
of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being
347:
It is important to note that a vast number of processes can release radioactivity into the environment, for example, the action of
1109:
1153:
980:
1165:
1104:
1018:
834:
P. G. Allen, J. J. Bucher, D. K. Shuh, N. M. Edelstein, and T. Reich, "Investigation of Aquo and Chloro
Complexes of UO
422:
782:
M. Forte, R. Rusconi, M. T. Cazzaniga and G. Sgorbati, "The measurement of radioactivity in
Italian drinking waters".
689:
1970:
1849:
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954:
Joanna C. Renshaw, Laura J. C. Butchins, Francis R. Livens, Iain May, John M. Charnock, and Jonathan R. Lloyd,
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can act as electron donors for the metabolism of the bacteria. In this way, the metals can be reduced to form
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403:
226:
1997:
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Janja VaupotiÄŤ and Ivan Kobal, "Effective doses in schools based on nanosize radon progeny aerosols",
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N. Momoshima, Li-X. Song, S. Osaki and Y. Maeda, "Biologically induced Po emission from fresh water",
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1992:
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392:, in these systems the chemical properties of plutonium have been studied using methods such as
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179:
360:, accidents, and normal releases from industry have resulted in the release of radioactivity.
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water forms a volatile polonium compound, while a control experiment that did not contain the
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These three types of radiation can be distinguished by their difference in penetrating power.
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Paolo Boffetta, "Human cancer from environmental pollutants: The epidemiological evidence",
310:) alkylates these elements to create the dimethyls. It has been shown that a combination of
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229:. A high-energy most interesting object which has been studied in this way is the hair of
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Radioactivity is present everywhere on Earth since its formation. According to the
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Another example is the work that was done on the methylation of elements such as
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This includes work on both solutions of relatively simple complexes and work on
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517:). Other researchers have also worked on the fixing of uranium using bacteria
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Radiochemistry includes the study of both natural and man-made radioisotopes.
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186:) from the nucleus of an atom. This usually occurs during alpha or beta
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where the radiation levels are kept too low to influence the chemistry.
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can convert these elements into volatile compounds, it is thought that
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838:, NpO, Np, and Pu by X-ray Absorption Fine Structure Spectroscopy",
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256:. The initial radioactivity would be dominated by the Na activity (
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Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis
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is not converted to an insoluble neptunium oxide by the bacteria.
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it is common to use the chemical extraction of the wanted element
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973:
Assuring a Future U.S.-Based Nuclear and Radiochemistry Expertise
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201:. Gamma radiation requires an appreciable amount of heavy metal
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compound did not form the volatile polonium compound. For the
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752:, "Indoor air pollution caused by geothermal gases", 2006,
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93:. The radiation emitted can be of several types including
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and the radioactivity in the air downwind was measured.
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Cs, these are able to move through cracks in the soil.
975:. Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology. 2012.
552:is that the bacteria reduce the uranyl cations to
453:(IV), and uranium(VI) as electron acceptors while
132:(which contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons) from an
363:
42:of elements are used to study the properties and
1984:
564:which then undergoes disproportionation to form
54:). Much of radiochemistry deals with the use of
672:Saha, Gopal B. (2010). "PET Scanning Systems".
433:The action of micro-organisms can fix uranium;
1019:
295:by living organisms. It has been shown that
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268:One biological application is the study of
1026:
1012:
676:. Springer, New York, NY. pp. 19–39.
1033:
233:'s head, which has been examined for its
819:Journal of the American Chemical Society
18:
620:H. Smith, S. Forshufvud and A. Wassén,
407:
327:available cobalt into methylcobalamin.
263:
1985:
939:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
910:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
802:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
639:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
356:In addition, human activities such as
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1007:
532:) have suggested that the reason why
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671:
656:Environmental Science and Technology
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1965:
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423:International Atomic Energy Agency
16:Chemistry of radioactive materials
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2014:
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213:-based) to reduce its intensity.
140:will decrease by 4 units and the
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136:. When this occurs, the atom's
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364:Chemical form of the actinides
62:. This is very different from
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1293:Interface and colloid science
1047:Glossary of chemical formulae
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38:materials, where radioactive
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380:Two of the key matrixes are
7:
1570:Bioorganometallic chemistry
1057:List of inorganic compounds
682:10.1007/978-1-4419-0805-6_2
227:neutron activation analysis
10:
2019:
1496:Dynamic covalent chemistry
1467:Enantioselective synthesis
1447:Physical organic chemistry
1400:Organolanthanide chemistry
314:and inorganic polonium in
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121:emission decay pathways.
1840:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1756:Supramolecular chemistry
1395:Organometallic chemistry
750:Building and Environment
534:Geobacter sulfurreducens
429:Action of microorganisms
1778:Combinatorial chemistry
1689:Food physical chemistry
1652:Environmental chemistry
1536:Bioorthogonal chemistry
1462:Retrosynthetic analysis
1283:Chemical thermodynamics
1266:Spectroelectrochemistry
1209:Computational chemistry
733:Atmospheric Environment
1850:of element discoveries
1696:Agricultural chemistry
1684:Carbohydrate chemistry
1575:Bioinorganic chemistry
1440:Alkane stereochemistry
1385:Coordination chemistry
1214:Mathematical chemistry
1080:Instrumental chemistry
956:Environ. Sci. Technol.
893:Environ. Sci. Technol.
180:electromagnetic energy
89:and emit some form of
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1845:Timeline of chemistry
1742:Post-mortem chemistry
1727:Clandestine chemistry
1657:Atmospheric chemistry
1580:Biophysical chemistry
1412:Solid-state chemistry
1362:Equilibrium chemistry
1271:Photoelectrochemistry
784:Microchemical Journal
674:Basics of PET Imaging
22:
1835:History of chemistry
1790:Chemical engineering
1565:Bioorganic chemistry
1315:Structural chemistry
1052:List of biomolecules
524:, Francis R. Livens
408:Movement of colloids
264:Biology applications
144:will decrease by 2.
128:—the emission of an
113:emission along with
50:as the isotopes are
1858:The central science
1812:Ceramic engineering
1737:Forensic toxicology
1710:Chemistry education
1608:Radiation chemistry
1590:Interdisciplinarity
1543:Medicinal chemistry
1481:Fullerene chemistry
1357:Microwave chemistry
1226:Molecular mechanics
1221:Molecular modelling
875:Inorganic Chemistry
858:Inorganic Chemistry
840:Inorganic Chemistry
217:Activation analysis
203:radiation shielding
176:Îł (gamma) radiation
126:α (alpha) radiation
64:radiation chemistry
1901:Chemical substance
1763:Chemical synthesis
1732:Forensic chemistry
1613:Actinide chemistry
1555:Clinical chemistry
1236:Molecular geometry
1231:Molecular dynamics
1186:Elemental analysis
1139:Separation process
435:Thermoanaerobacter
370:disproportionation
272:using radioactive
149:β (beta) radiation
60:chemical reactions
58:to study ordinary
44:chemical reactions
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1998:Nuclear chemistry
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1720:General chemistry
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1598:Nuclear chemistry
1519:Molecular biology
1486:Polymer chemistry
1457:Organic synthesis
1452:Organic reactions
1417:Ceramic chemistry
1407:Cluster chemistry
1337:Chemical kinetics
1325:Molecular physics
1204:Quantum chemistry
1117:Mass spectrometry
982:978-0-309-22534-2
628:(26 May), 725–726
417:Normal background
188:radioactive decay
178:—the emission of
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1923:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1906:Chemical bond
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1800:
1796:
1795:Stoichiometry
1793:
1792:
1791:
1788:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1751:Nanochemistry
1749:
1748:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1476:Semisynthesis
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1310:Sonochemistry
1308:
1306:
1305:Cryochemistry
1303:
1299:
1298:Micromeritics
1296:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1176:Wet chemistry
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1037:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1017:
1015:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1000:
997:
996:
984:
978:
974:
968:
961:
957:
951:
944:
940:
933:
927:
922:
915:
911:
905:
898:
894:
887:
880:
876:
870:
863:
859:
852:
845:
841:
831:
824:
820:
814:
807:
803:
796:
789:
785:
779:
772:
768:
762:
755:
751:
745:
738:
734:
728:
722:
718:
714:
711:
707:
704:Yoschenko VI
701:
693:
691:9781441908049
687:
683:
679:
675:
668:
661:
657:
651:
644:
640:
634:
627:
623:
617:
613:
606:
602:
593:
551:
535:
531:
527:
523:
521:
519:
512:
504:
503:rhodochrosite
496:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
426:
424:
414:
405:
404:
402:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
361:
359:
355:
350:
345:
343:
335:Environmental
332:
328:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
277:
275:
271:
261:
259:
255:
250:
247:
243:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
194:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
153:transmutation
150:
145:
143:
142:atomic number
139:
135:
131:
127:
122:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
87:nuclear decay
84:
80:
70:
67:
65:
61:
57:
56:radioactivity
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
21:
1969:
1957:
1945:
1933:
1783:Biosynthesis
1633:Geochemistry
1602:
1548:Pharmacology
1524:Cell biology
1514:Biochemistry
1342:Spectroscopy
1241:VSEPR theory
1090:Spectroscopy
1034:Branches of
972:
967:
959:
955:
950:
945:, 6013–6020.
942:
938:
932:
921:
913:
909:
904:
896:
892:
886:
878:
874:
869:
861:
857:
851:
843:
839:
830:
822:
818:
813:
805:
801:
795:
787:
783:
778:
770:
766:
761:
753:
749:
744:
736:
732:
727:
712:
709:
705:
700:
673:
667:
659:
655:
650:
642:
638:
633:
625:
621:
616:
603:
599:
533:
528:(Working at
525:
432:
420:
411:
367:
346:
338:
329:
278:
267:
251:
245:
239:
220:
195:
192:
173:
146:
123:
119:antiparticle
76:
68:
51:
47:
27:
26:
1971:WikiProject
1196:Theoretical
1181:Calorimetry
899:, 2163–2169
881:, 4708–4718
864:, 2893–2899
846:, 4676–4683
825:, 6350–6353
756:, 1607–1610
739:, 7494–7507
662:, 2956–2960
548:cations to
536:can reduce
373:conditions.
349:cosmic rays
138:atomic mass
36:radioactive
1987:Categories
1807:Metallurgy
1506:Biological
1072:Analytical
916:, 171–188.
609:References
530:Manchester
358:bomb tests
312:Cobaloxime
274:phosphorus
184:gamma rays
1869:Catalysis
1377:Inorganic
1171:Titration
1036:chemistry
773:, 157–162
645:, 187–197
596:Education
511:uraninite
483:magnetite
475:succinate
451:manganese
342:Chernobyl
305:vitamin B
289:tellurium
258:half-life
237:content.
205:(usually
182:(such as
91:radiation
32:chemistry
1935:Category
1891:Molecule
1828:See also
1253:Physical
958:, 2005,
941:, 2002,
912:, 2006,
895:, 1999,
877:, 2004,
860:, 1998,
842:, 1997,
821:, 1957,
804:, 2006,
790:, 98–102
786:, 2007,
769:, 2006,
735:, 2006,
721:16213067
715::143–63
658:, 2001,
641:, 2002,
624:, 1962,
495:siderite
471:pyruvate
463:hydrogen
439:chromium
437:can use
390:concrete
378:colloids
297:bacteria
293:polonium
285:selenium
231:Napoleon
161:electron
159:into an
115:neutrino
83:elements
79:isotopes
48:inactive
40:isotopes
23:Glovebox
1947:Commons
1911:Alchemy
1427:Organic
808:, 15–28
509:), and
467:lactate
459:glucose
455:acetate
449:(III),
445:(III),
316:sterile
235:arsenic
223:neutron
157:neutron
111:neutron
30:is the
1959:Portal
1105:UV-Vis
979:
719:
706:et al.
688:
622:Nature
576:and UO
526:et al.
479:xylose
477:, and
447:cobalt
441:(VI),
324:sulfur
320:cobalt
291:, and
281:sulfur
246:and/or
242:matrix
211:barium
199:photon
165:proton
163:and a
109:, and
107:proton
52:stable
1132:MALDI
1100:Raman
505:(MnCO
497:(FeCO
398:XANES
394:EXAFS
386:rocks
155:of a
151:—the
95:alpha
1886:Atom
1154:HPLC
977:ISBN
717:PMID
686:ISBN
443:iron
396:and
388:and
382:soil
207:lead
117:and
99:beta
1896:Ion
1127:ICP
1110:NMR
771:608
678:doi
626:194
582:NpO
513:(UO
501:),
493:),
485:(Fe
270:DNA
221:By
209:or
174:3.
147:2.
124:1.
81:of
34:of
1989::
1626:/
1622:/
1474:/
1149:GC
1122:EI
1095:IR
960:39
943:68
914:88
897:33
879:43
862:37
844:36
823:79
806:90
788:85
754:41
737:40
713:86
684:.
660:35
643:63
566:UO
554:UO
538:UO
473:,
469:,
465:,
461:,
457:,
307:12
287:,
283:,
190:.
171:.
105:,
101:,
97:,
1860:"
1856:"
1027:e
1020:t
1013:v
985:.
836:2
694:.
680::
587:2
578:2
571:2
559:2
543:2
515:2
507:3
499:3
491:4
489:O
487:3
400:.
384:/
303:(
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