822:
1315:). However, since the mass numbers of most alpha-emitting radioisotopes exceed 210, far greater than the mass number of the alpha particle (4), the fraction of the energy going to the recoil of the nucleus is generally quite small, less than 2%. Nevertheless, the recoil energy (on the scale of keV) is still much larger than the strength of chemical bonds (on the scale of eV), so the daughter nuclide will break away from the chemical environment the parent was in. The energies and ratios of the alpha particles can be used to identify the radioactive parent via
1354:
probability that it will tunnel its way out. An alpha particle with a speed of 1.5×10 m/s within a nuclear diameter of approximately 10 m will collide with the barrier more than 10 times per second. However, if the probability of escape at each collision is very small, the half-life of the radioisotope will be very long, since it is the time required for the total probability of escape to reach 50%. As an extreme example, the half-life of the isotope
835:
50:
31:
1152:, while the electromagnetic force has an unlimited range. The strength of the attractive nuclear force keeping a nucleus together is thus proportional to the number of the nucleons, but the total disruptive electromagnetic force of proton-proton repulsion trying to break the nucleus apart is roughly proportional to the square of its atomic number. A nucleus with 210 or more nucleons is so large that the
1327:
of about 25 MeV. An alpha particle within the nucleus can be thought of as being inside a potential barrier whose walls are 25 MeV above the potential at infinity. However, decay alpha particles only have energies of around 4 to 9 MeV above the potential at infinity, far less than the energy needed to overcome the barrier and escape.
1590:) divided by the weight of the parent (typically about 200 Da) times the total energy of the alpha. By some estimates, this might account for most of the internal radiation damage, as the recoil nucleus is part of an atom that is much larger than an alpha particle, and causes a very dense trail of ionization; the atom is typically a
1533:
to the DNA in cases of internal contamination, when ingested, inhaled, injected or introduced through the skin. Otherwise, touching an alpha source is typically not harmful, as alpha particles are effectively shielded by a few centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or the thin layer of dead skin cells
1348:
It has hitherto been necessary to postulate some special arbitrary 'instability' of the nucleus, but in the following note, it is pointed out that disintegration is a natural consequence of the laws of quantum mechanics without any special hypothesis... Much has been written of the explosive violence
1343:
in 1928, was hailed as a very striking confirmation of quantum theory. Essentially, the alpha particle escapes from the nucleus not by acquiring enough energy to pass over the wall confining it, but by tunneling through the wall. Gurney and Condon made the following observation in their paper on it:
1326:
created by the interplay between the strong nuclear and the electromagnetic force, which prevents the alpha particle from escaping. The energy needed to bring an alpha particle from infinity to a point near the nucleus just outside the range of the nuclear force's influence is generally in the range
1353:
The theory supposes that the alpha particle can be considered an independent particle within a nucleus, that is in constant motion but held within the nucleus by strong interaction. At each collision with the repulsive potential barrier of the electromagnetic force, there is a small non-zero
1605:, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock. If the gas is inhaled, some of the radon particles may attach to the inner lining of the lung. These particles continue to decay, emitting alpha particles, which can damage cells in the lung tissue. The death of
978:
is no longer a maximum and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous fission-type processes. In practice, this mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known alpha emitter being the second lightest
1613:
was probably caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, but it is not clear if this was due to alpha radiation or X-rays. Curie worked extensively with radium, which decays into radon, along with other radioactive materials that emit
1294:
is the mass of the emitted (alpha-)particle, one finds that in certain cases it is positive and so alpha particle emission is possible, whereas other decay modes would require energy to be added. For example, performing the calculation for
1175:
of the alpha particle, which means that its mass is less than the sum of the masses of two free protons and two free neutrons. This increases the disintegration energy. Computing the total disintegration energy given by the
1265:
959:, this is not usually shown because a nuclear equation describes a nuclear reaction without considering the electrons – a convention that does not imply that the nuclei necessarily occur in neutral atoms.
1156:
holding it together can just barely counterbalance the electromagnetic repulsion between the protons it contains. Alpha decay occurs in such nuclei as a means of increasing stability by reducing size.
1443:
Working out the details of the theory leads to an equation relating the half-life of a radioisotope to the decay energy of its alpha particles, a theoretical derivation of the empirical
1335:
Quantum mechanics, however, allows the alpha particle to escape via quantum tunneling. The quantum tunneling theory of alpha decay, independently developed by George Gamow and by
1622:. However, Curie also worked with unshielded X-ray tubes during World War I, and analysis of her skeleton during a reburial showed a relatively low level of radioisotope burden.
1051:
and relatively low velocity, alpha particles are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, and their forward motion can be stopped by a few centimeters of
2074:
1349:
with which the α-particle is hurled from its place in the nucleus. But from the process pictured above, one would rather say that the α-particle almost slips away unnoticed.
1124:
and appearing on the other side to escape the nucleus. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived, from first principles, a relationship between the
1036:
have a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (or ≈ 0.13% of their total energy, 110 TJ/kg) and have a speed of about 15,000,000 m/s, or 5% of the
1182:
1564:
of travel by the alpha particle. The RBE has been set at the value of 20 for alpha radiation by various government regulations. The RBE is set at 10 for
1478:
flows through the ionized air. Smoke particles from the fire that enter the chamber reduce the current, triggering the smoke detector's alarm.
1685:
2130:
1663:
866:
780:
2007:
1159:
One curiosity is why alpha particles, helium nuclei, should be preferentially emitted as opposed to other particles like a single
1010:
collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind. It is the most common form because of the combined extremely high
1104:
had solved the theory of alpha decay via tunneling. The alpha particle is trapped inside the nucleus by an attractive nuclear
2026:
1492:
2040:
129:
1980:
1598:. In some studies, this has resulted in an RBE approaching 1,000 instead of the value used in governmental regulations.
1044:
of the half-life of this process on the energy produced. Because of their relatively large mass, the electric charge of
1579:
of the parent nucleus (alpha recoil) gives it a significant amount of energy, which also causes ionization damage (see
1819:
Belli, P.; Bernabei, R.; Danevich, F. A.; et al. (2019). "Experimental searches for rare alpha and beta decays".
1880:
1698:
1545:
1128:
of the decay, and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically and was known as the
433:
821:
2123:
1945:
1148:
between the protons. However, the nuclear force is also short-range, dropping quickly in strength beyond about 3
625:
17:
330:
859:
1091:
1014:
and relatively small mass of the alpha particle. Like other cluster decays, alpha decay is fundamentally a
1316:
1299:
shows that alpha particle emission releases 5.4 MeV of energy, while a single proton emission would
1177:
643:
613:
114:
2116:
690:
240:
1370:
1112:. Classically, it is forbidden to escape, but according to the (then) newly discovered principles of
576:
1730:
1728:
G. Gamow (1928). "Zur
Quantentheorie des Atomkernes (On the quantum theory of the atomic nucleus)".
2398:
1704:
1308:
852:
839:
571:
275:
2282:
2247:
2227:
2182:
1591:
566:
463:
428:
124:
2403:
2277:
2267:
1557:
1444:
1144:
holding an atomic nucleus together is very strong, in general much stronger than the repulsive
1129:
1041:
1011:
620:
270:
235:
2085:
1667:
1548:(RBE) quantifies the ability of radiation to cause certain biological effects, notably either
1513:, an alpha emitter, to ionize the air, allowing the "static cling" to dissipate more rapidly.
1336:
1145:
1027:
745:
630:
522:
685:
2272:
2262:
1838:
1791:
1739:
1626:
1500:
1153:
988:
755:
730:
547:
1503:. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay.
8:
2326:
2217:
2197:
2192:
1630:
1530:
650:
529:
423:
366:
359:
349:
290:
285:
119:
1842:
1795:
1743:
2005:
1862:
1828:
1755:
1580:
1437:
593:
588:
403:
2207:
2177:
2147:
2024:
1962:
1866:
1854:
1759:
1694:
1506:
1374:
1323:
1322:
These disintegration energies, however, are substantially smaller than the repulsive
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1097:
1015:
925:
887:
765:
760:
720:
598:
337:
325:
308:
280:
250:
91:
2059:
These other decay modes, while possible, are extremely rare compared to alpha decay.
902:
nucleus) and thereby transforms or "decays" into a different atomic nucleus, with a
2237:
2202:
2187:
2139:
1954:
1846:
1799:
1782:
1747:
1475:
1401:
1164:
785:
775:
705:
458:
376:
344:
164:
96:
2393:
2347:
2242:
2212:
2030:
2011:
1850:
1610:
1160:
950:
770:
750:
725:
655:
542:
470:
416:
381:
41:
1958:
2368:
2352:
1526:
1463:
1405:
1400: ≥ 165 are theorized to undergo alpha decay. All other mass numbers (
1304:
1172:
1105:
1096:
Alpha particles were first described in the investigations of radioactivity by
1037:
1033:
971:
895:
891:
826:
680:
675:
554:
487:
295:
230:
207:
194:
181:
81:
59:
1560:(LET) coefficient, which is about one ionization of a molecule/atom for every
1488:. It is used in the treatment of skeletal metastases (cancers in the bones).
2387:
2257:
2172:
1984:
1858:
1586:
1576:
1485:
1459:
1455:
1340:
1312:
1168:
1141:
1023:
1007:
999:
934:
907:
805:
800:
795:
790:
740:
398:
371:
215:
154:
107:
86:
2331:
2023:
Health
Physics Society, "Did Marie Curie die of a radiation overexposure?"
1634:
1510:
1101:
910:
that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a
735:
710:
695:
440:
388:
245:
1966:
1892:
1542:
radio daughters, and both are often accompanied by gamma photon emission.
2103:
1606:
1496:
1471:
1428:) are very short, unlike the half-lives for all other such nuclides with
1425:
1378:
1355:
1296:
1149:
1079:
992:
943:
939:
903:
700:
393:
168:
1914:
1416:, and those with mass 8 decay to two helium-4 nuclei; their half-lives (
2308:
2162:
2098:
1751:
1615:
1595:
1569:
1539:
1481:
1019:
670:
660:
517:
497:
320:
190:
2303:
2295:
2287:
2252:
2167:
1804:
1777:
1775:
1619:
1535:
1525:
of energy within a small volume of material, along with a very short
1421:
1260:{\displaystyle E_{di}=(m_{\text{i}}-m_{\text{f}}-m_{\text{p}})c^{2},}
1125:
715:
665:
492:
480:
475:
354:
2108:
2078:
1833:
1561:
1553:
1417:
1311:, part of the energy goes to the recoil of the nucleus itself (see
1040:. There is surprisingly small variation around this energy, due to
984:
966:. Theoretically, it can occur only in nuclei somewhat heavier than
911:
1943:
Winters TH, Franza JR (1982). "Radioactivity in
Cigarette Smoke".
49:
1565:
1413:
1075:
1071:
1067:
980:
975:
963:
919:
177:
150:
142:
74:
64:
1818:
1556:, for equivalent radiation exposure. Alpha radiation has a high
2073:
1549:
1467:
1409:
1100:
in 1899, and by 1907 they were identified as He ions. By 1928,
1059:
967:
915:
899:
69:
30:
1684:
1602:
1521:
Highly charged and heavy, alpha particles lose their several
1063:
1601:
The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is
1303:
6.1 MeV. Most of the disintegration energy becomes the
1066:
is the result of the alpha decay of underground deposits of
1922:
1888:
1432: ≤ 209, which are very long. (Such nuclides with
1003:
1981:"ANS: Public Information: Resources: Radiation Dose Chart"
1078:. The helium is brought to the surface as a by-product of
1522:
1052:
1285:
is the mass of the nucleus after particle emission, and
1538:; however, many alpha sources are also accompanied by
1942:
1185:
2004:EPA Radiation Information: Radon. October 6, 2006,
1583:). This energy is roughly the weight of the alpha (
1022:, it is governed by the interplay between both the
1259:
1092:Alpha particle § History of discovery and use
2385:
2041:Alpha emitters by increasing energy (Appendix 1)
1653:F.G. Kondev et al 2021 Chinese Phys. C 45 030001
1491:Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for
1778:"Wave Mechanics and Radioactive Disintegration"
1771:
1769:
1693:(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 432–434.
1116:, it has a tiny (but non-zero) probability of "
1776:Ronald W. Gurney & Edw. U. Condon (1928).
998:Alpha decay is by far the most common form of
2124:
1683:
962:Alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest
860:
1766:
1408:. Those with mass 5 decay to helium-4 and a
1307:of the alpha particle, although to fulfill
2131:
2117:
867:
853:
1832:
1812:
1803:
1633:is thought to have been carried out with
1727:
1679:
1677:
29:
1881:"Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator"
14:
2386:
1594:, which preferentially collect on the
1493:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
2138:
2112:
1674:
1373:that are also stable with regards to
2086:Alpha decay with 3 animated examples
1915:"Nuclear-Powered Cardiac Pacemakers"
1330:
1276:is the initial mass of the nucleus,
34:Visual representation of alpha decay
24:
1392: ≤ 155, 160 ≤
25:
2415:
2079:The LIVEChart of Nuclides - IAEA
2066:
1666:. 6 November 1996. Archived from
1546:Relative biological effectiveness
1404:) have exactly one theoretically
1171:. Part of the reason is the high
2072:
1919:Off-Site Source Recovery Project
1388: = 8, 143 ≤
1108:and a repulsive electromagnetic
970:(element 28), where the overall
834:
833:
820:
48:
2017:
1998:
1973:
1946:New England Journal of Medicine
1936:
1529:. This increases the chance of
995:decays to two alpha particles.
906:that is reduced by four and an
2088:showing the recoil of daughter
2053:
1907:
1873:
1721:
1656:
1647:
1241:
1202:
13:
1:
1664:"Gamow theory of alpha decay"
1640:
949:While alpha particles have a
2014:, Accessed December 6, 2006,
1135:
914:atom, which consists of two
7:
2092:
1959:10.1056/NEJM198202113060613
1821:European Physical Journal A
1516:
1501:artificial heart pacemakers
614:High-energy nuclear physics
10:
2420:
2082:with filter on alpha decay
1851:10.1140/epja/i2019-12823-2
1687:Concepts of Modern Physics
1568:irradiation, and at 1 for
1089:
1085:
991:. Exceptionally, however,
2361:
2340:
2317:
2226:
2146:
1371:beta-decay stable isobars
1058:Approximately 99% of the
27:Type of radioactive decay
2046:
1885:Solar System Exploration
1309:conservation of momentum
2183:Double electron capture
1450:
125:Interacting boson model
1731:Zeitschrift für Physik
1572:and ionizing photons.
1558:linear energy transfer
1466:. The alpha particles
1396: ≤ 162, and
1351:
1261:
1146:electromagnetic forces
1012:nuclear binding energy
35:
1625:The Russian defector
1436: ≤ 209 are
1346:
1337:Ronald Wilfred Gurney
1262:
1042:the strong dependence
1028:electromagnetic force
922:. It has a charge of
512:High-energy processes
210:– equal all the above
108:Models of the nucleus
33:
1670:on 24 February 2009.
1637:, an alpha emitter.
1627:Alexander Litvinenko
1531:double-strand breaks
1183:
1154:strong nuclear force
1024:strong nuclear force
548:nuclear astrophysics
2327:Photodisintegration
2248:Proton–proton chain
2218:Spontaneous fission
2198:Isomeric transition
2193:Internal conversion
1843:2019EPJA...55..140B
1796:1928Natur.122..439G
1744:1928ZPhy...51..204G
1631:radiation poisoning
1438:primordial nuclides
1169:other atomic nuclei
1002:, where the parent
530:Photodisintegration
453:Capturing processes
367:Spontaneous fission
360:Internal conversion
291:Valley of stability
286:Island of stability
120:Nuclear shell model
2029:2007-10-19 at the
2010:2006-04-26 at the
1827:(8): 140–1–140–7.
1752:10.1007/BF01343196
1629:'s 2006 murder by
1581:ionizing radiation
1507:Static eliminators
1499:and were used for
1445:Geiger–Nuttall law
1317:alpha spectrometry
1257:
1130:Geiger–Nuttall law
827:Physics portal
621:Quark–gluon plasma
404:Radiogenic nuclide
36:
2381:
2380:
2377:
2376:
2208:Positron emission
2178:Double beta decay
2140:Nuclear processes
1534:that make up the
1375:double beta decay
1331:Quantum tunneling
1324:potential barrier
1238:
1225:
1212:
1114:quantum mechanics
1110:potential barrier
1098:Ernest Rutherford
1016:quantum tunneling
1006:ejects a defined
888:radioactive decay
877:
876:
563:
309:Radioactive decay
265:Nuclear stability
92:Nuclear structure
16:(Redirected from
2411:
2338:
2337:
2238:Deuterium fusion
2203:Neutron emission
2188:Electron capture
2133:
2126:
2119:
2110:
2109:
2076:
2060:
2057:
2033:
2021:
2015:
2002:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1983:. Archived from
1977:
1971:
1970:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1895:on 7 August 2012
1891:. Archived from
1877:
1871:
1870:
1836:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1805:10.1038/122439a0
1773:
1764:
1763:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1709:
1703:. Archived from
1692:
1681:
1672:
1671:
1660:
1654:
1651:
1589:
1384: = 5,
1369:The isotopes in
1365:
1363:
1293:
1284:
1275:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1252:
1240:
1239:
1236:
1227:
1226:
1223:
1214:
1213:
1210:
1198:
1197:
1050:
1018:process. Unlike
958:
937:
930:
869:
862:
855:
842:
837:
836:
829:
825:
824:
701:Skłodowska-Curie
561:
377:Neutron emission
145:' classification
97:Nuclear reaction
52:
38:
37:
21:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2399:Nuclear physics
2384:
2383:
2382:
2373:
2357:
2348:Neutron capture
2336:
2319:
2313:
2230:nucleosynthesis
2229:
2222:
2213:Proton emission
2168:Gamma radiation
2149:
2142:
2137:
2095:
2069:
2064:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2037:
2036:
2031:Wayback Machine
2022:
2018:
2012:Wayback Machine
2003:
1999:
1990:
1988:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1941:
1937:
1927:
1925:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1898:
1896:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1817:
1813:
1774:
1767:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1701:
1690:
1682:
1675:
1662:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1611:aplastic anemia
1609:at age 66 from
1584:
1519:
1470:air in an open
1464:smoke detectors
1453:
1361:
1359:
1333:
1292:
1286:
1283:
1277:
1274:
1268:
1248:
1244:
1235:
1231:
1222:
1218:
1209:
1205:
1190:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1138:
1094:
1088:
1045:
1034:Alpha particles
953:
942:decays to form
938:. For example,
932:
923:
873:
832:
819:
818:
811:
810:
646:
636:
635:
616:
606:
605:
550:
546:
543:Nucleosynthesis
535:
534:
513:
505:
504:
454:
446:
445:
419:
417:Nuclear fission
409:
408:
382:Proton emission
311:
301:
300:
266:
258:
257:
159:
146:
135:
134:
110:
42:Nuclear physics
28:
23:
22:
18:Alpha radiation
15:
12:
11:
5:
2417:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2369:(n-p) reaction
2365:
2363:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2355:
2353:Proton capture
2350:
2344:
2342:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2323:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2293:
2285:
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2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2234:
2232:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
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2160:
2154:
2152:
2144:
2143:
2136:
2135:
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2121:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2101:
2094:
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2090:
2089:
2083:
2068:
2067:External links
2065:
2062:
2061:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2035:
2034:
2016:
1997:
1972:
1953:(6): 364–365.
1935:
1906:
1872:
1811:
1765:
1738:(3): 204–212.
1720:
1699:
1673:
1655:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1570:beta radiation
1527:mean free path
1518:
1515:
1509:typically use
1452:
1449:
1406:stable nuclide
1332:
1329:
1305:kinetic energy
1290:
1281:
1272:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1234:
1230:
1221:
1217:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1173:binding energy
1137:
1134:
1120:" through the
1106:potential well
1087:
1084:
1038:speed of light
972:binding energy
931:and a mass of
896:alpha particle
892:atomic nucleus
875:
874:
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871:
864:
857:
849:
846:
845:
844:
843:
830:
813:
812:
809:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
783:
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773:
768:
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753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
647:
642:
641:
638:
637:
634:
633:
628:
623:
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612:
611:
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607:
604:
603:
602:
601:
596:
591:
582:
581:
580:
579:
574:
569:
558:
557:
555:Nuclear fusion
551:
541:
540:
537:
536:
533:
532:
527:
526:
525:
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511:
510:
507:
506:
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455:
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426:
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396:
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385:
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379:
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364:
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357:
347:
342:
341:
340:
335:
334:
333:
318:
312:
307:
306:
303:
302:
299:
298:
296:Stable nuclide
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
271:Binding energy
267:
264:
263:
260:
259:
256:
255:
254:
253:
243:
238:
233:
227:
226:
212:
211:
204:
203:
187:
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174:
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161:
160:
147:
141:
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137:
136:
133:
132:
127:
122:
117:
111:
106:
105:
102:
101:
100:
99:
94:
89:
84:
82:Nuclear matter
79:
78:
77:
72:
62:
54:
53:
45:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2416:
2405:
2404:Radioactivity
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2354:
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2349:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2316:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2225:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2173:Cluster decay
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2145:
2141:
2134:
2129:
2127:
2122:
2120:
2115:
2114:
2111:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2056:
2052:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2020:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2001:
1987:on 2018-07-15
1986:
1982:
1976:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1939:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1806:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1790:(3073): 439.
1789:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1772:
1770:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1724:
1710:on 2016-10-04
1706:
1702:
1700:0-07-244848-2
1696:
1689:
1688:
1680:
1678:
1669:
1665:
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1638:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1582:
1578:
1575:However, the
1573:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1541:
1540:beta-emitting
1537:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1487:
1486:alpha emitter
1483:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1462:, is used in
1461:
1460:alpha emitter
1457:
1456:Americium-241
1448:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1364:10 years
1357:
1350:
1345:
1342:
1341:Edward Condon
1338:
1328:
1325:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1313:atomic recoil
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1289:
1280:
1271:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1232:
1228:
1219:
1215:
1206:
1199:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1142:nuclear force
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1054:
1049:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
1000:cluster decay
996:
994:
990:
986:
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
960:
957:
952:
947:
945:
941:
936:
929:
928:
921:
917:
913:
909:
908:atomic number
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
886:is a type of
885:
881:
870:
865:
863:
858:
856:
851:
850:
848:
847:
841:
831:
828:
823:
817:
816:
815:
814:
807:
804:
802:
799:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
645:
640:
639:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
618:
615:
610:
609:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
586:
584:
583:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
564:
560:
559:
556:
553:
552:
549:
544:
539:
538:
531:
528:
524:
523:by cosmic ray
521:
520:
519:
516:
515:
509:
508:
499:
496:
494:
491:
490:
489:
486:
482:
479:
477:
474:
473:
472:
469:
465:
462:
461:
460:
457:
456:
450:
449:
442:
439:
435:
434:pair breaking
432:
431:
430:
427:
425:
422:
421:
418:
413:
412:
405:
402:
400:
399:Decay product
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
386:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
372:Cluster decay
370:
368:
365:
361:
358:
356:
353:
352:
351:
348:
346:
343:
339:
336:
332:
329:
328:
327:
324:
323:
322:
319:
317:
314:
313:
310:
305:
304:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
268:
262:
261:
252:
249:
248:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
228:
225:
221:
217:
216:Mirror nuclei
214:
213:
209:
206:
205:
202:
201:
198: −
197:
192:
189:
188:
185:
184:
179:
176:
175:
172:
171:
166:
163:
162:
158:
157:
152:
149:
148:
144:
139:
138:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
112:
109:
104:
103:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
87:Nuclear force
85:
83:
80:
76:
73:
71:
68:
67:
66:
63:
61:
58:
57:
56:
55:
51:
47:
46:
43:
40:
39:
32:
19:
2332:Photofission
2296:
2288:
2157:
2077:
2055:
2019:
2000:
1989:. Retrieved
1985:the original
1975:
1950:
1944:
1938:
1926:. Retrieved
1918:
1909:
1897:. Retrieved
1893:the original
1884:
1875:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1787:
1781:
1735:
1729:
1723:
1712:. Retrieved
1705:the original
1686:
1668:the original
1658:
1649:
1635:polonium-210
1624:
1600:
1574:
1544:
1520:
1511:polonium-210
1505:
1497:space probes
1490:
1480:
1474:and a small
1454:
1442:
1440:except Sm.)
1433:
1429:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1368:
1352:
1347:
1334:
1321:
1300:
1287:
1278:
1269:
1158:
1139:
1102:George Gamow
1095:
1082:production.
1062:produced on
1057:
1047:
1032:
997:
961:
955:
948:
926:
890:in which an
883:
879:
878:
441:Photofission
389:Decay energy
316:Alpha α
315:
223:
219:
199:
195:
182:
169:
155:
2158:Alpha decay
2148:Radioactive
2104:Gamma decay
1607:Marie Curie
1596:chromosomes
1592:heavy metal
1484:is also an
1472:ion chamber
1426:beryllium-8
1379:mass number
1356:bismuth-209
1297:uranium-232
1150:femtometers
1080:natural gas
1070:containing
993:beryllium-8
944:thorium-234
940:uranium-238
904:mass number
880:Alpha decay
746:Oppenheimer
424:Spontaneous
394:Decay chain
345:K/L capture
321:Beta β
191:Isodiaphers
115:Liquid drop
2388:Categories
2309:rp-process
2283:Si burning
2273:Ne burning
2243:Li burning
2163:Beta decay
2099:Beta decay
1991:2007-10-31
1834:1908.11458
1714:2016-07-03
1641:References
1620:gamma rays
1554:cell-death
1482:Radium-223
1090:See also:
1020:beta decay
776:Strassmann
766:Rutherford
644:Scientists
599:Artificial
594:Cosmogenic
589:Primordial
585:Nuclides:
562:Processes:
518:Spallation
2320:processes
2304:p-process
2278:O burning
2268:C burning
2258:α process
2253:CNO cycle
1867:201664098
1859:1434-601X
1760:120684789
1536:epidermis
1495:used for
1422:lithium-5
1229:−
1216:−
1136:Mechanism
1126:half-life
1118:tunneling
894:emits an
781:Świątecki
696:Pi. Curie
691:Fr. Curie
686:Ir. Curie
681:Cockcroft
656:Becquerel
577:Supernova
281:Drip line
276:p–n ratio
251:Borromean
130:Ab initio
2362:Exchange
2299:-process
2291:-process
2263:Triple-α
2093:See also
2027:Archived
2008:Archived
1928:25 March
1899:25 March
1562:angstrom
1517:Toxicity
1418:helium-5
1178:equation
1068:minerals
1046:+2
1026:and the
1008:daughter
985:antimony
964:nuclides
954:+2
924:+2
920:neutrons
918:and two
912:helium-4
840:Category
741:Oliphant
726:Lawrence
706:Davisson
676:Chadwick
572:Big Bang
459:electron
429:Products
350:Isomeric
241:Even/odd
218: –
193:– equal
180:– equal
178:Isotones
167:– equal
153:– equal
151:Isotopes
143:Nuclides
65:Nucleons
2341:Capture
2228:Stellar
1967:7054712
1839:Bibcode
1792:Bibcode
1740:Bibcode
1585:4
1566:neutron
1476:current
1414:neutron
1402:isobars
1301:require
1165:neutron
1122:barrier
1086:History
1076:thorium
1072:uranium
981:isotope
976:nucleon
933:4
916:protons
884:α-decay
796:Thomson
786:Szilárd
756:Purcell
736:Meitner
671:N. Bohr
666:A. Bohr
651:Alvarez
567:Stellar
471:neutron
355:Gamma γ
208:Isomers
165:Isobars
60:Nucleus
2394:Helium
1965:
1865:
1857:
1783:Nature
1758:
1697:
1577:recoil
1550:cancer
1468:ionize
1424:, and
1410:proton
1267:where
1161:proton
1060:helium
968:nickel
951:charge
900:helium
838:
806:Wigner
801:Walton
791:Teller
721:Jensen
488:proton
231:Stable
2318:Other
2150:decay
2047:Notes
1863:S2CID
1829:arXiv
1756:S2CID
1708:(PDF)
1691:(PDF)
1603:radon
1458:, an
1412:or a
1377:with
1064:Earth
771:Soddy
751:Proca
731:Mayer
711:Fermi
661:Bethe
236:Magic
1963:PMID
1930:2013
1923:LANL
1901:2013
1889:NASA
1855:ISSN
1695:ISBN
1618:and
1616:beta
1451:Uses
1360:2.01
1339:and
1140:The
1004:atom
974:per
761:Rabi
716:Hahn
626:RHIC
246:Halo
1955:doi
1951:306
1847:doi
1800:doi
1788:122
1748:doi
1552:or
1523:MeV
1358:is
1167:or
1163:or
1074:or
1053:air
983:of
882:or
631:LHC
545:and
2390::
1961:.
1949:.
1921:.
1917:.
1887:.
1883:.
1861:.
1853:.
1845:.
1837:.
1825:55
1823:.
1798:.
1786:.
1780:.
1768:^
1754:.
1746:.
1736:51
1734:.
1676:^
1587:Da
1447:.
1420:,
1366:.
1319:.
1132:.
1055:.
1030:.
989:Sb
987:,
946:.
935:Da
498:rp
464:2×
331:0v
326:2β
222:↔
2297:s
2289:r
2132:e
2125:t
2118:v
1994:.
1969:.
1957::
1932:.
1903:.
1869:.
1849::
1841::
1831::
1808:.
1802::
1794::
1762:.
1750::
1742::
1717:.
1434:A
1430:A
1398:A
1394:A
1390:A
1386:A
1382:A
1362:×
1291:p
1288:m
1282:f
1279:m
1273:i
1270:m
1255:,
1250:2
1246:c
1242:)
1237:p
1233:m
1224:f
1220:m
1211:i
1207:m
1203:(
1200:=
1195:i
1192:d
1188:E
1048:e
956:e
927:e
898:(
868:e
861:t
854:v
493:p
481:r
476:s
338:β
224:N
220:Z
200:Z
196:N
183:N
170:A
156:Z
75:n
70:p
20:)
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