321:), and were used to monitor the quality of care at the patient, practice, and population levels. Since the data contained each patient's name and address, the system was also used to communicate directly with patients when the laboratory data indicated the need for attention. Out of control test results generated a letter to the patient suggesting they take action with their medical provider. Tests that were overdue generated reminders to have testing performed. The system also generated reminders and alerts with guideline-based advice for the practice as well as a periodic roster of each provider's patients and a report card summarizing the health status of the population. Clinical and economic evaluations of the system, including a large randomized
294:, are supposed to be routinely managed with frequent laboratory measurements. Since many laboratory results, at least in Europe and the US, are automatically processed by computerized laboratory information systems, the results are relatively easy to inexpensively collate in special purpose databases or disease registries. Unlike most syndromic surveillance systems, in which each record is assumed to be independent of the others, laboratory data in chronic conditions can be theoretically linked together at the individual patient level. If patient identifiers can be matched, a chronological record of each patient's laboratory results can be analyzed as well as aggregated to the population level.
2639:
244:, which was first released in 2008. Knowledge has also been used, though it is potentially prone to "noise", as it is a popular source of health information whether a user is ill or not. During the COVID-19 pandemic a new methodology has been developed to model COVID-19 prevalence based on web search activity. This methodology has also been used by Public Health England in the United Kingdom as one of their syndromic surveillance endpoints.
207:, closely matched CDC data, and led it by 1–2 weeks. However, it has been shown that the original approach behind Google Flu Trends had various modelling deficiencies leading to significant errors in its estimates. More recently, a series of more advanced linear and nonlinear approaches to influenza modeling from Google search queries have been proposed. Extending Google's work researchers from the Intelligent Systems Laboratory (
2663:
2651:
141:. According to a CDC definition, "the term 'syndromic surveillance' applies to surveillance using health-related data that precede diagnosis and signal a sufficient probability of a case or an outbreak to warrant further public health response. Though historically syndromic surveillance has been utilized to target investigation of potential cases, its utility for detecting outbreaks associated with
232:
Influenzanet. However the range of potential data sources suitable for disease surveillance has increased as different areas have become digitized; today school attendance records, hospital emergency admissions data and even sales data, can be used for syndromic surveillance purposes. Search trends provide indirect data on public health, while the latter two methods provide direct data.
325:, demonstrated improvements in adherence to practice guidelines and reductions in the need for emergency department and hospital services as well as total costs per patient. The system has been commercialized and distributed to physicians, insurers, employers and others responsible for the care of chronically ill patients. It is now being expanded to other conditions such as
47:
providers and medical records are reviewed in order to identify a specific disease or condition. Passive surveillance systems are less time-consuming and less expensive to run but risk under-reporting of some diseases. Active surveillance systems are most appropriate for epidemics or where a disease has been targeted for elimination.
355:
Laboratory surveillance differs from population-wide surveillance because it can only monitor patients who are already receiving medical treatment and therefore having lab tests done. For this reason, it does not identify patients who have never been tested. Therefore, it is more suitable for quality
340:
has linked additional patient services to the registry such as health information and improved access to health care services. As of early 2012, the registry contains over 10 million test results on 3.6 million individuals. Although intended to improve health outcomes and reduce the incidence of the
187:
attack could save many lives and potentially stop or slow the spread of the outbreak. The most effective syndromic surveillance systems automatically monitor these systems in real-time, do not require individuals to enter separate information (secondary data entry), include advanced analytical tools,
42:
practice." Public health surveillance may be used to track emerging health-related issues at an early stage and find active solutions in a timely manner. Surveillance systems are generally called upon to provide information regarding when and where health problems are occurring and who is affected.
252:
Examples of social media public health surveillance include HealthTweets, which gathers data from
Twitter. Twitter data is considered highly useful for public health research, as its data policies allow public access to 1% samples of raw tweets. Tweets can also be geolocated, which can be used to
231:
Digital surveillance of public health largely relies on a number of methods. The most important ones being the use of search-based trends on sites like Google and
Knowledge, social media posts on platforms like Facebook and Twitter, and participatory surveillance websites such as Flu Near You and
163:
outbreak as an example, once the outbreak begins to affect the population, some people may call in sick for work/school, others may visit their drug store and purchase medicine over the counter, others will visit their doctor's office and other's may have symptoms severe enough that they call the
46:
Public health surveillance systems can be passive or active. A passive surveillance system consists of the regular, ongoing reporting of diseases and conditions by all health facilities in a given territory. An active surveillance system is one where health facilities are visited and health care
115:
Systems that can automate the process of identifying adverse drug events, are currently being used, and are being compared to traditional written reports of such events. These systems intersect with the field of medical informatics, and are rapidly becoming adopted by hospitals and endorsed by
273:
are two examples of crowd-sourced digital surveillance systems. Both sites recruit users to participate in surveys about influenza symptoms. Influenzanet was established in 2009, and operates in ten countries in Europe. Its predecessor was Grote
Griepmeting, which was a Dutch/Belgian platform
175:
Syndromic surveillance systems monitor data from school absenteeism logs, emergency call systems, hospitals' over-the-counter drug sale records, Internet searches, and other data sources to detect unusual patterns. When a spike in activity is seen in any of the monitored systems disease
352:. Authorized by the Texas legislature and the state Health Department, the San Antonio Metropolitan Health District implemented the registry which drew results from all the major clinical laboratories in San Antonio. The program was discontinued in 2010 due to lack of funds.
301:-funded program called the Vermedx Diabetes Information System maintained a registry of laboratory values of diabetic adults in Vermont and northern New York State in the US with several years of laboratory results on thousands of patients. The data included measures of
257:, Facebook used aggregated, anonymized data collected from its platforms to provide human movement information to disease models. It also offered users a chance to participate in a disease symptom survey through
2449:
297:
Laboratory registries allow for the analysis of the incidence and prevalence of the target condition as well as trends in the level of control. For instance, an
337:
38:(WHO), "the continuous, systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of health-related data needed for the planning, implementation, and evaluation of
1191:
2444:
336:, although unlike the Vermont Diabetes Information System, there are no provisions for patients to have their data excluded from the NYC database. The
2434:
451:
120:
in the United States). Issues in regard to healthcare improvement are evolving around the surveillance of medication errors within institutions.
1419:
1080:"Evaluating Google, Twitter, and Knowledge as Tools for Influenza Surveillance Using Bayesian Change Point Analysis: A Comparative Analysis"
274:
launched in 2003 and 2004. Flu Near You is used in the US. Another example of a surveillance sites is Dengue na Web, used to survey for
2484:
481:
White, Mary C.; Babcock, Frances; Hayes, Nikki S.; Mariotto, Angela B.; Wong, Faye L.; Kohler, Betsy A.; Weir, Hannah K. (2017-12-15).
59:
2517:
2489:
1529:
2494:
1810:
2552:
2459:
1291:
253:
model the spread of contagious disease. It is the most used social media platform for public health surveillance. During the
1372:"The effect of the Vermont Diabetes Information System on inpatient and emergency room use: results from a randomized trial"
2542:
2499:
2063:
1651:
665:
599:
1567:
2557:
2083:
1666:
431:
1323:"The Vermont diabetes information system: a cluster randomized trial of a population based decision support system"
332:
A similar system, The New York City A1C Registry, is in used to monitor the estimated 600,000 diabetic patients in
203:
in 2008. More flu-related searches are taken to indicate higher flu activity. The results, which were published in
2200:
1828:
1805:
188:
aggregate data from multiple systems, across geo-political boundaries and include an automated alerting process.
93:, which is monitors the incidence of cancers to determine the prevalence and possible causes of these illnesses.
2655:
2474:
2424:
2236:
2133:
1894:
1795:
1708:
356:
management and care improvement than for epidemiological monitoring of an entire population or catchment area.
2667:
2307:
2078:
1192:"Facebook begins sharing more location data with COVID-19 researchers and asks users to self-report symptoms"
620:
298:
2172:
1899:
483:"The History and Use of Cancer Registry Data by Public Health Cancer Control Programs in the United States"
459:
2694:
2319:
2212:
2123:
1936:
1924:
1833:
1522:
2389:
2314:
1755:
540:"Automated surveillance for adverse drug events at a community hospital and an academic medical center"
258:
165:
2511:
2506:
2374:
2073:
1780:
1738:
1702:
1609:
1216:
401:
375:
109:
63:
55:
35:
240:
Search aggregates have been most frequently used to track and model influenza. A popular example is
2349:
2048:
1760:
1656:
2620:
2547:
2379:
1427:
112:
is conducted on these registries to determine governmental funding for research and prevention.
2689:
2643:
2615:
2394:
2118:
1604:
1515:
423:
326:
104:, as well as social problems such as domestic violence, are increasingly being integrated into
586:
2600:
2384:
1919:
1820:
1713:
1562:
985:
212:
208:
195:, who began work on such a system in 2004. Inspired by these early, encouraging experiences,
1243:"Diabetes decision support: initial experience with the Vermont diabetes information system"
415:
397:
2575:
2359:
2224:
2190:
2138:
1963:
1958:
1904:
1860:
1750:
1688:
1577:
1572:
870:
815:
758:
668:. United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 13 January 2006. Archived from
216:
169:
129:
83:
8:
2585:
2580:
2354:
2153:
2143:
1978:
1587:
635:
306:
51:
874:
819:
762:
745:
Ginsberg J, Mohebbi MH, Patel RS, Brammer L, Smolinski MS, Brilliant L (February 2009).
2207:
1790:
1639:
1467:
1442:
1396:
1371:
1347:
1322:
1267:
1242:
1167:
1142:
1130:
1106:
1079:
1052:
1019:
995:
968:
891:
858:
839:
784:
701:
684:
564:
539:
515:
482:
345:
1290:
Littenberg B, MacLean CD, Zygarowski K, Drapola BH, Duncan JA, Frank CR (March 2009).
803:
2369:
2364:
2292:
2241:
2015:
1995:
1983:
1943:
1914:
1882:
1800:
1693:
1661:
1557:
1472:
1401:
1352:
1303:
1272:
1172:
1111:
1057:
1039:
1000:
896:
843:
831:
776:
706:
647:
614:
569:
520:
502:
427:
416:
291:
254:
241:
200:
192:
685:"Infodemiology: tracking flu-related searches on the web for syndromic surveillance"
2534:
2287:
2246:
2058:
2033:
1845:
1775:
1619:
1462:
1454:
1391:
1383:
1342:
1334:
1262:
1254:
1162:
1152:
1101:
1091:
1047:
1031:
990:
980:
940:
886:
878:
823:
766:
696:
559:
551:
510:
494:
204:
788:
370:
2595:
2297:
2100:
2093:
2028:
1968:
1850:
1840:
1770:
1743:
1728:
1683:
1673:
1624:
945:
365:
177:
90:
2282:
2068:
2005:
1990:
1973:
1931:
1733:
1614:
1387:
1157:
1020:"Digital Disease Detection — Harnessing the Web for Public Health Surveillance"
322:
134:
Syndromic surveillance is the analysis of medical data to detect or anticipate
50:
Techniques of public health surveillance have been used in particular to study
1338:
1096:
914:
669:
191:
A syndromic surveillance system based on search queries was first proposed by
2683:
2590:
2469:
2277:
2251:
2128:
2088:
2053:
2043:
2023:
1765:
1723:
1698:
1646:
1634:
1629:
1538:
1458:
1258:
1043:
859:"Advances in nowcasting influenza-like illness rates using search query logs"
506:
333:
105:
39:
827:
2610:
2038:
1887:
1877:
1855:
1785:
1678:
1592:
1476:
1405:
1356:
1307:
1276:
1176:
1115:
1061:
1018:
Brownstein, John S.; Freifeld, Clark C.; Madoff, Lawrence C. (2009-05-21).
1004:
900:
835:
780:
710:
651:
573:
524:
349:
275:
270:
184:
149:
142:
79:
2605:
2302:
2000:
1909:
1872:
1443:"New York City's diabetes reporting system helps patients and physicians"
1035:
969:"Social Media- and Internet-Based Disease Surveillance for Public Health"
318:
310:
302:
1292:"The Vermedx Diabetes Information System reduces healthcare utilization"
771:
746:
555:
180:
and public health professionals are alerted that there may be an issue.
2231:
1953:
498:
314:
882:
341:
complications of diabetes, a formal evaluation has not yet been done.
2329:
2148:
1718:
1599:
160:
153:
67:
66:) that can track and monitor emerging outbreaks of illnesses such as
1490:
2195:
1948:
1582:
1552:
1147:
724:
666:"Syndromic Surveillance: an Applied Approach to Outbreak Detection"
138:
101:
1289:
538:
Kilbridge PM, Campbell UC, Cozart HB, Mojarrad MG (Jul–Aug 2006).
1867:
456:
World Health
Organization: Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals
220:
135:
1507:
2162:
537:
196:
97:
1321:
Maclean CD, Gagnon M, Callas P, Littenberg B (December 2009).
747:"Detecting influenza epidemics using search engine query data"
602:. webcitation.org. Archived from the original on June 24, 2003
16:
Collection, analysis and interpretation of health-related data
2324:
1320:
279:
117:
856:
145:
is increasingly being explored by public health officials."
2450:
Committee on the
Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
2256:
1453:(9). Ajph.aphapublications.org: 1543–4, author reply 1544.
1078:
Sharpe JD, Hopkins RS, Cook RL, Striley CW (October 2016).
857:
Lampos V, Miller AC, Crossan S, Stefansen C (August 2015).
744:
71:
62:(CDC), have created databases and modern computer systems (
801:
211:, UK) created Flu Detector; an online tool which based on
1220:
480:
75:
1077:
1017:
116:
institutions that oversee healthcare providers (such as
1240:
934:
804:"The Parable of Google Flu: Traps in Big Data Analysis"
544:
Journal of the
American Medical Informatics Association
1129:
Lampos V, Majumder MS, Yom-Tov E, et al. (2021).
1369:
1128:
689:
AMIA ... Annual
Symposium Proceedings. AMIA Symposium
449:
290:
Some conditions, especially chronic diseases such as
966:
1241:MacLean CD, Littenberg B, Gagnon M (April 2006).
802:Lazer D, Kennedy R, King G, Vespignani A (2014).
2681:
285:
152:attack may not be the definitive diagnosis of a
1122:
452:"Surveillance for Vaccine Preventable Diseases"
348:approved the deployment of an A1C registry for
1370:Khan S, Maclean CD, Littenberg B (July 2010).
915:"Flu Detector – Tracking Epidemics on Twitter"
1523:
967:Aiello AE, Renson A, Zivich PN (April 2020).
928:
148:The first indications of disease outbreak or
96:Other illnesses such as one-time events like
937:Flu Detector – Tracking Epidemics on Twitter
738:
676:
627:
531:
338:NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene
2485:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1530:
1516:
935:Lampos V, De Bie T, Cristianini N (2010).
89:Many regions and countries have their own
60:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2445:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
2435:Center for Disease Control and Prevention
1466:
1395:
1346:
1266:
1166:
1156:
1146:
1105:
1095:
1073:
1071:
1051:
994:
984:
962:
960:
958:
956:
944:
890:
770:
700:
682:
563:
514:
123:
986:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094402
795:
2490:Health departments in the United States
1440:
1131:"Tracking COVID-19 using online search"
633:
108:databases called disease registries. A
54:. Many large institutions, such as the
2682:
2495:Council on Education for Public Health
1426:. The City of New York. Archived from
1189:
1068:
953:
2553:Professional degrees of public health
2460:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
1511:
1217:"Vermedx Diabetes Information System"
413:
393:
391:
264:
183:An early awareness and response to a
2650:
2543:Bachelor of Science in Public Health
1376:Health Outcomes Research in Medicine
1327:Journal of General Internal Medicine
1296:The American Journal of Managed Care
445:
443:
235:
2662:
1811:Workers' right to access the toilet
1652:Human right to water and sanitation
1084:JMIR Public Health and Surveillance
850:
13:
388:
226:
14:
2706:
2084:Commercial determinants of health
1537:
1447:American Journal of Public Health
1420:"Diabetes Prevention and Control"
1247:American Journal of Public Health
636:"What is syndromic surveillance?"
440:
344:In May 2008, the City Council of
2661:
2649:
2638:
2637:
1667:National public health institute
223:to nowcast flu rates in the UK.
2064:Open-source healthcare software
1806:Sociology of health and illness
1483:
1434:
1412:
1363:
1314:
1283:
1234:
1209:
1183:
1024:New England Journal of Medicine
1011:
939:. ECML PKDD. pp. 599–602.
907:
717:
247:
100:and chronic conditions such as
2425:Caribbean Public Health Agency
2237:Sexually transmitted infection
2134:Statistical hypothesis testing
1895:Occupational safety and health
1796:Sexual and reproductive health
1709:Occupational safety and health
1491:"Metropolitan Health District"
1424:The New York City A1C Registry
973:Annual Review of Public Health
658:
592:
580:
474:
407:
1:
2079:Social determinants of health
1441:Frieden TR (September 2008).
1219:. vermedx.com. Archived from
634:Henning KJ (September 2004).
381:
313:, and kidney function (serum
286:Laboratory-based surveillance
2139:Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
1900:Human factors and ergonomics
946:10.1007/978-3-642-15939-8_42
917:. GeoPatterns.enm.bris.ac.uk
404:(accessed January 14, 2016).
219:methods uses the content of
24:epidemiological surveillance
7:
2320:Good manufacturing practice
2124:Randomized controlled trial
450:World Health Organization.
359:
10:
2711:
2390:Theory of planned behavior
2315:Good agricultural practice
2220:Public health surveillance
2112:epidemiological statistics
1756:Public health intervention
1388:10.1016/j.ehrm.2010.03.002
1158:10.1038/s41746-021-00384-w
398:Public health surveillance
259:Carnegie Mellon University
166:emergency telephone number
127:
20:Public health surveillance
2633:
2568:
2527:
2512:World Toilet Organization
2507:World Health Organization
2414:
2403:
2340:
2265:
2181:
2109:
2074:Public health informatics
2014:
1819:
1781:Right to rest and leisure
1610:Globalization and disease
1545:
1339:10.1007/s11606-009-1147-x
1190:Newton C (6 April 2020).
1097:10.2196/publichealth.5901
619:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
402:World Health Organization
376:Public health informatics
64:public health informatics
36:World Health Organization
2558:Schools of public health
2350:Diffusion of innovations
2049:Health impact assessment
1761:Public health laboratory
1657:Management of depression
1459:10.2105/AJPH.2008.142026
1259:10.2105/AJPH.2005.065391
418:Encyclopedia of the City
2621:Social hygiene movement
2548:Doctor of Public Health
2380:Social cognitive theory
2182:Infectious and epidemic
1964:Fecal–oral transmission
828:10.1126/science.1248506
493:(Suppl 24): 4969–4976.
307:glycated hemoglobin A1c
34:) is, according to the
2616:Germ theory of disease
2395:Transtheoretical model
1253:(4). Ajph.org: 593–5.
422:. Routledge. pp.
327:chronic kidney disease
124:Syndromic surveillance
86:in the United States.
32:syndromic surveillance
2500:Public Health Service
2385:Social norms approach
2375:PRECEDE–PROCEED model
1821:Preventive healthcare
1714:Pharmaceutical policy
1563:Chief Medical Officer
213:Information Retrieval
209:University of Bristol
110:cost-benefit analysis
28:clinical surveillance
2576:Sara Josephine Baker
2475:Public Health Agency
2360:Health communication
2225:Disease surveillance
2191:Asymptomatic carrier
2173:Statistical software
1861:Preventive nutrition
1689:Medical anthropology
1578:Environmental health
1135:npj Digital Medicine
1036:10.1056/NEJMp0900702
683:Eysenbach G (2006).
217:Statistical Analysis
170:emergency department
130:Disease surveillance
84:2001 anthrax attacks
2586:Carl Rogers Darnall
2581:Samuel Jay Crumbine
2355:Health belief model
2208:Notifiable diseases
2144:Regression analysis
1979:Waterborne diseases
1568:Cultural competence
875:2015NatSR...512760L
820:2014Sci...343.1203L
814:(6176): 1203–1205.
772:10.1038/nature07634
763:2009Natur.457.1012G
725:"Google Flu Trends"
672:on 20 January 2007.
556:10.1197/jamia.M2069
371:Gamification#Health
52:infectious diseases
2695:Medical monitoring
2184:disease prevention
2119:Case–control study
1791:Security of person
1640:Health care reform
863:Scientific Reports
499:10.1002/cncr.30905
346:San Antonio, Texas
265:Surveillance sites
2677:
2676:
2629:
2628:
2539:Higher education
2370:Positive deviance
2365:Health psychology
2341:Health behavioral
2268:safety management
2242:Social distancing
2016:Population health
1996:Smoking cessation
1944:Pharmacovigilance
1915:Injury prevention
1883:Infection control
1801:Social psychology
1751:Prisoners' rights
1694:Medical sociology
1662:Public health law
1558:Biological hazard
1030:(21): 2153–2157.
883:10.1038/srep12760
600:"webcitation.org"
414:Caves RW (2004).
292:diabetes mellitus
269:Flu Near You and
255:COVID-19 pandemic
242:Google Flu Trends
236:Search aggregates
201:Google Flu Trends
193:Gunther Eysenbach
2702:
2665:
2664:
2653:
2652:
2641:
2640:
2535:Health education
2412:
2411:
2266:Food hygiene and
2247:Tropical disease
2059:Infant mortality
2034:Community health
1910:Controlled Drugs
1846:Health promotion
1776:Right to housing
1620:Health economics
1532:
1525:
1518:
1509:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1498:
1493:. Sanantonio.gov
1487:
1481:
1480:
1470:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1430:on June 9, 2007.
1416:
1410:
1409:
1399:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1350:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1270:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1170:
1160:
1150:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1109:
1099:
1075:
1066:
1065:
1055:
1015:
1009:
1008:
998:
988:
964:
951:
950:
948:
932:
926:
925:
923:
922:
911:
905:
904:
894:
869:(12760): 12760.
854:
848:
847:
799:
793:
792:
774:
757:(7232): 1012–4.
742:
736:
735:
733:
732:
721:
715:
714:
704:
680:
674:
673:
662:
656:
655:
640:MMWR Supplements
631:
625:
624:
618:
610:
608:
607:
596:
590:
584:
578:
577:
567:
535:
529:
528:
518:
478:
472:
471:
469:
467:
462:on April 1, 2014
458:. Archived from
447:
438:
437:
421:
411:
405:
395:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2673:
2625:
2596:Margaret Sanger
2564:
2523:
2407:
2405:
2399:
2342:
2336:
2308:Safety scandals
2267:
2261:
2183:
2177:
2111:
2105:
2101:Social medicine
2094:Race and health
2029:Child mortality
2010:
1969:Open defecation
1851:Human nutrition
1841:Family planning
1829:Behavior change
1815:
1771:Right to health
1684:Maternal health
1674:Health politics
1625:Health literacy
1541:
1536:
1506:
1505:
1496:
1494:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1439:
1435:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1368:
1364:
1333:(12): 1303–10.
1319:
1315:
1288:
1284:
1239:
1235:
1226:
1224:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1200:
1198:
1188:
1184:
1127:
1123:
1076:
1069:
1016:
1012:
965:
954:
933:
929:
920:
918:
913:
912:
908:
855:
851:
800:
796:
743:
739:
730:
728:
723:
722:
718:
681:
677:
664:
663:
659:
632:
628:
612:
611:
605:
603:
598:
597:
593:
585:
581:
536:
532:
479:
475:
465:
463:
448:
441:
434:
412:
408:
396:
389:
384:
366:Contact tracing
362:
288:
267:
250:
238:
229:
227:Digital methods
178:epidemiologists
159:Using a normal
132:
126:
91:cancer registry
17:
12:
11:
5:
2708:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2671:
2659:
2647:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2572:
2570:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2418:
2416:
2409:
2404:Organizations,
2401:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2346:
2344:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2317:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2271:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2193:
2187:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2160:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2115:
2113:
2110:Biological and
2107:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2076:
2071:
2069:Multimorbidity
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2020:
2018:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2008:
2006:Vector control
2003:
1998:
1993:
1991:School hygiene
1988:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1974:Sanitary sewer
1971:
1966:
1961:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1932:Patient safety
1929:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1825:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1637:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1615:Harm reduction
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1590:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1542:
1535:
1534:
1527:
1520:
1512:
1504:
1503:
1482:
1433:
1411:
1382:(1): e61–e66.
1362:
1313:
1282:
1233:
1208:
1182:
1121:
1067:
1010:
952:
927:
906:
849:
794:
737:
716:
675:
657:
626:
591:
579:
530:
473:
439:
432:
406:
386:
385:
383:
380:
379:
378:
373:
368:
361:
358:
323:clinical trial
287:
284:
266:
263:
249:
246:
237:
234:
228:
225:
125:
122:
82:, such as the
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2707:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2690:Public health
2688:
2687:
2685:
2670:
2669:
2660:
2658:
2657:
2648:
2646:
2645:
2636:
2635:
2632:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2591:Joseph Lister
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2519:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2470:Health Canada
2468:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2415:Organizations
2413:
2410:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2339:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2264:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2252:Vaccine trial
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2206:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2180:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2129:Relative risk
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2108:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2089:Health equity
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2054:Health system
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:Global health
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2024:Biostatistics
2022:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1766:Right to food
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1699:Mental health
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1647:Housing First
1645:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1635:Health system
1633:
1632:
1631:
1630:Health policy
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1539:Public health
1533:
1528:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1492:
1486:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1302:(3): 166–70.
1301:
1297:
1293:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1223:on 2011-02-02
1222:
1218:
1212:
1197:
1193:
1186:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1072:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1006:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
982:
978:
974:
970:
963:
961:
959:
957:
947:
942:
938:
931:
916:
910:
902:
898:
893:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
853:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
798:
790:
786:
782:
778:
773:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
741:
726:
720:
712:
708:
703:
698:
694:
690:
686:
679:
671:
667:
661:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
630:
622:
616:
601:
595:
588:
583:
575:
571:
566:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
534:
526:
522:
517:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
477:
461:
457:
453:
446:
444:
435:
433:9780415252256
429:
425:
420:
419:
410:
403:
399:
394:
392:
387:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
363:
357:
353:
351:
347:
342:
339:
335:
334:New York City
330:
328:
324:
320:
319:urine protein
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
295:
293:
283:
281:
277:
272:
262:
260:
256:
245:
243:
233:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
189:
186:
181:
179:
173:
171:
167:
162:
157:
155:
151:
146:
144:
140:
137:
131:
121:
119:
113:
111:
107:
106:epidemiologic
103:
99:
94:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
48:
44:
41:
40:public health
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
2666:
2654:
2642:
2611:Radium Girls
2606:Typhoid Mary
2293:Microbiology
2219:
2163:
2155:
2039:Epidemiology
1937:Organization
1888:Oral hygiene
1878:Hand washing
1856:Healthy diet
1786:Right to sit
1679:Labor rights
1495:. Retrieved
1485:
1450:
1446:
1436:
1428:the original
1423:
1414:
1379:
1375:
1365:
1330:
1326:
1316:
1299:
1295:
1285:
1250:
1246:
1236:
1225:. Retrieved
1221:the original
1211:
1199:. Retrieved
1195:
1185:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1087:
1083:
1027:
1023:
1013:
976:
972:
936:
930:
919:. Retrieved
909:
866:
862:
852:
811:
807:
797:
754:
750:
740:
729:. Retrieved
727:. Google.org
719:
692:
688:
678:
670:the original
660:
643:
639:
629:
604:. Retrieved
594:
582:
550:(4): 372–7.
547:
543:
533:
490:
486:
476:
464:. Retrieved
460:the original
455:
417:
409:
354:
350:Bexar County
343:
331:
296:
289:
276:dengue fever
271:Influenzanet
268:
251:
248:Social media
239:
230:
190:
185:bioterrorist
182:
174:
168:or go to an
158:
150:bioterrorist
147:
143:bioterrorism
133:
114:
95:
88:
80:bioterrorism
49:
45:
31:
27:
23:
19:
18:
2668:WikiProject
2408:and history
2288:Engineering
2001:Vaccination
1873:Food safety
1201:2 September
1090:(2): e161.
979:: 101–118.
311:cholesterol
303:blood sugar
78:, and even
2684:Categories
2421:Caribbean
2298:Processing
2232:Quarantine
2154:Student's
1954:Sanitation
1588:History of
1497:2014-04-18
1227:2014-04-18
1148:2003.08086
1141:(17): 17.
921:2014-04-18
731:2014-04-18
606:2014-04-18
466:19 October
382:References
315:creatinine
282:, Brazil.
156:or a lab.
128:See also:
2601:John Snow
2528:Education
2518:Full list
2406:education
2330:ISO 22000
2283:Chemistry
2196:Epidemics
2149:ROC curve
1959:Emergency
1739:Radiation
1719:Pollution
1703:Ministers
1600:Euthenics
1196:The Verge
1044:0028-4793
844:206553739
695:: 244–8.
507:0008-543X
305:control (
199:launched
161:influenza
154:physician
139:outbreaks
68:influenza
2644:Category
2343:sciences
2278:Additive
1949:Safe sex
1920:Medicine
1834:Theories
1605:Genomics
1583:Eugenics
1573:Deviance
1553:Auxology
1477:18633070
1406:20975923
1357:19862578
1308:19298097
1277:16507723
1177:33558607
1116:27765731
1062:19423867
1005:31905322
901:26234783
836:24626916
781:19020500
711:17238340
652:15714620
646:: 5–11.
615:cite web
587:disa.mil
574:16622159
525:29205307
360:See also
102:diabetes
58:and the
2656:Commons
2569:History
2466:Canada
2441:Europe
1925:Nursing
1905:Hygiene
1868:Hygiene
1593:Liberal
1546:General
1468:2509589
1397:2958673
1348:2787948
1268:1470550
1168:7870878
1107:5095368
1053:2917042
996:7959655
892:4522652
871:Bibcode
816:Bibcode
808:Science
759:Bibcode
702:1839505
565:1513675
516:5846186
221:Twitter
136:disease
2456:India
2431:China
2303:Safety
1984:Worker
1475:
1465:
1404:
1394:
1355:
1345:
1306:
1275:
1265:
1175:
1165:
1114:
1104:
1060:
1050:
1042:
1003:
993:
899:
889:
842:
834:
789:125775
787:
779:
751:Nature
709:
699:
650:
572:
562:
523:
513:
505:
487:Cancer
430:
205:Nature
197:Google
98:stroke
22:(also
2481:U.S.
2325:HACCP
2274:Food
2166:-test
2158:-test
1744:Light
1729:Water
1143:arXiv
840:S2CID
785:S2CID
280:Bahia
118:JCAHO
2257:WASH
2213:List
2201:List
1734:Soil
1473:PMID
1402:PMID
1353:PMID
1304:PMID
1273:PMID
1203:2020
1173:PMID
1112:PMID
1058:PMID
1040:ISSN
1001:PMID
897:PMID
832:PMID
777:PMID
707:PMID
693:2006
648:PMID
621:link
570:PMID
521:PMID
503:ISSN
468:2016
428:ISBN
317:and
215:and
72:SARS
1724:Air
1463:PMC
1455:doi
1392:PMC
1384:doi
1343:PMC
1335:doi
1263:PMC
1255:doi
1163:PMC
1153:doi
1102:PMC
1092:doi
1048:PMC
1032:doi
1028:360
991:PMC
981:doi
941:doi
887:PMC
879:doi
824:doi
812:343
767:doi
755:457
697:PMC
589:PDF
560:PMC
552:doi
511:PMC
495:doi
491:123
424:548
309:),
299:NIH
278:in
76:HIV
56:WHO
30:or
2686::
1471:.
1461:.
1451:98
1449:.
1445:.
1422:.
1400:.
1390:.
1378:.
1374:.
1351:.
1341:.
1331:24
1329:.
1325:.
1300:15
1298:.
1294:.
1271:.
1261:.
1251:96
1249:.
1245:.
1194:.
1171:.
1161:.
1151:.
1137:.
1133:.
1110:.
1100:.
1086:.
1082:.
1070:^
1056:.
1046:.
1038:.
1026:.
1022:.
999:.
989:.
977:41
975:.
971:.
955:^
895:.
885:.
877:.
865:.
861:.
838:.
830:.
822:.
810:.
806:.
783:.
775:.
765:.
753:.
749:.
705:.
691:.
687:.
644:53
642:.
638:.
617:}}
613:{{
568:.
558:.
548:13
546:.
542:.
519:.
509:.
501:.
489:.
485:.
454:.
442:^
426:.
400:,
390:^
329:.
261:.
172:.
74:,
70:,
26:,
2520:)
2516:(
2164:Z
2156:t
1705:)
1701:(
1531:e
1524:t
1517:v
1500:.
1479:.
1457::
1408:.
1386::
1380:1
1359:.
1337::
1310:.
1279:.
1257::
1230:.
1205:.
1179:.
1155::
1145::
1139:4
1118:.
1094::
1088:2
1064:.
1034::
1007:.
983::
949:.
943::
924:.
903:.
881::
873::
867:5
846:.
826::
818::
791:.
769::
761::
734:.
713:.
654:.
623:)
609:.
576:.
554::
527:.
497::
470:.
436:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.