431:
addition to guaranteeing "the free inhabitants of each of these states . . . privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States." While the
Framers of our Constitution omitted the reference to "free ingress and regress," they retained the general guaranty of "privileges and immunities." Charles Pinckney, who drafted the current version of Art. IV, told the Convention that this Article was "formed exactly upon the principles of the 4th article of the present Confederation." Commentators, therefore, have assumed that the Framers omitted the express guaranty merely because it was redundant, not because they wished to excise the right from the Constitution. Early opinions by the Justices of this Court also traced a right to travel or migrate interstate to Art. IV's Privileges and Immunities Clause....Similarly, in Paul v. Virginia, the Court found that one of the "undoubt" effects of the Clause was to give "the citizens of each State . . . the right of free ingress into other States, and egress from them....
351:
out of state regarding fundamental rights (e.g. protection by the government of the enjoyment of life, and liberty, the right to acquire and possess property of every kind, and to pursue and obtain happiness and safety). These rights often focus on the economic right to pursue a livelihood. The second part of the test focuses on whether the state is justified in the discrimination. It examines if there is a substantial reason for the difference in treatment, and if the discriminatory law has a substantial relationship to that reason. For example, the Court has asked: "Does the distinction made by
Montana between residents and nonresidents in establishing access to elk hunting threaten a basic right in a way that offends the Privileges and Immunities Clause?" See
110:. Madison wrote, "Those who come under the denomination of free inhabitants of a State, although not citizens of such State, are entitled, in every other State, to all the privileges of free citizens of the latter; that is, to greater privileges than they may be entitled to in their own State." Madison apparently did not believe that this clause in the Articles of Confederation dictated how a state must treat its own citizens.
367: (1978). The court held it did not, because hunting is a recreational sport, which is outside the fundamental rights protected by the Constitution. If the court had found that recreation and sports were fundamental rights, it would have still had to examine whether the state had a compelling interest (protecting elk herds from being over-hunted), and whether the law was designed to address that problem.
278:
inhibits discriminating legislation against them by other States; it gives them the right of free ingress into other States, and egress from them; it insures to them in other States the same freedom possessed by the citizens of those States in the acquisition and enjoyment of property and in the pursuit of happiness; and it secures to them in other States the equal protection of their laws.
350:
The
Privileges and Immunities Clause prevents discrimination against people from out of state, but only with regard to basic rights. The Court uses a two-part test to determine if the Privileges and Immunities Clause has been violated. First, it looks to see if a law discriminates against people from
136:
wrote in 1823 that the protections provided by the clause are confined to privileges and immunities which are, "in their nature, fundamental; which belong, of right, to the citizens of all free governments; and which have, at all times, been enjoyed by the citizens of the several states which compose
390:
rivileges and immunities....are, in the language of Judge
Washington, those rights which are fundamental. Throughout his opinion, they are spoken of as rights belonging to the individual as a citizen of a State....The constitutional provision there alluded to did not create those rights....It threw
282:
The Court went on to explain that the laws of one state would not become effective in another: "It was not intended by the provision to give to the laws of one State any operation in other States. They can have no such operation, except by the permission, express or implied, of those States." These
277:
It was undoubtedly the object of the clause in question to place the citizens of each State upon the same footing with citizens of other States, so far as the advantages resulting from citizenship in those States are concerned. It relieves them from the disabilities of alienage in other States; it
192:
It is obvious, that, if the citizens of each state were to be deemed aliens to each other, they could not take, or hold real estate, or other privileges, except as other aliens. The intention of this clause was to confer on them, if one may so say, a general citizenship; and to communicate all the
397:
was to declare to the several States, that whatever those rights, as you grant or establish them to your own citizens, or as you limit or qualify, or impose restrictions on their exercise, the same, neither more nor less, shall be the measure of the rights of citizens of other States within your
430:
Article IV's
Privileges and Immunities Clause has enjoyed a long association with the rights to travel and migrate interstate. The Clause derives from Art. IV of the Articles of Confederation. The latter expressly recognized a right of "free ingress and regress to and from any other State," in
402:
The
Supreme Court has never interpreted the Privileges and Immunities Clause as requiring any state to protect general rights of citizenship beyond those that the state already protects for its own citizens, though even a state's own citizens must be allowed to leave the state in order to enjoy
69:
156:
case involved the rights of an out-of-state citizen, rather than the rights of an in-state citizen, and
Justice Washington's opinion did not suggest that this provision of the Constitution addresses how a legislature must treat its own citizens. On the contrary, Washington's handwritten notes
475:
The rights, privileges, and immunities of citizens of the United States shall be respected in Puerto Rico to the same extent as though Puerto Rico were a State of the Union and subject to the provisions of paragraph 1 of section 2 of article IV of the
Constitution of the United
250:
It would be a curious question to solve what are the privileges and immunities of citizens of each of the States in the several States....I am not aware that the
Supreme Court have ever undertaken to define either the nature or extent of the privileges and immunities thus
170:, Justice Baldwin addressed the Privileges and Immunities Clause: "We must take it therefore as a grant by the people of the state in convention, to the citizens of all the other states of the Union, of the privileges and immunities of the citizens of this state."
376:(1873) is consistent with the idea that the Privileges and Immunities Clause was intended only to guarantee that a citizen of one state could enjoy equality in another state with regard to fundamental rights. Referring to the words of Justice Washington in
451:
exception to the
Privileges and Immunities Clause. That means that even when a state is acting as a producer or supplier for a marketable good or service, the Privileges and Immunities Clause may prevent it from discriminating against non-residents.
480:
In the 1970s the Supreme Court began to recognize the application to Puerto Rico of several Constitutional protections contained in the Bill of Rights. In its opinions, the Court, without elaborating, relied on the
391:
around them in that clause no security for the citizen of the State in which they were claimed or exercised. Nor did it profess to control the power of the State governments over the rights of its own citizens. Its
411:
The Privileges and Immunities Clause says that a citizen of one state is entitled to the privileges in another state, from which a right to travel to that other state may be inferred. Under this clause such an
329:
that the Privileges and Immunities Clause in Article IV of the Constitution has no bearing on how a state treats its own citizens. In-state residents "have no claim under the Privileges and Immunities Clause."
332:
255:
The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified two years later, in 1868, and still the Supreme Court had not spoken. The following year, on November 1 of 1869, the Court finally addressed this issue. In the case of
615:, 60 U.S. 393 at 584: "It rests with the States themselves so to frame their Constitutions and laws as not to attach a particular privilege or immunity to mere naked citizenship" (Curtis dissenting).
792:
1789:
1479:
700:
said: "Justice O'Connor plausibly argues that the right predates the Constitution, and was carried forward in the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Art. IV" (citation omitted). Id. at 66.
1297:
1804:
1234:
1754:
1335:
1602:
585:
1704:
1474:
2421:
2436:
1774:
1307:
1191:
991:
923:
1759:
1177:
735:
197:
Thus, Story thought that the clause was meant "only to provide temporary visitors with equality in certain rights with the citizens of the states they were visiting."
1955:
1162:
1152:
435:
Despite scholarly and judicial opinions acknowledging that the Privileges and Immunities Clause may include a right to travel, the issue is not without controversy.
1794:
1172:
1167:
1157:
1147:
2457:
1127:
1137:
1132:
1101:
1096:
422:, a majority of the U.S. Supreme Court agreed that the Privileges and Immunities Clause plausibly includes a right of interstate travel. In that case, Justice
239:
173:
These federal circuit court statements by Justices Washington and Baldwin were not inconsistent with each other. They both became the settled doctrine of the
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1122:
1106:
357:
337:
315:
294:
1699:
1073:
263:
1950:
1078:
1042:
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2354:
1784:
1679:
1047:
1027:
1017:
418:
1489:
1057:
1052:
1037:
1032:
1022:
1012:
166:
557:
1880:
981:
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916:
2365:
971:
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872:
353:
35:
1734:
976:
956:
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68:
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1224:
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1885:
1684:
310:
47:
1420:
946:
909:
1659:
1629:
1415:
1380:
1360:
766:
1664:
230:
wrote that the clause does not confer any rights other than rights that a visited state chooses to guarantee to its own citizens.
1875:
100:
and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States."
1965:
1634:
1512:
1649:
2187:
1277:
1272:
1199:
804:
1920:
1714:
157:
indicate his belief that this provision of the Constitution did not address how a legislature must treat its own citizens.
118:
that the corresponding Privileges and Immunities Clause in the proposed federal Constitution was "the basis of the union."
2296:
1915:
1507:
1552:
749:
145:
1895:
1257:
932:
848:
830:
625:
598:
246:
noted that the U.S. Supreme Court had never squarely addressed the meaning of the Privileges and Immunities Clause:
2400:
2395:
193:
privileges and immunities, which the citizens of the same state would be entitled to under the like circumstances.
1744:
1729:
867:
767:"Puerto Rico Status Hearing before the Committee on Resources House of Representative One Hundred Fifth Congress"
60:
The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.
20:
2151:
533:
1925:
1865:
1454:
637:
2415:
2213:
1644:
1517:
1322:
1204:
1004:
2429:
2333:
2291:
2286:
1689:
1375:
1340:
517:
467:
in 1947) which expressly extended this constitutional clause to the U.S. citizens in the jurisdiction of
416:
which is in use in a small minority of countries, would be unconstitutional. Indeed, in the 1982 case of
223:
2383:
1830:
1799:
1522:
1287:
1282:
140:
In his explanation of the scope of the rights protected by the clause, Justice Washington included the
31:
895:
2131:
2011:
1810:
1542:
1365:
1242:
1088:
89:
2100:
1970:
1834:
1694:
1613:
1459:
1449:
1317:
570:
210:, speaking for the majority, said that the clause gives state citizens, when in other states, the
1890:
1838:
1764:
1592:
1469:
1464:
1400:
1370:
1312:
892:
provides source materials regarding the original meaning of the Privileges and Immunities Clause.
685:
444:
227:
2053:
1572:
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1444:
1395:
1219:
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423:
75:
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361:
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161:
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from treating citizens of other states in a discriminatory manner. Additionally, a right of
2405:
1960:
1674:
1669:
1624:
1597:
1547:
1292:
889:
697:
493:
372:
215:
853:
Rich, William J. "Why 'Privileges or Immunities'? An Explanation of the Framers' Intent,"
536:, Concurring Opinions (October 8, 2017), discussing Justice Bushrod Washington's notes on
8:
2388:
2177:
1905:
1769:
1557:
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128:
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111:
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1995:
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107:
97:
901:
2032:
1779:
1654:
1582:
1567:
1302:
1247:
1209:
877:
721:
Natelson, Robert. "The Original Meaning of the Privileges and Immunities Clause",
529:
258:
2317:
2265:
2146:
2105:
2016:
1940:
1844:
1826:
1562:
1532:
1390:
753:
243:
211:
141:
333:
United Building & Construction Trades Council v. Mayor and Council of Camden
2255:
2234:
2218:
2182:
2126:
2095:
1910:
693:
464:
137:
this Union, from the time of their becoming free, independent, and sovereign."
837:
The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Second Edition
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2281:
2239:
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2136:
2058:
1930:
1900:
1816:
1719:
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103:
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2192:
793:
Examining Board of Engineers, Architects and Surveyors v. Flores de Otero
468:
207:
144:
through and reside in states, the right to claim benefit of the writ of
2037:
325: (1944). The Court has never deviated from the principle stated in
43:
1945:
668:
Bogen, David. "The Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV",
655:
Bogen, David. "The Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV",
898:
describes case law relevant to the Privileges and Immunities Clause.
160:
Another pertinent federal circuit court case was decided by Justice
148:, the right of access to the courts, the right to purchase and hold
200:
The clause was also mentioned by the Supreme Court in the infamous
152:, and an exemption from higher taxes than state residents pay. The
149:
78:
Hand-written copy of the Privileges and Immunities Clause from 1787
1980:
1410:
821:
Farber, Daniel A.; Eskridge, William N., Jr.; Frickey, Philip P.
497:
as precedent for the application of these constitutional rights.
823:
Constitutional Law: Themes for the Constitution's Third Century
93:
106:
discussed that provision of the Articles of Confederation in
748:
This federal law is currently codified in the U.S. Code as
736:
United Building & Construction Trades Council v. Camden
287:
are still good law, and were relied upon, for example, in
238:
In 1866, during the congressional debates about the draft
83:
240:
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
931:
121:
455:Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship by the
164:, who succeeded Justice Washington. In the case of
2355:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787
808:, 478 U.S. 328, 331 n.1 (1986) (First Amendment).
92:: "The free inhabitants of each of these States,
2449:
802:, 442 U.S. 465, 469 (1979) (Fourth Amendment);
796:, 426 U.S. 572, 600 (1976) (Equal Protection);
2458:Article Four of the United States Constitution
2366:Bibliography of the United States Constitution
873:Baldwin v. Fish and Game Commission of Montana
403:privileges and immunities in any other state.
354:Baldwin v. Fish and Game Commission of Montana
917:
624:Sen. Jacob Howard (May 23, 1866), quoted in
88:The clause is similar to a provision in the
273: (1868), the Court said the following:
924:
910:
2463:Clauses of the United States Constitution
38:, Section 2, Clause 1, also known as the
16:Part of Article IV of the US Constitution
2422:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution
311:U.S. v. South-Eastern Underwriters Ass'n
2450:
233:
905:
805:Posadas de Puerto Rico v. Tourism Co.
126:In the federal circuit court case of
84:Prior to ratification of Constitution
725:, Vol. 43 1117-1193, at 1183 (2009).
558:16 Fed. Cas. 408 (C.C.E.D. Pa. 1833)
19:Not to be confused with the related
2389:Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom
1916:Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
589:, page 67 (1986), via Google Books.
13:
2468:Privileges and Immunities case law
1480:Drafting and ratification timeline
1225:District of Columbia Voting Rights
518:6 Fed. Cas. 546 (C.C.E.D.Pa. 1823)
463:passed a law (signed by President
406:
122:Between ratification and Civil War
14:
2479:
933:Constitution of the United States
883:
825:. Thomson-West Publishing, 2003.
772:. U.S. Government Printing Office
1336:Convention to propose amendments
571:Commentaries on the Constitution
438:
67:
28:Privileges and Immunities Clause
868:Privileges or Immunities Clause
815:
784:
759:
742:
728:
715:
703:
684:, 457 U.S. 55 (1982). Justice
675:
670:Case Western Reserve Law Review
662:
657:Case Western Reserve Law Review
649:
304: (1999). Other portions of
50:is associated with the clause.
21:Privileges or Immunities Clause
1951:Separation of church and state
672:, Vol. 37, p. 794, 847 (1987).
659:, Vol. 37, p. 794, 847 (1987).
631:
618:
606:
592:
577:
562:
547:
523:
507:
398:jurisdiction. (emphasis added)
1:
1455:Virginia Ratifying Convention
534:“Not King Tut’s Tomb, But...”
2416:National Constitution Center
2214:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
1513:Assemble and Petition Clause
603:, 60 U.S. 393 at 417 (1857).
500:
370:The Court's decision in the
214:, the right to sojourn, the
7:
2287:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
1341:State ratifying conventions
1278:Equal Opportunity to Govern
1273:Electoral College abolition
1200:Congressional Apportionment
861:
459:in 1917; subsequently, the
224:right to keep and bear arms
188:also addressed the clause:
10:
2486:
890:The Founders’ Constitution
857:42 (no. 4, 2009), 1111–27.
712:at 79 (citations omitted).
18:
2374:
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2201:
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2114:
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2004:
1988:
1979:
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1740:Privileges and Immunities
1553:Congressional enforcement
1488:
1475:Rhode Island ratification
1366:Articles of Confederation
1353:
1331:
1308:Parental Rights amendment
1233:
1190:
1115:
1087:
1066:
1003:
999:
990:
939:
642:, 83 U.S. 36 (1873). Via
90:Articles of Confederation
1971:Unitary executive theory
1745:Privileges or Immunities
1460:New York Circular Letter
1450:Massachusetts Compromise
688:, speaking for Justices
1891:Dormant Commerce Clause
1735:Presidential succession
1470:Fayetteville Convention
1465:Hillsborough Convention
1401:Three-fifths Compromise
1381:Philadelphia Convention
1371:Mount Vernon Conference
1258:Campaign finance reform
445:Dormant Commerce Clause
53:
2054:William Samuel Johnson
1926:Nondelegation doctrine
1498:Admission to the Union
1445:Anti-Federalist Papers
1396:Connecticut Compromise
600:Dred Scott v. Sandford
586:No State Shall Abridge
583:Curtis, Michael Kent.
542:Chicago History Museum
478:
433:
400:
280:
253:
203:Dred Scott v. Sandford
195:
63:
2261:Richard Dobbs Spaight
1730:Presidential Electors
1705:Original Jurisdiction
1645:Full Faith and Credit
1518:Assistance of Counsel
1439:The Federalist Papers
1268:Crittenden Compromise
799:Torres v. Puerto Rico
626:Adamson v. California
473:
428:
388:
275:
248:
190:
57:
2430:A More Perfect Union
2406:Constitution Gardens
2327:Convention Secretary
1989:Convention President
1961:Symmetric federalism
1956:Separation of powers
1690:Necessary and Proper
1685:Natural-born citizen
1630:Freedom of the Press
1568:Copyright and Patent
1558:Contingent Elections
1376:Annapolis Convention
835:Hall, Kermit L. ed.
639:Slaughterhouse Cases
373:Slaughterhouse Cases
244:Senator Jacob Howard
216:right to free speech
2437:Worldwide influence
2178:Gunning Bedford Jr.
1906:Executive privilege
1886:Criminal sentencing
1809:Title of Nobility (
1800:Taxing and Spending
1700:Oath or Affirmation
1660:House Apportionment
1523:Case or Controversy
1406:Committee of Detail
1298:"Liberty" amendment
1263:Christian amendment
538:Corfield v. Coryell
514:Corfield v. Coryell
424:Sandra Day O'Connor
234:After the Civil War
226:." In his dissent,
208:Chief Justice Taney
129:Corfield v. Coryell
2091:William Livingston
2075:Alexander Hamilton
1881:Criminal procedure
1876:Constitutional law
1811:Foreign Emoluments
1775:State of the Union
1760:Self-Incrimination
1750:Recess appointment
1543:Compulsory Process
1205:Titles of Nobility
723:Georgia Law Review
644:Cornell Law School
457:Jones–Shafroth Act
449:market participant
206:decision in 1857.
175:U.S. Supreme Court
134:Bushrod Washington
112:Alexander Hamilton
2445:
2444:
2411:Constitution Week
2396:Independence Mall
2384:National Archives
2342:
2341:
2157:Gouverneur Morris
2142:Thomas Fitzsimons
2122:Benjamin Franklin
1996:George Washington
1896:Enumerated powers
1871:Concurrent powers
1866:Balance of powers
1695:No Religious Test
1635:Freedom of Speech
1426:Independence Hall
1349:
1348:
1253:Bricker amendment
1186:
1185:
855:Akron Law Review,
841:Oxford University
690:Thurgood Marshall
682:Zobel v. Williams
530:Magliocca, Gerard
414:internal passport
308:were reversed in
220:right to assemble
184:In 1833, Justice
116:Federalist No. 80
108:Federalist No. 42
48:interstate travel
32:U.S. Constitution
2475:
2401:Constitution Day
2292:Charles Pinckney
2101:William Paterson
2033:Nathaniel Gorham
1986:
1985:
1765:Speech or Debate
1593:Equal Protection
1303:Ludlow amendment
1288:Flag Desecration
1283:Federal Marriage
1248:Blaine amendment
1210:Corwin Amendment
1001:
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997:
996:
926:
919:
912:
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902:
878:Sohappy v. Smith
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419:Zobel v Williams
306:Paul v. Virginia
285:Paul v. Virginia
259:Paul v. Virginia
71:
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2334:William Jackson
2322:
2318:Abraham Baldwin
2301:
2270:
2266:Hugh Williamson
2244:
2223:
2197:
2188:Richard Bassett
2161:
2147:Jared Ingersoll
2110:
2106:Jonathan Dayton
2079:
2063:
2042:
2021:
2017:Nicholas Gilman
2000:
1975:
1941:Reserved powers
1921:Judicial review
1854:
1650:General Welfare
1573:Double Jeopardy
1484:
1411:List of Framers
1391:New Jersey Plan
1345:
1327:
1323:Victims' Rights
1243:Balanced budget
1229:
1182:
1111:
1083:
1062:
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686:William Brennan
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619:
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597:
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582:
578:
574:(1833), § 1800.
568:Story, Joseph.
567:
563:
554:Magill v. Brown
552:
548:
528:
524:
512:
508:
503:
441:
409:
407:Right to travel
236:
212:right to travel
167:Magill v. Brown
142:right to travel
124:
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1089:Reconstruction
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1005:Bill of Rights
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884:External links
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447:, there is no
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2018:
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2013:
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2005:New Hampshire
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1901:Equal footing
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1614:Ex Post Facto
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49:
45:
42:) prevents a
41:
40:Comity Clause
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29:
22:
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2420:
2353:
2152:James Wilson
2115:Pennsylvania
2012:John Langdon
1770:Speedy Trial
1739:
1612:
1503:Appointments
1437:
1220:Equal Rights
1116:20th century
854:
836:
822:
816:Bibliography
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774:. Retrieved
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290:Saenz v. Roe
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25:
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2193:Jacob Broom
2173:George Read
2047:Connecticut
1981:Signatories
1831:Legislative
1805:Territorial
1725:Presentment
1710:Origination
1665:Impeachment
1620:Extradition
1588:Engagements
1578:Due Process
1528:Citizenship
1215:Child Labor
790:See, e.g.,
469:Puerto Rico
443:Unlike the
426:explained:
251:guarantied.
2452:Categories
2425:(painting)
2377:and legacy
2235:John Blair
2084:New Jersey
2038:Rufus King
1936:Preemption
1850:War Powers
1785:Suspension
1603:Exceptions
1293:Human Life
1192:Unratified
992:Amendments
754:§ 737
613:Dred Scott
222:, and the
177:after the
132:, Justice
36:Article IV
1946:Saxbe fix
1835:Executive
1790:Take Care
1780:Supremacy
1655:Guarantee
1583:Elections
1354:Formation
1067:1795–1804
501:Footnotes
179:Civil War
114:wrote in
98:vagabonds
2228:Virginia
2202:Maryland
2166:Delaware
2068:New York
1845:Vicinage
1839:Judicial
1563:Contract
1533:Commerce
1421:Printing
1235:Proposed
947:Preamble
940:Articles
862:See also
379:Corfield
154:Corfield
150:property
2375:Display
2347:Related
2306:Georgia
1827:Vesting
1795:Takings
1680:Militia
1538:Compact
1490:Clauses
1416:Signing
1361:History
896:Findlaw
739:(1984).
540:at the
476:States.
94:paupers
2433:(film)
1817:Treaty
1720:Postal
1715:Pardon
847:
829:
776:7 June
752:
696:, and
494:Balzac
488:Downes
465:Truman
382:, the
218:, the
770:(PDF)
710:Zobel
360:
340:
318:
297:
266:
44:state
845:ISBN
827:ISBN
778:2009
491:and
362:U.S.
342:U.S.
327:Paul
320:U.S.
299:U.S.
268:U.S.
54:Text
26:The
982:VII
962:III
532:.
485:of
365:371
358:436
345:208
338:465
323:533
316:322
302:489
295:526
271:168
2454::
1837:/
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977:VI
967:IV
957:II
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314:,
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1829:(
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925:e
918:t
911:v
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756:.
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544:.
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30:(
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