1326: ≥ 3) are low molecular weight hydroxyl and amine terminated compounds that play an important role in the polymer morphology of polyurethane fibers, elastomers, adhesives, and certain integral skin and microcellular foams. The elastomeric properties of these materials are derived from the phase separation of the hard and soft copolymer segments of the polymer, such that the urethane hard segment domains serve as cross-links between the amorphous polyether (or polyester) soft segment domains. This phase separation occurs because the mainly nonpolar, low melting soft segments are incompatible with the polar, high melting hard segments. The soft segments, which are formed from high molecular weight polyols, are mobile and are normally present in coiled formation, while the hard segments, which are formed from the isocyanate and chain extenders, are stiff and immobile. Because the hard segments are covalently coupled to the soft segments, they inhibit plastic flow of the polymer chains, thus creating elastomeric resiliency. Upon mechanical deformation, a portion of the soft segments are stressed by uncoiling, and the hard segments become aligned in the stress direction. This reorientation of the hard segments and consequent powerful hydrogen bonding contributes to high tensile strength, elongation, and tear resistance values. The choice of chain extender also determines flexural, heat, and chemical resistance properties. The most important chain extenders are
2061:
2221:
2163:
2233:
2187:
2209:
2175:
185:
2076:(at least in case of furniture), almost all of which are considered harmful. California later issued Technical Bulletin 117 2013 which allowed most polyurethane foam to pass flammability tests without the use of flame retardants. Green Science Policy Institute states: "Although the new standard can be met without flame retardants, it does NOT ban their use. Consumers who wish to reduce household exposure to flame retardants can look for a TB117-2013 tag on furniture, and verify with retailers that products do not contain flame retardants."
2309:
446:
2013:(when making polyurethane foam insulation) and so on. The two components are referred to as a polyurethane system, or simply a system. The isocyanate is commonly referred to in North America as the 'A-side' or just the 'iso'. The blend of polyols and other additives is commonly referred to as the 'B-side' or as the 'poly'. This mixture might also be called a 'resin' or 'resin blend'. In Europe the meanings for 'A-side' and 'B-side' are reversed. Resin blend additives may include chain extenders,
872:
20:
4272:
2202:. Control units may have basic on/off and dispense/stop switches, and analogue pressure and temperature gauges, or may be computer-controlled with flow meters to electronically calibrate mix ratio, digital temperature and level sensors, and a full suite of statistical process control software. Add-ons to dispense equipment include nucleation or gas injection units, and third or fourth stream capability for adding pigments or metering in supplemental additive packages.
28:
4278:
2981:
456:
2620:
1010:(for example insulating foam in refrigerators) elastomers (shoe soles, for example), and so on. The isocyanates may be modified by partially reacting them with polyols or introducing some other materials to reduce volatility (and hence toxicity) of the isocyanates, decrease their freezing points to make handling easier or to improve the properties of the final polymers.
867:{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\ce {{R-N=C=O}+H2O->R1-{\underset {| \atop \displaystyle H}{N}}-{\overset {\displaystyle O \atop \|}{C}}-O-H->R-NH2\ +\ CO2(g)}}\\{\ce {{R-N=C=O}+R-NH2->-R-{\underset {| \atop \displaystyle H}{N}}-{\overset {\displaystyle O \atop \|}{C}}-{\underset {| \atop \displaystyle H}{N}}-R}}{-}\end{array}}}
1014:
2332:
isocyanates are used in making polyurethane coatings. When PU foam, which is made using aromatic isocyanates, is exposed to visible light, it discolors, turning from off-white to yellow to reddish brown. It has been generally accepted that apart from yellowing, visible light has little effect on foam
2275:
is used to create low-volume tooling for molded gasket applications. Instead of many expensive metal molds, low-cost plastic tooling can be formed from a single metal master, which also allows greater design flexibility. The heat transfer characteristic of polypropylene tooling is poor, which must be
2000:
ethoxylates, and other organic compounds. In foams, they are used to emulsify the liquid components, regulate cell size, and stabilize the cell structure to prevent collapse and sub-surface voids. In non-foam applications they are used as air release and antifoaming agents, as wetting agents, and are
1226:
percentage of fluorine–carbon bonds, which are the strongest bonds among all chemical bonds, fluorinated polyurethanes exhibit resistance to UV, acids, alkali, salts, chemicals, solvents, weathering, corrosion, fungi and microbial attack. These have been used for high performance coatings and paints.
1009:
TDI and MDI are generally less expensive and more reactive than other isocyanates. Industrial grade TDI and MDI are mixtures of isomers and MDI often contains polymeric materials. They are used to make flexible foam (for example slabstock foam for mattresses or molded foams for car seats), rigid foam
2123:
Although the capital outlay can be high, it is desirable to use a meter-mix or dispense unit for even low-volume production operations that require a steady output of finished parts. Dispense equipment consists of material holding (day) tanks, metering pumps, a mix head, and a control unit. Often, a
1347:
with the exception of ethylene glycol, since its derived bis-phenyl urethane undergoes unfavorable degradation at high hard segment levels. Diethanolamine and triethanolamine are used in flex molded foams to build firmness and add catalytic activity. Diethyltoluenediamine is used extensively in RIM,
1225:
with vinyl ethers containing hydroxyalkyl vinyl ether produces fluorinated (FEVE) polyols. Two-component fluorinated polyurethanes prepared by reacting FEVE fluorinated polyols with polyisocyanate have been used to make ambient cure paints and coatings. Since fluorinated polyurethanes contain a high
3847:
Russell, J. R.; Huang, J.; Anand, P.; Kucera, K.; Sandoval, A. G.; Dantzler, K. W.; Hickman, D.; Jee, J.; Kimovec, F. M.; Koppstein, D.; Marks, D. H.; Mittermiller, P. A.; Nunez, S. J.; Santiago, M.; Townes, M. A.; Vishnevetsky, M.; Williams, N. E.; Vargas, M. P. N.; Boulanger, L.-A.; Bascom-Slack,
1135:
is added to the initiators until the desired molecular weight is achieved. The order of addition and the amounts of each oxide affect many polyol properties, such as compatibility, water-solubility, and reactivity. Polyols made with only propylene oxide are terminated with secondary hydroxyl groups
965:
give tough or rigid polymers. Long chains and low crosslinking give a polymer that is very stretchy, short chains with many crosslinks produce a hard polymer while long chains and intermediate crosslinking give a polymer useful for making foam. The choices available for the isocyanates and polyols,
2248:
Distinct from pour-in-place, bun and boardstock, and coating applications, the production of piece parts requires tooling to contain and form the reacting liquid. The choice of mold-making material is dependent on the expected number of uses to end-of-life (EOL), molding pressure, flexibility, and
2093:
In the United States, additional health and safety information can be found through organizations such as the
Polyurethane Manufacturers Association (PMA) and the Center for the Polyurethanes Industry (CPI), as well as from polyurethane system and raw material manufacturers. Regulatory information
1021:
Aliphatic and cycloaliphatic isocyanates are used in smaller quantities, most often in coatings and other applications where color and transparency are important since polyurethanes made with aromatic isocyanates tend to darken on exposure to light. The most important aliphatic and cycloaliphatic
2114:
production lines. Regardless of the end-product, the manufacturing principle is the same: to meter the liquid isocyanate and resin blend at a specified stoichiometric ratio, mix them together until a homogeneous blend is obtained, dispense the reacting liquid into a mold or on to a surface, wait
2294:
In 2007, the global consumption of polyurethane raw materials was above 12 million metric tons, and the average annual growth rate was about 5%. Revenues generated with PUR on the global market are expected to rise to approximately US$ 75 billion by 2022. As they are such an important class of
2256:
Epoxy, metal-filled epoxy, and metal-coated epoxy is used for tooling that has an EOL in the tens of thousands of parts. It is typically used for molding flexible foam cushions and seating, integral skin and microcellular foam padding, and shallow-draft RIM bezels and fascia. The heat transfer
2252:
RTV silicone is used for tooling that has an EOL in the thousands of parts. It is typically used for molding rigid foam parts, where the ability to stretch and peel the mold around undercuts is needed. The heat transfer characteristic of RTV silicone tooling is poor. High-performance, flexible
1166:
Conventional polyester polyols are based on virgin raw materials and are manufactured by the direct polyesterification of high-purity diacids and glycols, such as adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol. Polyester polyols are usually more expensive and more viscous than polyether polyols, but they make
2197:
The pumps can drive low-pressure (10 to 30 bar, 1 to 3 MPa) or high-pressure (125 to 250 bar, 12.5 to 25.0 MPa) dispense systems. Mix heads can be simple static mix tubes, rotary-element mixers, low-pressure dynamic mixers, or high-pressure hydraulically actuated direct
1942:
catalysts function by enhancing the nucleophilicity of the diol component. Alkyl tin carboxylates, oxides and mercaptides oxides function as mild Lewis acids in accelerating the formation of polyurethane. As bases, traditional amine catalysts include triethylenediamine (TEDA, also called
1147:, or polyurea (PHD) polymer solids chemically grafted to a high molecular weight polyether backbone. They are used to increase the load-bearing properties of low-density high-resiliency (HR) foam, as well as add toughness to microcellular foams and cast elastomers. Initiators such as
3255:
Adam, Norbert; Avar, Geza; Blankenheim, Herbert; Friederichs, Wolfgang; Giersig, Manfred; Weigand, Eckehard; Halfmann, Michael; Wittbecker, Friedrich-Wilhelm; Larimer, Donald-Richard; Maier, Udo; Meyer-Ahrens, Sven; Noble, Karl-Ludwig; Wussow, Hans-Georg (2005). "Polyurethanes".
2976:, Hager, Stanley L.; Knight, James E. & Helma, Gregory F. et al., "Polyether polyols suitable for flexible polyurethane foam prepared by co-initiation of aqueous solutions of solid polyhydroxyl initiators", published 1997-01-29, assigned to
1071:
and polyhydroxyl compounds. They can be further classified according to their end use. Higher molecular weight polyols (molecular weights from 2,000 to 10,000) are used to make more flexible polyurethanes while lower molecular weight polyols make more rigid products.
2124:
conditioning or heater–chiller unit is added to control material temperature in order to improve mix efficiency, cure rate, and to reduce process variability. Choice of dispense equipment components depends on shot size, throughput, material characteristics such as
929:
of the polymerising mixture. Foams can be either "closed-cell", where most of the original bubbles or cells remain intact, or "open-cell", where the bubbles have broken but the edges of the bubbles are stiff enough to retain their shape, in extreme cases
1970:
Factors affecting catalyst selection include balancing three reactions: urethane (polyol+isocyanate, or gel) formation, the urea (water+isocyanate, or "blow") formation, or the isocyanate trimerization reaction (e.g., using potassium acetate, to form
2996:
2257:
characteristic of epoxy tooling is fair; the heat transfer characteristic of metal-filled and metal-coated epoxy is good. Copper tubing can be incorporated into the body of the tool, allowing hot water to circulate and heat the mold surface.
2144:. They may incorporate level sensors, conditioning jackets, and mixers. Pumps can be sized to meter in single grams per second up to hundreds of pounds per minute. They can be rotary, gear, or piston pumps, or can be specially hardened
2333:
properties. This is especially the case if the yellowing happens on the outer portions of a large foam, as the deterioration of properties in the outer portion has little effect on the overall bulk properties of the foam itself.
2162:
3741:
1342:
and hydroquinone bis(2-hydroxyethyl) ether (HQEE). All of these glycols form polyurethanes that phase separate well and form well defined hard segment domains, and are melt processable. They are all suitable for
1179:(DMT) distillation bottoms with glycols such as diethylene glycol. These low molecular weight, aromatic polyester polyols are used in rigid foam, and bring low cost and excellent flammability characteristics to
2260:
Aluminum is used for tooling that has an EOL in the hundreds of thousands of parts. It is typically used for molding microcellular foam gasketing and cast elastomer parts, and is milled or extruded into shape.
1136:
and are less reactive than polyols capped with ethylene oxide, which contain primary hydroxyl groups. Incorporating carbon dioxide into the polyol structure is being researched by multiple companies.
914:
groups, and as such the polymer will contain both these and urethane linkers. The urea is not very soluble in the reaction mixture and tends to form separate "hard segment" phases consisting mostly of
2083:
may contain hazardous or regulated components. Isocyanates are known skin and respiratory sensitizers. Additionally, amines, glycols, and phosphate present in spray polyurethane foams present risks.
2098:
Title 21 (Food and Drugs) and Title 40 (Protection of the
Environment). In Europe, health and safety information is available from ISOPA, the European Diisocyanate and Polyol Producers Association.
2220:
2208:
2836:
Soto, Marc; Sebastián, Rosa María; Marquet, Jordi (2014). "Photochemical
Activation of Extremely Weak Nucleophiles: Highly Fluorinated Urethanes and Polyurethanes from Polyfluoro Alcohols".
1155:
are used to make low molecular weight rigid foam polyols that have built-in catalytic activity due to the presence of nitrogen atoms in the backbone. A special class of polyether polyols,
4879:
370:(HFC-245fa) were widely used in North America and the EU, although chlorinated blowing agents remained in use in many developing countries. Later, HFC-134a was also banned due to high
2186:
957:
The properties of a polyurethane are greatly influenced by the types of isocyanates and polyols used to make it. Long, flexible segments, contributed by the polyol, give soft,
2232:
1167:
polyurethanes with better solvent, abrasion, and cut resistance. Other polyester polyols are based on reclaimed raw materials. They are manufactured by transesterification (
1202:
polyols. The materials are used in elastomer, sealant, and adhesive applications that require superior weatherability, and resistance to chemical and environmental attack.
3322:
1899:
3531:
946:
foams can be formed without the addition of blowing agents by mechanically frothing the polyol prior to use. These are tough elastomeric materials used in covering car
3629:"Emerging research trends in the field of polyurethane and its nanocomposites: Chemistry, Synthesis, Characterization, Application in coatings and Future perspectives"
3291:
2054:
1992:
are used to modify the characteristics of both foam and non-foam polyurethane polymers. They take the form of polydimethylsiloxane-polyoxyalkylene block copolymers,
1948:
134:, polyurethane is produced from a wide range of starting materials. This chemical variety produces polyurethanes with different chemical structures leading to many
3072:
Biobased dimer fatty acid containing two pack polyurethane for wood finished coatings, SD Rajput, PP Mahulikar, VV Gite, Progress in
Organic Coatings 77 (1), 38-46
199:
in
Leverkusen, Germany, first made polyurethanes in 1937. The new polymers had some advantages over existing plastics that were made by polymerizing olefins or by
2374:
enzymes. The process is slow as most microbes have difficulty moving beyond the surface of the polymer. Susceptibility to fungi is higher due to their release of
966:
in addition to other additives and processing conditions allow polyurethanes to have the very wide range of properties that make them such widely used polymers.
269:
joint venture, also began making polyurethane chemicals. In 1960 more than 45,000 metric tons of flexible polyurethane foams were produced. The availability of
1721:
1512:
1300:
1059:
are polymers in their own right and have on average two or more hydroxyl groups per molecule. They can be converted to polyether polyols by co-polymerizing
982:. Other materials are added to aid processing the polymer or to modify the properties of the polymer. PU foam formulation sometimes have water added too.
3023:
Khanderay, Jitendra C., and Vikas V. Gite. "Vegetable oil-based polyurethane coatings: recent developments in India." Green
Materials 5.3 (2017): 109-122.
2388:. Degradation of polyurethane items at museums has been reported. Polyester-type polyurethanes are more easily biodegraded by fungus than polyether-type.
4603:
3492:
2174:
327:
Starting in the early 1980s, water-blown microcellular flexible foams were used to mold gaskets for automotive panels and air-filter seals, replacing
3258:
2408:
2312:
Polyurethane foam made with an aromatic isocyanate, which has been exposed to UV light. Readily apparent is the discoloration that occurs over time.
2888:
1280:
2072:, in addition to nitrogen oxides, isocyanates, and other toxic products. Because of the flammability of the material, it has to be treated with
320:, in 1983. Further increases in stiffness were obtained by incorporating pre-placed glass mats into the RIM mold cavity, also known broadly as
5025:
2050:
3428:
3398:
2268:
is used for tooling that imparts a glossy appearance to the finished part. The heat transfer characteristic of metal tooling is excellent.
2145:
2111:
253:
introduced polyalkylene glycols in 1957. Polyether polyols were cheaper, easier to handle and more water-resistant than polyester polyols.
3048:
3131:
Blackwell, J.; Nagarajan, M. R.; Hoitink, T. B. (1981). "The
Structure of the Hard Segments in MDI/diol/PTMA Polyurethane Elastomers".
2107:
285:
resistance. During the 1960s, automotive interior safety components, such as instrument and door panels, were produced by back-filling
211:. Early work focused on the production of fibers and flexible foams and PUs were applied on a limited scale as aircraft coating during
990:
Isocyanates used to make polyurethane have two or more isocyanate groups on each molecule. The most commonly used isocyanates are the
898:, during the polymerization step. This is commonly achieved by adding small amounts of water, which reacts with isocyanates to form CO
3705:
Valentine, C.; Craig, T.A.; Hager, S.L. (1993). "Inhibition of the
Discoloration of Polyurethane Foam Caused by Ultraviolet Light".
2168:
A high-pressure polyurethane dispense unit, showing control panel, high-pressure pump, integral day tanks, and hydraulic drive unit
338:
to give less dense foam, better cushioning/energy absorption or thermal insulation. In the early 1990s, because of their impact on
4596:
3114:
2106:
The methods of manufacturing polyurethane finished goods range from small, hand pour piece-part operations to large, high-volume
3329:
2090:(such as isocyanates) are harmful to human health and therefore special precautions are required during and after this process.
5000:
3566:
3520:
1645:
331:
polymers. Polyurethane foams are used in many automotive applications including seating, head and arm rests, and headliners.
3674:
934:
can be formed. Open-cell foams feel soft and allow air to flow through, so they are comfortable when used in seat cushions or
4479:
3275:
3152:
2922:
2820:
2795:
2770:
2727:
4938:
4889:
4858:
3767:
Newman, Christopher R.; Forciniti, Daniel (2001). "Modeling the
Ultraviolet Photodegradation of Rigid Polyurethane Foams".
3298:
3226:
Musselman, S. G.; Santosusso, T. M.; Sperling, L. H. (1998). "Structure Versus
Performance Properties of Cast Elastomers".
2375:
918:. The concentration and organization of these polyurea phases can have a significant impact on the properties of the foam.
316:
and better thermal stability. This technology was used to make the first plastic-body automobile in the United States, the
2676:"The Use of Saytex RB-9130/9170 Low Viscosity Brominated Flame Retardant Polyols in HFC-245fa and High Water Formulations"
921:
The type of foam produced can be controlled by regulating the amount of blowing agent and also by the addition of various
4041:
3905:
277:(MDI) allowed polyurethane rigid foams to be used as high-performance insulation materials. In 1967, urethane-modified
4589:
4096:
4051:
3381:
2551:
2336:
It has been reported that exposure to visible light can affect the variability of some physical property test results.
304:(RIM), in which the reactants were mixed and then injected into a mold. The addition of fillers, such as milled glass,
176:
Global production in 2019 was 25 million metric tonnes, accounting for about 6% of all polymers produced in that year.
5020:
4065:(formerly BING): European voice for the national trade associations representing the polyurethane insulation industry
2285:
1156:
242:
135:
3794:
2037:. Polyurethane can be made in a variety of densities and hardnesses by varying the isocyanate, polyol or additives.
2009:
Polyurethanes are produced by mixing two or more liquid streams. The polyol stream contains catalysts, surfactants,
1039:
2527:
4581:
4121:
2132:. Material day tanks may be single to hundreds of gallons in size and may be supplied directly from drums, IBCs (
999:
274:
165:. Since a polyurethane contains two types of monomers, which polymerize one after the other, they are classed as
4874:
4853:
4750:
4504:
3211:
Grillo, D. J.; Housel, T. L. (1992). "Physical Properties of Polyurethanes from Polyesters and Other Polyols".
219:
became commercially available in 1952, and production of flexible polyurethane foam began in 1954 by combining
3082:
Nohra, Bassam; Candy, Laure; Blanco, Jean-François; Guerin, Celine; Raoul, Yann; Mouloungui, Zephirin (2013).
2068:
Polyurethanes are combustible. Decomposition from fire can produce significant amounts of carbon monoxide and
3176:
Blackwell, John; Gardner, Kenncorwin H. (1979). "Structure of the hard segments in polyurethane elastomers".
1959:
and bis-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)ether, a blowing catalyst also called A-99. A typical Lewis acidic catalyst is
2384:
are capable of biodegrading polyurethane in aerobic and anaerobic conditions such as found at the bottom of
4928:
4848:
958:
367:
2214:
A low-pressure mix head with calibration chamber installed, showing material supply and air actuator lines
2064:
Open-flame test. Top: untreated polyurethane foam burns vigorously. Bottom: with fire-retardant treatment.
378:
readings, and HFC-141B was introduced in early 2000s as an alternate blowing agent in developing nations.
4921:
4843:
4659:
4256:
2639:
Seymour, Raymond B.; Kauffman, George B. (1992). "Polyurethanes: A class of modern versatile materials".
2423:
2133:
2095:
2060:
1344:
3244:. Midland, Mich.: The Dow Chemical Co., Chemicals and Metals Department. 1992. Brochure 117-00991-92Hyc.
2892:
1067:
with a suitable polyol precursor. Polyester polyols are made by the polycondensation of multifunctional
4186:
4161:
1956:
1172:
1023:
439:
301:
228:
3613:
3507:"Flame Retardants Used in Flexible Polyurethane Foam – Draft Update to a 2005 Alternatives Assessment"
2973:
4961:
4695:
4494:
4319:
4136:
4126:
3369:
2611:
2324:
that interact with light. This is of particular interest in the area of polyurethane coatings, where
1626:
1241:
371:
363:
223:(TDI) and polyester polyols. These materials were also used to produce rigid foams, gum rubber, and
2343:
radiation promotes chemical reactions in foam, some of which are detrimental to the foam structure.
4990:
4985:
4765:
4755:
4617:
4304:
4251:
4141:
3740:
Blair, G. Ron; Dawe, Bob; McEvoy, Jim; Pask, Roy; de Priamus, Marcela Rusan; Wright, Carol (2007).
3493:"Environmental Profiles of Chemical Flame-Retardant Alternatives for Low-Density Polyurethane Foam"
2618:, "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Polyurethanen bzw. Polyharnstoffen ", published 1942-12-07
2428:
2087:
375:
308:, and processed mineral fibers, gave rise to reinforced RIM (RRIM), which provided improvements in
154:(PUL). Foams are the largest application accounting for 67% of all polyurethane produced in 2016.
4355:
4246:
4231:
4211:
4059:: Industry information, educational materials and resources related to flexible polyurethane foam
3435:
3075:
2418:
2403:
1218:
1027:
4980:
4770:
4648:
4403:
4131:
4089:
2872:
2355:. This is a common problem with shoes left in a closet, and reacting with moisture in the air.
1339:
1095: = 2.75). Polyols for rigid applications use higher functionality initiators such as
351:
3548:
1056:
1013:
4950:
4654:
4299:
3052:
2378:, which are better able to permeate the polymer matrix. Two species of the Ecuadorian fungus
2226:
Low-pressure mix head components, including mix chambers, conical mixers, and mounting plates
1880:
1176:
151:
143:
3376:. The United Kingdom: Huntsman International LLC, Polyurethanes business. pp. 156–159.
166:
4670:
4665:
4638:
4556:
3943:
3861:
3821:
3098:
2648:
2585:
2481:
1960:
1952:
1702:
1453:
995:
415:
220:
3506:
2192:
A high-pressure mix head, showing material supply and hydraulic actuator lines (rear view)
8:
5010:
4800:
4561:
4484:
4398:
4350:
2685:. Las Vegas, NV: Alliance for the Polyurethane Industry Technical Conference. p. 309
1222:
1203:
23:
Polyurethane synthesis, wherein the urethane groups −NH−(C=O)−O− link the molecular units
3947:
3865:
3825:
3102:
2652:
2589:
2485:
1963:. The process is highly sensitive to the nature of the catalyst and is also known to be
184:
4995:
4815:
4733:
4474:
4448:
4418:
4378:
4360:
4309:
4261:
4241:
4015:
3988:
3964:
3931:
3882:
3849:
3722:
3681:
3656:
2955:
2504:
2469:
2034:
1762:
1493:
1434:
1139:
Graft polyols (also called filled polyols or polymer polyols) contain finely dispersed
1076:
939:
423:
328:
270:
3932:"Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing Our Cultural Heritage"
3833:
3083:
2675:
5015:
5005:
4945:
4911:
4831:
4643:
4465:
4383:
4082:
4020:
3969:
3887:
3726:
3660:
3648:
3410:
3377:
3271:
3193:
3189:
3158:
3148:
2918:
2853:
2816:
2791:
2766:
2723:
2509:
2148:
to meter liquids containing highly abrasive fillers such as chopped or hammer-milled
1781:
1415:
343:
321:
313:
204:
119:
4071:: ISOPA represents the manufacturers in Europe of aromatic diisocyanates and polyols
3987:
Tokiwa, Yutaka; Calabia, Buenaventurada P.; Ugwu, Charles U.; Aiba, Seiichi (2009).
2959:
2308:
4836:
4531:
4433:
4408:
4340:
4206:
4201:
4146:
4010:
4000:
3959:
3951:
3877:
3869:
3829:
3776:
3714:
3640:
3472:
3263:
3185:
3140:
3106:
2947:
2845:
2656:
2593:
2499:
2489:
2069:
1588:
1472:
1363:
1237:
1191:
1180:
1031:
931:
427:
334:
Polyurethane foam (including foam rubber) is sometimes made using small amounts of
309:
278:
200:
170:
169:. Both the isocyanates and polyols used to make a polyurethane contain two or more
41:
4611:
3267:
3037:. Salt Lake City, UT: Alliance for the Polyurethane Industry Technical Conference.
2001:
used to eliminate surface defects such as pin holes, orange peel, and sink marks.
4700:
4686:
4551:
4438:
4428:
4196:
2448:
2265:
2238:
5-gallon (20-liter) material day tanks for supplying a low-pressure dispense unit
2199:
2129:
2073:
2022:
1822:
1800:
1531:
1396:
1327:
1256:
1160:
1152:
1148:
1128:
1068:
1064:
339:
16:
Polymer composed of a chain of organic units joined by carbamate (urethane) links
3743:
The Effect of Visible Light on the Variability of Flexible Foam Compression Sets
422:
of the starting materials must be carefully controlled as excess isocyanate can
398:, or upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Common catalysts include tertiary
4729:
4541:
4443:
4314:
3718:
3644:
3144:
2453:
2380:
2137:
1939:
1683:
1607:
1569:
1550:
1335:
1331:
1311:
1295:. Some biobased and isocyanate-free polyurethanes exploit the reaction between
1268:
1211:
1132:
1112:
1060:
947:
355:
232:
216:
3477:
3460:
2951:
2576:
Bayer, Otto (1947). "Das Di-Isocyanat-Polyadditionsverfahren (Polyurethane)".
2289:
4974:
4916:
4723:
4509:
4499:
4489:
4393:
4294:
4216:
4166:
3795:"Hydrolysis, The Crumbling of Shoe Soles explained | Safety Shoes and Gloves"
3652:
3628:
3197:
3162:
2597:
2358:
Microbial degradation of polyurethane is believed to be due to the action of
2272:
2026:
2010:
1964:
1383:
1375:
1272:
1260:
1233:
1195:
1187:
1144:
943:
907:
895:
435:
419:
411:
335:
317:
286:
254:
1163:, are used in high performance coating, wetting and elastomer applications.
293:
4536:
4526:
4388:
4335:
4181:
4156:
4024:
3973:
3891:
2857:
2513:
2413:
2321:
2153:
2141:
2014:
1972:
1664:
1483:
1120:
1075:
Polyols for flexible applications use low functionality initiators such as
297:
282:
250:
212:
127:
4782:
4271:
3414:
1214:
are used to make elastomers, flexible bunstock, and flexible molded foam.
4719:
4691:
4626:
4546:
4345:
4226:
4221:
4005:
3955:
3873:
3812:
Toward, Gary T. (June 2002). "Biodegradation of polyurethane: a review".
2977:
2340:
2149:
2086:
Exposure to chemicals that may be emitted during or after application of
1997:
1989:
1264:
1263:. Various oils used in the preparation polyols for polyurethanes include
1253:
1199:
991:
975:
461:
445:
131:
19:
281:
rigid foams were introduced, offering even better thermal stability and
4795:
4423:
4413:
4047:
4044:: information for EH&S issues related to polyurethanes developments
2494:
2363:
2352:
2080:
2018:
1984:
1319:
1292:
1291:, etc. Renewable sources used to prepare polyols may be fatty acids or
1276:
1229:
1207:
1168:
962:
935:
922:
882:
387:
192:
158:
3780:
3110:
2849:
2660:
2468:
Gama, Nuno; Ferreira, Artur; Barros-Timmons, Ana (27 September 2018).
2046:
4884:
4790:
4760:
4630:
4191:
4176:
4151:
2615:
2367:
2329:
2295:
materials, research is constantly taking place and papers published.
2125:
1296:
1284:
1140:
1084:
1038:
MDI or hydrogenated MDI). Other more specialized isocyanates include
1003:
951:
613:
431:
224:
208:
196:
123:
3049:"New Twist on Green: 2008 Ford Mustang Seats Will Be Soy-Based Foam"
1279:. Vegetable oils are functionalized in various ways and modified to
1026:(HDI), 1-isocyanato-3-isocyanatomethyl-3,5,5-trimethyl-cyclohexane (
753:
620:
518:
4805:
3084:"From Petrochemical Polyurethanes to Biobased Polyhydroxyurethanes"
2997:"FEVE Technology for Higher Performance Coating Systems on Bridges"
2385:
2371:
2359:
2317:
1993:
1931:
1925:
1743:
1104:
926:
915:
395:
347:
262:
86:
27:
4277:
3035:
A Further Examination of Soy-Based Polyols in Polyurethane Systems
910:
group. The amine produced can also react with isocyanates to form
4933:
4810:
4711:
4613:
4105:
3906:"Could Plastic-Eating Mushrooms Solve mankind's Plastic Problem?"
3033:
Niemeyer, Timothy; Patel, Munjal; Geiger, Eric (September 2006).
2397:
2030:
1096:
979:
359:
147:
115:
3495:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. September 2005.
3353:"FOMREZ Specialty Tin Catalysts for Polyurethane Applications".
2938:
Petrović, Zoran S. (2008). "Polyurethanes from Vegetable Oils".
2049:. No exposure limits have been established in the U.S. by OSHA (
1975:
rings). A variety of specialized catalysts have been developed.
4069:
ISOPA: European Diisocyanate & Polyol Producers Association
3569:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 4 August 2015.
2874:
Structure-Property Relationships of Flexible Polyurethane Foams
1240:. This covalent linkage prevents migration and leaching of the
1051:
391:
238:
162:
126:(urethane) links. In contrast to other common polymers such as
62:
3850:"Biodegradation of Polyester Polyurethane by Endophytic Fungi"
3254:
2180:
A high-pressure mix head, showing simple controls (front view)
1934:
can be classified into two broad categories, basic and acidic
300:
and body panels, were manufactured using a new process called
3627:
Jakhmola, Swati; Das, Sonalee; Dutta, Kingshuk (2023-10-31).
3215:. New Orleans, LA: The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
2325:
1944:
1935:
1288:
903:
407:
403:
399:
266:
258:
157:
A polyurethane is typically produced by reacting a polymeric
3323:"Building quality with Air Products trimerisation catalysts"
974:
The main ingredients to make a polyurethane are di- and tri-
92:
71:
4171:
4074:
3509:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. June 2014.
3225:
2328:
stability is a critical factor and is the main reason that
1002:, (MDI). These aromatic isocyanates are more reactive than
911:
891:
305:
246:
139:
95:
89:
74:
65:
56:
4062:
3549:"Help Wanted: Spray Polyurethane Foam Insulation Research"
2467:
50:
3130:
2610:
2276:
taken into consideration during the formulation process.
2055:
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
1348:
and in polyurethane and polyurea elastomer formulations.
1183:(PIR) boardstock and polyurethane spray foam insulation.
745:
675:
653:
543:
507:
83:
3230:. Dallas, TX: The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
3139:. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society: 179–196.
890:
The most common application of polyurethane is as solid
4068:
3846:
3580:
3292:"Jeffcat Amine Catalysts for the Polyurethane Industry"
2972:
438:
material which does not melt on heating; although some
4063:
PU Europe: European PU insulation industry association
3081:
4056:
3986:
3567:"Quick Safety Tips for Spray Polyurethane Foam Users"
2742:
2298:
876:
Carbon dioxide gas and urea links formed by reacting
838:
811:
792:
581:
562:
459:
98:
77:
68:
44:
3459:
McKenna, Sean Thomas; Hull, Terence Richard (2016).
3051:. Edmunds inside line. July 12, 2007. Archived from
2835:
2057:). It is not regulated by OSHA for carcinogenicity.
1306:
354:(CFC-11). By the late 1990s, blowing agents such as
53:
47:
3814:
International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation
3749:. Orlando, FL: Center for the Polyurethane Industry
3739:
3704:
3399:"Health hazards associated with polyurethane foams"
3032:
2718:Gum, Wilson; Riese, Wolfram; Ulrich, Henri (1992).
2253:polyurethane elastomers are also used in this way.
273:blowing agents, inexpensive polyether polyols, and
59:
866:
3929:
2409:Penetrant (mechanical, electrical, or structural)
2045:Fully reacted polyurethane polymer is chemically
1259:products raised interest in polyols derived from
4972:
3626:
3175:
2346:
3769:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
3766:
3598:Avar, G. (October 2008). "Polyurethanes (PU)".
2638:
2470:"Polyurethane Foams: Past, Present, and Future"
2115:until it cures, then demold the finished part.
1819:Hydroxyl compounds – tetrafunctional molecules
1091: = 3), or a sorbitol/water solution (
292:In 1969, Bayer exhibited an all-plastic car in
3259:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
2756:
2754:
2717:
1232:-containing polyols are available that become
203:, and were not covered by patents obtained by
4597:
4090:
3614:"Market Study: Polyurethanes and Isocyanates"
2552:"Polyurethane global market volume 2015-2026"
2051:Occupational Safety and Health Administration
1740:Hydroxyl compounds – trifunctional molecules
188:Otto Bayer in 1952 demonstrating his creation
3210:
2400:, a material with higher plant-based content
1393:Hydroxyl compounds – difunctional molecules
816:
586:
3993:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
3633:Journal of Coatings Technology and Research
3458:
2765:. New York: Macmillen Publishing Co., Inc.
2751:
2713:
2711:
2316:Polyurethanes, especially those made using
2303:
1352:Table of chain extenders and cross linkers
894:, which requires the presence of a gas, or
31:A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam
4604:
4590:
4097:
4083:
3680:. Foamex Information sheet. Archived from
3367:
2912:
1236:to the polyurethane matrix for the use as
296:, Germany. Parts of this car, such as the
4014:
4004:
3963:
3881:
3476:
3461:"The fire toxicity of polyurethane foams"
3368:Randall, David; Lee, Steve, eds. (2002).
2829:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2503:
2493:
1877:Amine compounds – difunctional molecules
386:Polyurethanes are produced by reacting di
312:(stiffness), reduction in coefficient of
3228:Polyurethanes '98 Conference Proceedings
3213:Polyurethanes '92 Conference Proceedings
2937:
2889:"Technical data sheet from Dow Chemical"
2877:(Ph.D.). Virginia Polytechnic Institute.
2870:
2815:. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2790:. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2708:
2307:
2059:
1247:
183:
26:
18:
3396:
2788:Chemistry and Technology of Isocyanates
2118:
4973:
4187:Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE)
3936:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
3854:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
3811:
2994:
2871:Kaushiva, Byran D. (August 15, 1999).
2785:
2760:
2627:
938:. Closed-cell foams are used as rigid
4585:
4127:Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX, XLPE)
4122:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
4078:
4042:Center for the Polyurethanes Industry
3429:"Health Alert: Polyurethane exposure"
2810:
2743:Harrington, Ron; Hock, Kathy (1991).
2722:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2673:
2575:
1032:4,4′-diisocyanato dicyclohexylmethane
434:molecular structure, resulting in a
5026:German inventions of the Nazi period
4939:List of environmental health hazards
4859:List of environmental health hazards
3930:Cappitelli, F.; Sorlini, C. (2007).
3675:"Discoloration of polyurethane foam"
3597:
3026:
2747:. Midland: The Dow Chemical Company.
2040:
426:, leading to the formation of rigid
350:-containing blowing agents, such as
241:introduced polyethers, specifically
4050:, Polymer Science Learning Center,
2913:Randall, David; Lee, Steve (2002).
430:. The polymer usually has a highly
227:. Linear fibers were produced from
138:. These include rigid and flexible
13:
4744:Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs
4052:University of Southern Mississippi
2696:
2299:Degradation and environmental fate
1157:poly(tetramethylene ether) glycols
1012:
832:
810:
786:
580:
556:
444:
14:
5037:
4035:
2351:Polyurethanes may degrade due to
2286:List of polyurethane applications
1307:Chain extenders and cross linkers
1299:and cyclic carbonates to produce
1159:, which are made by polymerizing
243:poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol
4276:
4270:
4162:Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
4137:Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
3537:from the original on 2015-12-19.
3403:Journal of Occupational Medicine
3120:from the original on 2017-09-22.
2838:The Journal of Organic Chemistry
2231:
2219:
2207:
2185:
2173:
2161:
2101:
1040:Tetramethylxylylene diisocyanate
969:
40:
4142:Poly(ethyl methacrylate) (PEMA)
3980:
3923:
3898:
3840:
3805:
3787:
3760:
3733:
3698:
3667:
3620:
3606:
3591:
3573:
3559:
3541:
3513:
3499:
3485:
3452:
3421:
3390:
3361:
3346:
3315:
3284:
3248:
3234:
3219:
3204:
3169:
3124:
3066:
3041:
3017:
2988:
2966:
2931:
2906:
2881:
2864:
2804:
2779:
2736:
2279:
2249:heat transfer characteristics.
1000:methylene diphenyl diisocyanate
275:methylene diphenyl diisocyanate
4505:Category:Plastics applications
4252:Styrene maleic anhydride (SMA)
4247:Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
4232:Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
3989:"Biodegradability of Plastics"
2667:
2604:
2569:
2544:
2520:
2461:
2441:
1978:
1024:1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate
985:
834:
788:
685:
679:
558:
146:compounds, and fibers such as
1:
5001:Building insulation materials
4212:Poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO)
4057:Polyurethane Foam Association
3834:10.1016/S0964-8305(02)00051-3
3268:10.1002/14356007.a21_665.pub2
2641:Journal of Chemical Education
2434:
2347:Hydrolysis and biodegradation
2004:
394:, often in the presence of a
4929:Persistent organic pollutant
4890:Toxic Substances Control Act
4849:Persistent organic pollutant
4132:Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
4104:
3707:Journal of Cellular Plastics
3190:10.1016/0032-3861(79)90035-1
2674:Feske, Bert (October 2004).
2134:intermediate bulk containers
1919:
381:
368:1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane
289:skins with semi-rigid foam.
7:
4922:Great Pacific garbage patch
4844:Great Pacific garbage patch
4257:Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)
4172:Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
3848:C.; Strobel, S. A. (2011).
2745:Flexible Polyurethane Foams
2424:Thermoplastic polyurethanes
2391:
2096:Code of Federal Regulations
1947:, 1,4-diazabicyclooctane),
1345:thermoplastic polyurethanes
1173:poly(ethyleneterephthalate)
440:thermoplastic polyurethanes
346:restricted the use of many
142:, and coatings, adhesives,
10:
5042:
4885:Japan Toxic Substances Law
4680:Miscellaneous plasticizers
3719:10.1177/0021955X9302900605
3645:10.1007/s11998-023-00841-z
3145:10.1021/bk-1981-0172.ch014
2813:The ICI Polyurethanes Book
2532:American Chemistry Council
2283:
2271:Finally, molded or milled
2243:
1982:
1957:Dimethylaminoethoxyethanol
1923:
1900:Dimethylthiotoluenediamine
1392:
1186:Specialty polyols include
1049:
1045:
302:reaction injection molding
229:hexamethylene diisocyanate
179:
4959:
4904:
4880:European REACH regulation
4875:California Proposition 65
4867:
4824:
4781:
4743:
4710:
4679:
4625:
4618:polyhalogenated compounds
4574:
4519:
4495:High-performance plastics
4464:
4457:
4369:
4328:
4320:High-performance plastics
4285:
4268:
4112:
3600:Kunststoffe International
3478:10.1186/s40038-016-0012-3
2952:10.1080/15583720701834224
2616:I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G.
2454:Dictionary.com Unabridged
1898:
1879:
1876:
1840:
1821:
1818:
1799:
1780:
1761:
1742:
1739:
1720:
1701:
1682:
1663:
1644:
1627:1,4-Cyclohexanedimethanol
1625:
1606:
1587:
1568:
1549:
1530:
1511:
1492:
1471:
1452:
1433:
1414:
1395:
1382:
1374:
1369:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1242:organophosphorus compound
961:polymer. High amounts of
364:1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane
5021:Wood finishing materials
4305:Fibre-reinforced plastic
4242:Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
2978:ARCO Chemical Technology
2598:10.1002/ange.19470590901
2429:Thermoset polymer matrix
2304:Effects of visible light
2128:and filler content, and
2079:Liquid resin blends and
4356:Biodegradable additives
3397:Dernehl, C. U. (1966).
3262:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
2761:Oertel, Gunter (1985).
2683:Polyurethanes Expo 2004
2419:Polyurethane dispersion
2404:Passive fire protection
2088:polyurethane spray foam
1949:dimethylcyclohexylamine
1219:chlorotrifluoroethylene
1028:isophorone diisocyanate
1017:MDI isomers and polymer
322:resin injection molding
114:) refers to a class of
4771:Perfluorooctanoic acid
4207:Polyphenyl ether (PPE)
4202:Polyoxymethylene (POM)
4147:Polyacrylic acid (PAA)
4048:Polyurethane synthesis
3616:. Ceresana. July 2013.
3528:greensciencepolicy.org
3374:The Polyurethanes Book
3328:. 2003. Archived from
3297:. 2006. Archived from
2915:The Polyurethanes Book
2811:Woods, George (1990).
2786:Ulrich, Henri (1996).
2313:
2065:
1340:cyclohexane dimethanol
1018:
868:
633:
449:
352:trichlorofluoromethane
189:
167:alternating copolymers
136:different applications
32:
24:
4951:Biodegradable plastic
4300:Thermosetting polymer
4197:Polylactic acid (PLA)
3555:. CDC. 21 March 2012.
2763:Polyurethane Handbook
2376:extracellular enzymes
2320:isocyanates, contain
2311:
2063:
1881:Diethyltoluenediamine
1248:Bio-derived materials
1177:dimethylterephthalate
1141:styrene–acrylonitrile
1119: = 4), and
1016:
869:
609:
448:
324:, or structural RIM.
195:and his coworkers at
187:
152:polyurethane laminate
30:
22:
4962:Identification codes
4562:Foam food containers
4485:Engineering plastics
4006:10.3390/ijms10093722
3956:10.1128/AEM.01768-07
3874:10.1128/AEM.00521-11
3799:www.safetyjogger.com
3465:Fire Science Reviews
3133:ACS Symposium Series
2290:Polyurethane varnish
2119:Dispensing equipment
2094:can be found in the
1961:dibutyltin dilaurate
1953:dimethylethanolamine
1722:Phenyldiethanolamine
1703:Methyldiethanolamine
1454:Tetraethylene glycol
1318: = 2) and
1301:polyhydroxyurethanes
996:toluene diisocyanate
457:
416:dibutyltin dilaurate
221:toluene diisocyanate
106:; often abbreviated
4801:Endocrine disruptor
4399:Compression molding
4351:Polymer stabilizers
3948:2008ApEnM..74..564C
3866:2011ApEnM..77.6076R
3826:2002IBiBi..49..245H
3581:"Home : ISOPA"
3103:2013MaMol..46.3771N
2917:. New York: Wiley.
2653:1992JChEd..69..909S
2590:1947AngCh..59..257B
2486:2018Mate...11.1841G
1513:Tripropylene glycol
1353:
1223:tetrafluoroethylene
1204:Natural oil polyols
765:
747:
677:
655:
632:
619:
545:
530:
509:
442:are also produced.
4816:Polymer fume fever
4475:Commodity plastics
4449:Rotational molding
4419:Fiberglass molding
4379:Injection moulding
4361:Filler (materials)
4310:Corrugated plastic
4262:Tritan copolyester
4217:Polypropylene (PP)
4167:Polycarbonate (PC)
3553:NIOSH Science Blog
3242:A Guide to Glycols
2495:10.3390/ma11101841
2314:
2200:impingement mixers
2066:
1763:Trimethylolpropane
1494:Dipropylene glycol
1435:Triethylene glycol
1351:
1334:(1,4-BDO or BDO),
1077:dipropylene glycol
1019:
940:thermal insulation
906:, via an unstable
864:
862:
844:
842:
815:
798:
796:
735:
665:
643:
585:
568:
566:
533:
497:
450:
271:chlorofluoroalkane
190:
144:electrical potting
33:
25:
4968:
4967:
4946:Plastic recycling
4912:Plastic pollution
4898:
4897:
4832:Plastic pollution
4612:Health issues of
4570:
4569:
4466:Plastics industry
4384:Plastic extrusion
4237:Polyurethane (PU)
4227:Polysulfone (PES)
4182:Polyethylene (PE)
4157:Polybutylene (PB)
3781:10.1021/ie0009738
3602:(10/2008): 123–7.
3277:978-3-527-30673-2
3154:978-0-8412-0664-9
3111:10.1021/ma400197c
2924:978-0-470-85041-1
2850:10.1021/jo5005789
2822:978-0-471-92658-0
2797:978-0-471-96371-4
2772:978-0-02-948920-8
2729:978-0-19-520933-4
2720:Reaction Polymers
2661:10.1021/ed069p909
2578:Angewandte Chemie
2041:Health and safety
1917:
1916:
1858:(2-hydroxypropyl)
1782:1,2,6-Hexanetriol
1416:Diethylene glycol
1293:dimer fatty acids
1234:chemically bonded
1127: = 4).
1111: = 6),
1103: = 8),
1083: = 2),
932:reticulated foams
925:which change the
853:
843:
841:
831:
828:
820:
819:
814:
809:
797:
795:
785:
782:
775:
766:
761:
757:
738:
729:
722:
714:
706:
698:
684:
668:
664:
658:
646:
637:
628:
624:
617:
607:
599:
590:
589:
584:
579:
567:
565:
555:
552:
536:
531:
526:
522:
512:
500:
492:
484:
476:
468:
428:polyisocyanurates
344:Montreal Protocol
314:thermal expansion
205:Wallace Carothers
171:functional groups
5033:
4837:Rubber pollution
4687:Organophosphates
4606:
4599:
4592:
4583:
4582:
4462:
4461:
4434:Filament winding
4409:Transfer molding
4336:Polymer additive
4280:
4274:
4222:Polystyrene (PS)
4099:
4092:
4085:
4076:
4075:
4029:
4028:
4018:
4008:
3984:
3978:
3977:
3967:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3885:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3764:
3758:
3757:
3755:
3754:
3748:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3686:
3679:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3525:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3440:
3434:. Archived from
3433:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3394:
3388:
3387:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3334:
3327:
3319:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3309:
3303:
3296:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3252:
3246:
3245:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3223:
3217:
3216:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3088:
3079:
3073:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3030:
3024:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3001:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2891:. Archived from
2885:
2879:
2878:
2868:
2862:
2861:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2808:
2802:
2801:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2758:
2749:
2748:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2715:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2680:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2636:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2608:
2602:
2601:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2524:
2518:
2517:
2507:
2497:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2445:
2235:
2223:
2211:
2189:
2177:
2165:
2074:flame retardants
2070:hydrogen cyanide
2023:flame retardants
1860:ethylenediamine
1589:Neopentyl glycol
1473:Propylene glycol
1354:
1350:
1238:flame retardants
1217:Co-polymerizing
1192:polycaprolactone
1181:polyisocyanurate
1069:carboxylic acids
1022:isocyanates are
994:diisocyanates,
873:
871:
870:
865:
863:
859:
854:
851:
850:
845:
839:
837:
829:
826:
821:
812:
807:
806:
804:
799:
793:
791:
783:
780:
773:
772:
767:
759:
758:
755:
749:
746:
743:
736:
734:
727:
723:
720:
719:
712:
711:
704:
703:
696:
689:
688:
682:
676:
673:
666:
662:
656:
654:
651:
644:
642:
635:
634:
626:
625:
622:
618:
615:
605:
604:
597:
596:
591:
582:
577:
576:
574:
569:
563:
561:
553:
550:
544:
541:
534:
532:
524:
523:
520:
514:
510:
508:
505:
498:
493:
490:
489:
482:
481:
474:
473:
466:
310:flexural modulus
279:polyisocyanurate
201:polycondensation
122:units joined by
105:
104:
101:
100:
97:
94:
91:
88:
85:
80:
79:
76:
73:
70:
67:
64:
61:
58:
55:
52:
49:
46:
5041:
5040:
5036:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5031:
5030:
4991:1937 in science
4986:1937 in Germany
4971:
4970:
4969:
4964:
4955:
4900:
4899:
4894:
4863:
4820:
4777:
4739:
4706:
4675:
4621:
4610:
4576:
4566:
4515:
4453:
4439:Solvent bonding
4429:Plastic welding
4371:
4365:
4324:
4287:
4281:
4275:
4266:
4177:Polyester (PEs)
4114:
4108:
4103:
4038:
4033:
4032:
3985:
3981:
3928:
3924:
3915:
3913:
3904:
3903:
3899:
3860:(17): 6076–84.
3845:
3841:
3810:
3806:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3775:(15): 3346–52.
3765:
3761:
3752:
3750:
3746:
3738:
3734:
3703:
3699:
3690:
3688:
3684:
3677:
3673:
3672:
3668:
3625:
3621:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3596:
3592:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3565:
3564:
3560:
3547:
3546:
3542:
3534:
3523:
3521:"Manufacturers"
3519:
3518:
3514:
3505:
3504:
3500:
3491:
3490:
3486:
3457:
3453:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3427:
3426:
3422:
3395:
3391:
3384:
3366:
3362:
3357:. January 2001.
3352:
3351:
3347:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3325:
3321:
3320:
3316:
3307:
3305:
3301:
3294:
3290:
3289:
3285:
3278:
3253:
3249:
3240:
3239:
3235:
3224:
3220:
3209:
3205:
3174:
3170:
3155:
3129:
3125:
3117:
3097:(10): 3771–92.
3086:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3058:
3056:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3031:
3027:
3022:
3018:
3008:
3006:
3004:Paintsquare.com
2999:
2993:
2989:
2982:
2971:
2967:
2940:Polymer Reviews
2936:
2932:
2925:
2911:
2907:
2898:
2896:
2887:
2886:
2882:
2869:
2865:
2844:(11): 5019–27.
2834:
2830:
2823:
2809:
2805:
2798:
2784:
2780:
2773:
2759:
2752:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2716:
2709:
2701:
2697:
2688:
2686:
2678:
2672:
2668:
2637:
2628:
2621:
2609:
2605:
2574:
2570:
2560:
2558:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2536:
2534:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2466:
2462:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2394:
2349:
2306:
2301:
2292:
2284:Main articles:
2282:
2266:stainless steel
2246:
2239:
2236:
2227:
2224:
2215:
2212:
2193:
2190:
2181:
2178:
2169:
2166:
2138:caged IBC totes
2130:process control
2121:
2104:
2043:
2007:
1987:
1981:
1928:
1922:
1859:
1857:
1823:Pentaerythritol
1801:Triethanolamine
1532:1,3-Propanediol
1397:Ethylene glycol
1385:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1328:ethylene glycol
1312:Chain extenders
1309:
1281:polyetheramides
1250:
1161:tetrahydrofuran
1153:triethanolamine
1149:ethylenediamine
1129:Propylene oxide
1065:propylene oxide
1054:
1048:
1037:
988:
972:
948:steering wheels
942:. High-density
901:
888:
887:
886:
874:
861:
860:
855:
846:
833:
827:
822:
805:
800:
787:
781:
776:
768:
754:
748:
744:
739:
730:
715:
707:
699:
695:
694:
691:
690:
678:
674:
669:
652:
647:
638:
621:
614:
608:
600:
592:
575:
570:
557:
551:
546:
542:
537:
519:
513:
506:
501:
485:
477:
469:
465:
464:
460:
458:
455:
454:
384:
366:(HFC-134a) and
340:ozone depletion
217:Polyisocyanates
182:
82:
43:
39:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5039:
5029:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4966:
4965:
4960:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4942:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4925:
4924:
4908:
4906:
4902:
4901:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4871:
4869:
4865:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4840:
4839:
4828:
4826:
4822:
4821:
4819:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4787:
4785:
4779:
4778:
4776:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4740:
4738:
4737:
4730:Vinyl chloride
4727:
4724:Polycarbonates
4716:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4698:
4689:
4683:
4681:
4677:
4676:
4674:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4657:
4652:
4646:
4641:
4635:
4633:
4623:
4622:
4609:
4608:
4601:
4594:
4586:
4580:
4578:
4572:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4565:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4537:Packaging film
4534:
4529:
4523:
4521:
4520:Specific goods
4517:
4516:
4514:
4513:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4471:
4469:
4459:
4455:
4454:
4452:
4451:
4446:
4444:Vacuum forming
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4375:
4373:
4367:
4366:
4364:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4332:
4330:
4326:
4325:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4315:Polymeric foam
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4291:
4289:
4283:
4282:
4269:
4267:
4265:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4192:Polyimide (PI)
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4152:Polyamide (PA)
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4118:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4102:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4079:
4073:
4072:
4066:
4060:
4054:
4045:
4037:
4036:External links
4034:
4031:
4030:
3999:(9): 3722–42.
3979:
3922:
3897:
3839:
3820:(4): 245–252.
3804:
3786:
3759:
3732:
3697:
3666:
3619:
3605:
3590:
3572:
3558:
3540:
3512:
3498:
3484:
3451:
3420:
3389:
3383:978-0470850411
3382:
3360:
3345:
3314:
3283:
3276:
3247:
3233:
3218:
3203:
3168:
3153:
3123:
3091:Macromolecules
3074:
3065:
3040:
3025:
3016:
2987:
2965:
2946:(1): 109–155.
2930:
2923:
2905:
2880:
2863:
2828:
2821:
2803:
2796:
2778:
2771:
2750:
2735:
2728:
2707:
2705: ≥ 2
2695:
2666:
2626:
2603:
2568:
2543:
2528:"Polyurethane"
2519:
2460:
2457:(Online). n.d.
2449:"polyurethane"
2439:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2393:
2390:
2381:Pestalotiopsis
2348:
2345:
2339:Higher-energy
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2281:
2278:
2264:Mirror-finish
2245:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2206:
2195:
2194:
2191:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2160:
2120:
2117:
2103:
2100:
2042:
2039:
2027:blowing agents
2011:blowing agents
2006:
2003:
1983:Main article:
1980:
1977:
1940:Tertiary amine
1924:Main article:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1838:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1684:Diethanolamine
1680:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1608:1,6-Hexanediol
1604:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1570:1,4-Butanediol
1566:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1551:1,3-Butanediol
1547:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1486:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1389:
1381:
1373:
1368:
1361:
1358:
1357:Compound type
1336:1,6-hexanediol
1332:1,4-butanediol
1308:
1305:
1269:cottonseed oil
1261:vegetable oils
1249:
1246:
1212:vegetable oils
1171:) of recycled
1133:ethylene oxide
1113:toluenediamine
1061:ethylene oxide
1050:Main article:
1047:
1044:
1035:
987:
984:
971:
968:
899:
875:
858:
849:
836:
825:
818:
803:
790:
779:
771:
764:
752:
742:
733:
726:
718:
710:
702:
693:
692:
687:
681:
672:
661:
650:
641:
631:
612:
603:
595:
588:
573:
560:
549:
540:
529:
517:
504:
496:
488:
480:
472:
463:
462:
453:
452:
451:
412:metallic soaps
383:
380:
356:carbon dioxide
336:blowing agents
233:1,4-Butanediol
181:
178:
173:per molecule.
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5038:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4981:Polyurethanes
4979:
4978:
4976:
4963:
4958:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4923:
4920:
4919:
4918:
4917:Garbage patch
4915:
4914:
4913:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4903:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4872:
4870:
4866:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4838:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4830:
4829:
4827:
4823:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4783:Health issues
4780:
4772:
4769:
4768:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4742:
4735:
4731:
4728:
4725:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4678:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4619:
4615:
4607:
4602:
4600:
4595:
4593:
4588:
4587:
4584:
4579:
4573:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4557:Shopping bags
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4518:
4512:(Agriculture)
4511:
4510:Plasticulture
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4490:Geosynthetics
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4463:
4460:
4456:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4394:Thermoforming
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4374:
4368:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4327:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4295:Thermoplastic
4293:
4292:
4290:
4284:
4279:
4273:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4117:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4095:
4093:
4088:
4086:
4081:
4080:
4077:
4070:
4067:
4064:
4061:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4046:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3983:
3975:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3926:
3911:
3907:
3901:
3893:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3843:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3808:
3800:
3796:
3790:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3763:
3745:
3744:
3736:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3713:(6): 569–88.
3712:
3708:
3701:
3687:on 2010-09-24
3683:
3676:
3670:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3623:
3615:
3609:
3601:
3594:
3586:
3585:www.isopa.org
3582:
3576:
3568:
3562:
3554:
3550:
3544:
3533:
3529:
3522:
3516:
3508:
3502:
3494:
3488:
3479:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3455:
3441:on 2004-10-19
3437:
3430:
3424:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3385:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3364:
3356:
3349:
3335:on 2007-11-29
3331:
3324:
3318:
3304:on 2007-11-29
3300:
3293:
3287:
3279:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3251:
3243:
3237:
3229:
3222:
3214:
3207:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3172:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3127:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3078:
3069:
3055:on 2008-05-31
3054:
3050:
3044:
3036:
3029:
3020:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2979:
2975:
2969:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2934:
2926:
2920:
2916:
2909:
2895:on 2007-10-13
2894:
2890:
2884:
2876:
2875:
2867:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2832:
2824:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2799:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2774:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2755:
2746:
2739:
2731:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2712:
2704:
2699:
2684:
2677:
2670:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2617:
2613:
2607:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2584:(9): 257–72.
2583:
2579:
2572:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2533:
2529:
2523:
2515:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2464:
2456:
2455:
2450:
2444:
2440:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2354:
2344:
2342:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2310:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2277:
2274:
2273:polypropylene
2269:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2234:
2229:
2222:
2217:
2210:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2188:
2183:
2176:
2171:
2164:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2142:storage tanks
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2102:Manufacturing
2099:
2097:
2091:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2062:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2015:cross linkers
2012:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1976:
1974:
1968:
1966:
1965:autocatalytic
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1930:Polyurethane
1927:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1817:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1391:
1387:
1379:
1367:
1355:
1349:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1320:cross linkers
1317:
1313:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1273:neem seed oil
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1255:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1206:derived from
1205:
1201:
1198:polyols, and
1197:
1196:polybutadiene
1193:
1189:
1188:polycarbonate
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1145:acrylonitrile
1142:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1121:Mannich bases
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1043:
1041:
1033:
1030:, IPDI), and
1029:
1025:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1006:isocyanates.
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
983:
981:
977:
970:Raw materials
967:
964:
960:
955:
953:
949:
945:
944:microcellular
941:
937:
933:
928:
924:
919:
917:
913:
909:
908:carbamic acid
905:
897:
896:blowing agent
893:
885:
884:
879:
856:
847:
823:
801:
777:
769:
762:
750:
740:
731:
724:
716:
708:
700:
670:
659:
648:
639:
629:
610:
601:
593:
571:
547:
538:
527:
515:
502:
494:
486:
478:
470:
447:
443:
441:
437:
436:thermosetting
433:
429:
425:
421:
420:stoichiometry
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
379:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
330:
325:
323:
319:
318:Pontiac Fiero
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
290:
288:
287:thermoplastic
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
255:Union Carbide
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
186:
177:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
103:
37:
29:
21:
4627:Plasticizers
4575:Environment
4527:Blister pack
4480:Construction
4389:Blow molding
4236:
3996:
3992:
3982:
3942:(3): 564–9.
3939:
3935:
3925:
3914:. Retrieved
3912:. 2021-04-14
3909:
3900:
3857:
3853:
3842:
3817:
3813:
3807:
3798:
3789:
3772:
3768:
3762:
3751:. Retrieved
3742:
3735:
3710:
3706:
3700:
3689:. Retrieved
3682:the original
3669:
3636:
3632:
3622:
3608:
3599:
3593:
3584:
3575:
3561:
3552:
3543:
3527:
3515:
3501:
3487:
3468:
3464:
3454:
3443:. Retrieved
3436:the original
3423:
3409:(2): 59–62.
3406:
3402:
3392:
3373:
3363:
3354:
3348:
3337:. Retrieved
3330:the original
3317:
3306:. Retrieved
3299:the original
3286:
3257:
3250:
3241:
3236:
3227:
3221:
3212:
3206:
3184:(1): 13–17.
3181:
3177:
3171:
3136:
3132:
3126:
3094:
3090:
3077:
3068:
3057:. Retrieved
3053:the original
3043:
3034:
3028:
3019:
3007:. Retrieved
3003:
2995:Bob Parker.
2990:
2968:
2943:
2939:
2933:
2914:
2908:
2897:. Retrieved
2893:the original
2883:
2873:
2866:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2812:
2806:
2787:
2781:
2762:
2744:
2738:
2719:
2702:
2698:
2687:. Retrieved
2682:
2669:
2644:
2640:
2606:
2581:
2577:
2571:
2559:. Retrieved
2555:
2546:
2535:. Retrieved
2531:
2522:
2480:(10): 1841.
2477:
2473:
2463:
2452:
2443:
2414:Polyaspartic
2379:
2357:
2350:
2338:
2335:
2322:chromophores
2315:
2293:
2280:Applications
2270:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2196:
2154:wollastonite
2122:
2105:
2092:
2085:
2078:
2067:
2053:) or ACGIH (
2044:
2008:
1988:
1973:isocyanurate
1969:
1929:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1665:Ethanolamine
1323:
1315:
1310:
1252:Interest in
1251:
1228:
1216:
1185:
1165:
1138:
1124:
1116:
1108:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1074:
1055:
1020:
1008:
989:
973:
963:crosslinking
956:
920:
889:
881:
877:
385:
333:
326:
291:
283:flammability
251:Dow Chemical
245:, in 1956.
237:
213:World War II
191:
175:
156:
128:polyethylene
118:composed of
111:
107:
36:Polyurethane
35:
34:
4868:Regulations
4720:Bisphenol A
4404:Calendering
4346:Plasticizer
4286:Mechanical
3910:Sciencemint
2647:(11): 909.
2150:glass fiber
2146:lance pumps
2140:), or bulk
2081:isocyanates
2019:surfactants
1998:nonylphenol
1990:Surfactants
1979:Surfactants
1265:soybean oil
1254:sustainable
1200:polysulfide
986:Isocyanates
976:isocyanates
923:surfactants
902:gas and an
432:crosslinked
388:isocyanates
132:polystyrene
5011:Elastomers
4975:Categories
4796:Carcinogen
4761:Organotins
4631:Phthalates
4577:and health
4424:Pultrusion
4414:Laminating
4372:processing
3916:2021-07-02
3753:2008-01-26
3691:2010-09-26
3445:2009-12-19
3355:120-074-10
3339:2007-10-23
3308:2007-10-23
3059:2010-06-15
2974:EP 0755955
2899:2007-09-15
2689:2007-08-01
2537:2022-09-19
2435:References
2364:urethanase
2353:hydrolysis
2136:, such as
2112:boardstock
2005:Production
1985:surfactant
1856:′-Tetrakis
1523:Supercools
1504:Supercools
1484:Supercools
1297:polyamines
1285:polyethers
1277:castor oil
1230:Phosphorus
1210:and other
1208:castor oil
1169:glycolysis
998:(TDI) and
952:shoe soles
936:mattresses
883:isocyanate
616:decomposes
414:, such as
402:, such as
294:Düsseldorf
231:(HDI) and
225:elastomers
209:polyesters
193:Otto Bayer
159:isocyanate
4996:Adhesives
4825:Pollution
4791:Teratogen
4722:(BPA, in
4370:Plastics
4341:Colorants
4329:Additives
4113:Chemical
3727:208363195
3661:264908475
3653:1935-3804
3198:0032-3861
3163:0097-6156
2612:DE 728981
2474:Materials
2386:landfills
2368:hydrolase
2330:aliphatic
2126:viscosity
1951:(DMCHA),
1932:catalysts
1920:Catalysts
1360:Molecule
1194:polyols,
1190:polyols,
1175:(PET) or
1085:glycerine
1042:(TMXDI).
1004:aliphatic
857:−
848:−
824:−
817:‖
802:−
778:−
770:−
732:−
701:−
640:−
602:−
594:−
587:‖
572:−
548:−
471:−
424:trimerise
382:Chemistry
261:, a U.S.
197:IG Farben
124:carbamate
5016:Plastics
5006:Coatings
4806:Diabetes
4712:Monomers
4692:Adipates
4614:plastics
4468:segments
4458:Products
4106:Plastics
4025:19865515
3974:18065627
3892:21764951
3532:Archived
3530:. 2015.
3471:(1): 3.
3115:Archived
2960:95466690
2858:24820955
2556:Statista
2514:30262722
2392:See also
2372:protease
2360:esterase
2318:aromatic
2108:bunstock
2031:pigments
1994:silicone
1955:(DMEA),
1926:catalyst
1744:Glycerol
1384:Boiling
1376:Melting
1105:sorbitol
992:aromatic
927:rheology
916:polyurea
751:→
611:→
516:→
396:catalyst
348:chlorine
263:Monsanto
116:polymers
4934:Dioxins
4854:Dioxins
4811:Obesity
4552:Cutlery
4542:Bottles
4016:2769161
3965:2227722
3944:Bibcode
3883:3165411
3862:Bibcode
3822:Bibcode
3415:5903304
3178:Polymer
3099:Bibcode
3009:5 March
2649:Bibcode
2586:Bibcode
2561:23 July
2505:6213201
2482:Bibcode
2398:Botanol
2244:Tooling
2035:fillers
1372:(g/cm)
1370:Density
1257:"green"
1131:and/or
1097:sucrose
1057:Polyols
1046:Polyols
980:polyols
959:elastic
392:polyols
360:pentane
235:(BDO).
180:History
161:with a
148:spandex
120:organic
4651:(BBzP)
4620:(PHCs)
4532:Chairs
4500:Nurdle
4023:
4013:
3972:
3962:
3890:
3880:
3725:
3659:
3651:
3413:
3380:
3274:
3196:
3161:
3151:
2983:
2958:
2921:
2856:
2819:
2794:
2769:
2726:
2622:
2614:,
2512:
2502:
2033:, and
1996:oils,
1564:207.5
1526:265.1
1507:232.2
1488:187.4
1467:325.6
1448:287.8
1429:245.5
1410:197.4
1289:alkyds
1275:, and
1052:Polyol
760:
663:
657:
627:
525:
418:. The
400:amines
342:, the
298:fascia
239:DuPont
163:polyol
4905:Waste
4751:PBDEs
4662:(DOP)
4288:types
4115:types
3747:(PDF)
3723:S2CID
3685:(PDF)
3678:(PDF)
3657:S2CID
3639:(1).
3535:(PDF)
3524:(PDF)
3439:(PDF)
3432:(PDF)
3333:(PDF)
3326:(PDF)
3302:(PDF)
3295:(PDF)
3118:(PDF)
3087:(PDF)
3000:(PDF)
2956:S2CID
2679:(PDF)
2326:light
2047:inert
1945:DABCO
1936:amine
1907:1.208
1904:214.0
1888:1.022
1885:178.3
1833:260.5
1827:136.2
1808:1.124
1805:149.2
1751:1.261
1726:181.2
1710:1.043
1707:119.1
1691:1.097
1688:105.1
1672:1.018
1615:1.017
1612:118.2
1593:104.2
1577:1.017
1558:1.005
1539:1.060
1520:1.110
1517:192.3
1501:1.022
1498:134.2
1480:1.032
1461:1.123
1458:194.2
1442:1.120
1439:150.2
1423:1.111
1420:106.1
1407:−13.4
1404:1.110
1388:(°C)
1380:(°C)
1364:Mol.
904:amine
892:foams
878:water
410:, or
408:DMDEE
404:DABCO
390:with
267:Bayer
259:Mobay
140:foams
4766:PFCs
4756:PCBs
4732:(in
4696:DEHA
4671:DINP
4666:DIDP
4660:DEHP
4655:DIHP
4639:DIBP
4616:and
4547:Bags
4021:PMID
3970:PMID
3888:PMID
3649:ISSN
3411:PMID
3378:ISBN
3370:"10"
3272:ISBN
3194:ISSN
3159:ISSN
3149:ISBN
3011:2022
2919:ISBN
2854:PMID
2817:ISBN
2792:ISBN
2767:ISBN
2724:ISBN
2563:2021
2510:PMID
2370:and
2288:and
2152:and
2110:and
1894:308
1757:290
1754:18.0
1748:92.1
1735:228
1716:242
1697:271
1678:170
1675:10.3
1669:61.1
1646:HQEE
1621:250
1602:206
1583:235
1580:20.1
1574:92.1
1555:92.1
1545:210
1536:76.1
1477:76.1
1464:−9.4
1445:−7.2
1426:−8.7
1401:62.1
1366:mass
1151:and
1063:and
978:and
912:urea
880:and
756:step
623:step
521:step
374:and
306:mica
257:and
249:and
247:BASF
150:and
130:and
110:and
87:ʊəˈr
63:jʊər
4734:PVC
4701:DOA
4649:BBP
4644:DBP
4011:PMC
4001:doi
3960:PMC
3952:doi
3878:PMC
3870:doi
3830:doi
3777:doi
3715:doi
3641:doi
3473:doi
3264:doi
3186:doi
3141:doi
3137:172
3107:doi
2948:doi
2846:doi
2657:doi
2594:doi
2500:PMC
2490:doi
1713:−21
1599:130
1542:−28
1221:or
954:.
950:or
376:GWP
372:ODP
329:PVC
207:on
108:PUR
4977::
4629::
4019:.
4009:.
3997:10
3995:.
3991:.
3968:.
3958:.
3950:.
3940:74
3938:.
3934:.
3908:.
3886:.
3876:.
3868:.
3858:77
3856:.
3852:.
3828:.
3818:49
3816:.
3797:.
3773:40
3771:.
3721:.
3711:29
3709:.
3655:.
3647:.
3637:21
3635:.
3631:.
3583:.
3551:.
3526:.
3467:.
3463:.
3405:.
3401:.
3372:.
3270:.
3192:.
3182:20
3180:.
3157:.
3147:.
3135:.
3113:.
3105:.
3095:46
3093:.
3089:.
3002:.
2954:.
2944:48
2942:.
2852:.
2842:79
2840:.
2753:^
2710:^
2681:.
2655:.
2645:69
2643:.
2629:^
2592:.
2582:59
2580:.
2554:.
2530:.
2508:.
2498:.
2488:.
2478:11
2476:.
2472:.
2451:.
2366:,
2362:,
2341:UV
2156:.
2029:,
2025:,
2021:,
2017:,
1967:.
1938:.
1913:—
1872:—
1852:′,
1836:—
1814:—
1811:21
1795:—
1776:—
1732:58
1694:28
1659:—
1640:—
1618:43
1386:pt
1378:pt
1338:,
1330:,
1303:.
1287:,
1283:,
1271:,
1267:,
1244:.
1143:,
1036:12
1034:(H
737:NH
667:CO
645:NH
406:,
362:,
358:,
215:.
112:PU
96:eɪ
81:,-
75:eɪ
4736:)
4726:)
4703:)
4694:(
4605:e
4598:t
4591:v
4098:e
4091:t
4084:v
4027:.
4003::
3976:.
3954::
3946::
3919:.
3894:.
3872::
3864::
3836:.
3832::
3824::
3801:.
3783:.
3779::
3756:.
3729:.
3717::
3694:.
3663:.
3643::
3587:.
3481:.
3475::
3469:5
3448:.
3417:.
3407:8
3386:.
3342:.
3311:.
3280:.
3266::
3200:.
3188::
3165:.
3143::
3109::
3101::
3062:.
3013:.
2962:.
2950::
2927:.
2902:.
2860:.
2848::
2825:.
2800:.
2775:.
2732:.
2703:n
2692:.
2663:.
2659::
2651::
2600:.
2596::
2588::
2565:.
2540:.
2516:.
2492::
2484::
1910:—
1891:—
1869:—
1866:—
1863:—
1854:N
1850:N
1848:,
1846:N
1844:,
1842:N
1830:—
1792:—
1789:—
1786:—
1773:—
1770:—
1767:—
1729:—
1656:—
1653:—
1650:—
1637:—
1634:—
1631:—
1596:—
1561:—
1324:f
1322:(
1316:f
1314:(
1125:f
1123:(
1117:f
1115:(
1109:f
1107:(
1101:f
1099:(
1093:f
1089:f
1087:(
1081:f
1079:(
900:2
852:R
840:H
835:|
830:N
813:O
808:C
794:H
789:|
784:N
774:R
763:3
741:2
728:R
725:+
721:O
717:=
713:C
709:=
705:N
697:R
686:)
683:g
680:(
671:2
660:+
649:2
636:R
630:2
606:H
598:O
583:O
578:C
564:H
559:|
554:N
539:1
535:R
528:1
511:O
503:2
499:H
495:+
491:O
487:=
483:C
479:=
475:N
467:R
265:/
102:/
99:n
93:θ
90:ɛ
84:j
78:n
72:θ
69:ˌ
66:ə
60:ˈ
57:i
54:l
51:ɒ
48:p
45:ˌ
42:/
38:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
