628:, a prestigious mental hospital, under the care of psychiatrist Dr. Kenneth Appel. One month later, he was given permission to leave the institute to go hiking in the Tyrolean Alps with friends. The plan was for him to day hike with Dr. Roger Adams and Dr. John Flack for two weeks. After they left, he continued hiking by himself, without sending word to anyone, not even his wife. On September 14, he suddenly appeared at her desk at the Experimental Station. From that point on, Carothers was not expected to perform any real work at the Experimental Station. He would often go in and visit. He began living in Whiskey Acres again, after his wife had agreed with Dr. Appel that she was not strong enough to watch over Carothers.
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565:. These substances were much more stable than the polyesters formed by using the glycols. The ability of polyamides to form crystalline domains through hydrogen bonding gives them increased mechanical properties. Therefore, they might produce a synthetic silk that would be practical for everyday use. His research resulted in the invention of a number of new polyamides. The lab work for this project was conducted by Dr. W. R. Peterson and Dr. Donald Coffman. In 1935, Dr. Gerard Berchet was assigned to this polyamide research.
608:, creating polyamide 6-6, the substance that would come to be known as Nylon. It was difficult to work with because of its high melting point, but Bolton chose this polyamide as the one to develop commercially. He selected Dr. George Graves to work with Carothers on the project. Eventually, Graves supplanted Carothers as the leader of the polyamide project. In addition, dozens of chemists and engineers worked on refining polyamide 6-6 into a viable commercial product.
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emotional ramifications of this move, he bought a house in Arden about ten miles (16 km) from the
Experimental Station and moved into it with his parents. He was 37 at the time. Interactions with his parents soon became tense. Carothers was still seeing Sylvia Moore, who was now single, and his parents greatly disapproved of the relationship. Finding the tension in the household too wearing, his parents returned to Des Moines in the spring of 1934.
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Spencer, he said, "There doesn't seem to be much to report concerning my experiences outside of chemistry. I'm living out in the country now with three other bachelors, and they being socially inclined have all gone out in tall hats and white ties, while I after my ancient custom sit sullenly at home." At about this time, Carothers showed Julian Hill that he kept a capsule of cyanide attached to his watch chain.
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1995:
250:. Although he initially majored in English, he switched to chemistry under the influence of Arthur Pardee, head of that department. Carothers so excelled in chemistry that before graduation he was made a chemistry instructor and studied for as well as taught the senior course when Pardee left to become chairman of the chemistry department at the
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ruined the preceding weeks and it was necessary to resort to considerable amounts of alcohol to quiet my nerves for the occasion. … My nervousness, moroseness and vacillation get worse as time goes on, and the frequent resort to drinking doesn't bring about any permanent improvement. 1932 looks pretty black to me just now."
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Carothers' personal life during this time was busy. He was having an affair with a married woman, Sylvia Moore, who with her husband filed for divorce in 1933. Concomitantly he worried about the financial problems of his parents and planned to bring them to
Wilmington. With no thought of the possible
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By the summer of 1928, Carothers had a small staff of Ph.D. chemists and two consultants: Dr. Roger Adams, his thesis advisor, and Dr. Carl Marvel, his instructor of organic chemistry at the
University of Illinois. The laboratory where these top scientists worked became known as "Purity Hall". It was
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Carothers hated the public speaking that was necessary to maintain his high-profile. In a letter to
Frances Spencer in January 1932, he related, "I did go up to New Haven during the holidays and made a speech at the organic symposium. It was pretty well received but the prospect of having to make it
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At Dupont
Carothers was given a position in its new fundamental research program that was just recently established in Wilmington, Delaware and the company had allowed him to choose any research of his choice. He chose polymer research because the subject needed theoretic exploration and had immense
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He married Helen
Sweetman on February 21, 1936. Carothers had been troubled by periods of depression since his youth. Despite his success with nylon, he felt that he had not accomplished much and had run out of ideas. His unhappiness was exacerbated by the death of his sister, and on April 28, 1937,
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On
January 8, 1937, Carothers' sister Isobel died of pneumonia. Wallace and Helen Carothers traveled to Chicago to attend her funeral and then to Des Moines for her burial. He still traveled to Philadelphia to visit his psychiatrist, Dr. Appel, who told a friend of Carothers that he thought suicide
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believed that any new chemical breakthrough would likely be of value to the company. In the course of research, Carothers obtained some super-polymers that became viscous solids at high temperatures, and the observation was made that filaments could be made from this material if a rod was dipped in
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The decision to leave academia was difficult for
Carothers. At first he refused DuPont's offer of employment, explaining that "I suffer from neurotic spells of diminished capacity which might constitute a much more serious handicap there than here." In spite of this admission, a DuPont executive,
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In 1931, Carothers moved into a house in
Wilmington, which became known as Whiskey Acres, with three other DuPont scientists. He was no recluse, but his depressive moods often prevented him from enjoying all the activities in which his roommates took part. In a letter to a close friend, Frances
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with a molecular weight of above 4,000. His efforts were soon met with great success when he produced a synthetic polymer with a molecular weight of about 12,000. The high molecular weight allowed the melted polymer to be stretched out into strings of fiber. Thus was created the first synthetic
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In 1932, the agreement under which
Carothers was hired was modified by Dr. Bolton. "Purity Hall" would now focus on "effecting a closer relationship between the ultimate objectives of our work and the interests of the company". This meant that funds were shifted from pure research to practical
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Later in a letter to Wilko Machetanz, his Tarkio roommate, Carothers expanded on his feelings of depression: "I find myself, even now, accepting incalculable benefits proffered out of sheer magnanimity and good will and failing to make even such trivial return as circumstances permit and human
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On February 21, 1936, Carothers married Helen Sweetman, whom he had been dating since 1934. Sweetman had a bachelor's degree with a major in chemistry and worked for DuPont on the preparation of patent applications. During his lifetime, his friends would often judge his marriage with Helen in
298:. His degree was awarded in 1924. He specialized in organic chemistry and minored in physical chemistry and mathematics. He worked as a research assistant during 1922–1923 and received the Carr Fellowship for 1923–24. This was the most prestigious award offered by the university at that time.
239:, where he was known as a conscientious student. After graduation, and under pressure from his father, Carothers enrolled in the Capital City Commercial College in Des Moines, where his father was vice-president, completing the accountancy and secretarial curriculum in July 1915.
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It was during this productive period of research, in the summer of 1934, before the eventual invention of nylon, that Carothers disappeared. He did not come into work, and no one knew where he was. He was found in a small psychiatric clinic, Pinel Clinic, near the famous
235:, to Ira and Mary Evalina Carothers. He was the oldest of four children. He had one brother and two sisters: John, Isobel and Elizabeth. As a youth, Carothers was fascinated by tools and mechanical devices and spent many hours experimenting. He attended public school in
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to remove the last traces of water produced in the condensation reaction. Unfortunately, the fiber produced could not be commercialized because it reverted to a sticky mass when placed in hot water. Carothers dropped his research on polymers for several years.
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In his research, Dr. Carothers showed even at this time the high degree of originality which marked his later work. He was never content to follow the beaten path or to accept the usual interpretations of organic reactions. His first thinking about
624:, a very high honor. Yet, by June 1936, in spite of this honor which validated his contributions to science, Carothers could not shake the depression that prevented him from working. In early June, he was involuntarily admitted to the Philadelphia
381:
became assistant chemical director in the chemical department, and thus, Carothers' immediate boss. Bolton wanted practical results in 1930, and his wish was fulfilled. Bolton asked Carothers to examine the chemistry of an
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On April 28, 1937, Carothers went to the Experimental Station to work. About 5pm the next day, he was found dead in his hotel room with a squeezed lemon and some cyanide salt nearby. No note was found.
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research. Carothers did not see himself as a skilled commercial researcher. He proposed that fundamental work be limited to two or three proposals, which would be consistent with DuPont's interests.
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Carother's work in linear super-polymers began as an unrestricted foray into the unknown, with no practical objective in mind. But the research was in a new field in chemistry and
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Hamilton Bradshaw, traveled to Harvard and convinced Carothers to change his mind. His salary was $ 500 a month as compared with only $ 267 at Harvard ($ 3200 per year).
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In 1927, DuPont decided to fund fundamental, pure research: research not deliberately aimed at the development of a money-making product. Carothers traveled to
516:) of monomer into polymer. This equation shows that for a high molecular weight, a very high fractional conversion is needed (for step-growth polymers only).
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398:, a liquid which polymerized to produce a solid material that resembled rubber. This product was the first synthetic rubber and is known today as
445:
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the molten polymer and withdrawn. At this discovery, the focus of the project shifted to these filaments and 'Nylon' was the result.
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1017:, and James E. Kirby (1937). "Acetylene Polymers and their Derivatives. II. A New Synthetic Rubber: Chloroprene and its Polymers".
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research was done. Carothers was an organic chemist who, in addition to first developing nylon, also helped lay the groundwork for
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After receiving his Ph.D., Carothers stayed at the University of Illinois for two years as an instructor in organic chemistry.
269:. It was at the University of South Dakota that he began his independent research that resulted in an article accepted by the
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Shortly after his release from the clinic, Carothers returned to DuPont. Bolton instructed Carothers to work on polyamides.
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commercial implications. Carothers began working at the DuPont Experimental Station on February 6, 1928. The synthesis of a
336:, to discuss the possibility of being in charge of organic chemistry at the new DuPont laboratory for fundamental research.
581:. Apparently, he had become so depressed that he drove to Baltimore to consult a psychiatrist, who put him in the clinic.
283:). The properties have very similar values, which led him to the conclusion that the structure of the second compound is C
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feeling and decency demand, out of obtuseness or fear or selfishness or mere indifference and complete lack of feeling."
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discouraging that by the middle of 1929, "Purity Hall" had not produced a polymer with a weight of much over 4,000.
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Soon afterwards, on April 30, 1936, Carothers became the first industrial organic chemist to be elected to the
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On February 28, 1935, Gerard Berchet, under the direction of Carothers, produced a half-ounce of polymer from
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870:
High Polymers: A Series of Monographs on the Chemistry, Physics and Technology of High Polymeric Substances
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254:. He graduated from Tarkio in 1920 at the age of 24 with a bachelor of science degree. Then he went to the
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comparison to his previous affair with Sylvia Moore, stating that they thought Moore was a greater woman.
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During the 1921–22 school year, Carothers held a one-year appointment as a chemistry instructor at the
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215:, he taught at several universities before he was hired by DuPont to work on fundamental research.
291:-N=N=N, with the three nitrogen atoms in a linear chain rather than a ring as previously thought.
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Smith, JK; Hounshell, D. A. (1985). "Wallace H. Carothers and Fundamental Research at Du Pont".
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180:; April 27, 1896 – April 29, 1937) was an American chemist, inventor, and the leader of
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for his master of arts degree, which he received in 1921 under the guidance of Professor
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and the structure of substances of high molecular weight began while he was at Harvard.
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Nelson, Richard R. (April 1959). "The Economics of Invention: A Survey of Literature".
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657:"Alkylene Carbonate and Process of Making It", filed November 1929, issued March 1935
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In 1934, Carothers turned his attention to fibers again. Now the team substituted di
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Hill also produced a synthetic fiber that was elastic and strong by combining
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892:. Vol. 229, no. 4712 (published August 2, 1985). pp. 436–442.
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665:"Alkylene Ester of Polybasic Acids", filed August 1929, issued August 1935
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D. L. Fishel, personal conversations with C. Marvel and A. Pardee (1959).
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He went back to the University of Illinois to study for his Ph.D. under
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981:. American Chemical Society and Chemical Heritage Foundation. pp.
1922:(incl. The Playhouse on Rodney Square, formerly the DuPont Playhouse)
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673:"Linear Condensation Polymers", filed July 1931, issued February 1937
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in 1926 as a member of Zeta Chapter at the University of Illinois.
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University of Illinois College of Liberal Arts and Sciences alumni
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p.283, based on the author's interview with this friend in 1990.
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Collected Papers of W.H. Carothers on High Polymeric Substances
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Enough for One Lifetime. Wallace Carothers, Inventor of Nylon
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The isosterism of phenyl isocyanate and diazobenzene-imide
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D. L. Fishel, personal reminiscence from A. Pardee (1959).
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Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
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1309:
Encyclopedia of World Biography on Wallace Hume Carothers
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and diacids and heating under reduced pressure, using a
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W.H. Carothers (1923), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 45, 1734-1738
223:. His daughter, Jane, was born on November 27, 1937.
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1188:(2). Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 101–127.
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876:, New York, NY: Interscience Publishers, Inc. XVIII
752:"Wallace Carothers: Tragedy of the father of Nylon"
730:Burton, Holman, Lazonby, Pilling & Waddington,
275:. In this paper he measured physical properties of
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561:for glycols to produce a type of polymer called a
493:, described by the chemists as a superpolyester.
2011:
1333:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
437:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
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782:. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007.
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712:Serendipity: Accidental discoveries In Science
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390:. In April 1930, one of Carothers' staff, Dr.
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366:of more than 4,200, the mass achieved by Dr.
1044:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
386:polymer with the goal of creating synthetic
632:was the likely outcome of Carothers' case.
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734:, Heinemann Educational Publishers, 2000.
496:Polyesters and polyamides are examples of
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468:Learn how and when to remove this message
231:Carothers was born on April 27, 1896, in
188:, who was credited with the invention of
16:American chemist and inventor (1896–1937)
279:and of diazobenzene-imide (now known as
272:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1956:NASCAR Cup Series career of Jeff Gordon
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693:, Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1996,
639:He was posthumously inducted into the
626:Institute of the Pennsylvania Hospital
1888:Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library
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195:Carothers was a group leader at the
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1963:The DuPont Show with June Allyson
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512:to the fractional conversion (or
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219:he committed suicide by drinking
2050:Polymer scientists and engineers
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2080:20th-century American inventors
1952:Hendrick Motorsports Car No. 24
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802:"PHENYL AZIDE | 622-37-7"
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242:In September 1915, he entered
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2055:Suicides by cyanide poisoning
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227:Education and academic career
2045:People from Burlington, Iowa
898:10.1126/science.229.4712.436
848:"Alpha Chi Sigma Fraternity"
622:National Academy of Sciences
311:In 1926, Carothers moved to
7:
1622:Anthony Joseph Arduengo III
1551:DuPont Experimental Station
778:Zumdahl, Susan and Steven.
532:Later career and depression
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197:DuPont Experimental Station
10:
2106:
2070:Harvard University faculty
1909:DuPont v. Kolon Industries
1898:Consolidation Coal Company
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508:which relates the average
502:step-growth polymerization
267:University of South Dakota
252:University of South Dakota
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1853:Hagley Museum and Library
1833:Atlas Chemical Industries
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1772:Howard Ensign Simmons Jr.
1627:Jacques Antoine Bidermann
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2065:Suicides in Philadelphia
1970:DuPont Show of the Month
1572:Éleuthère Irénée du Pont
1315:"Wallace Carothers:1928"
1296:"Wallace Hume Carothers"
975:Hermes, Matthew (1996).
584:
510:degree of polymerization
423:This section includes a
370:, was his primary goal.
1858:Hercules Powder Company
1546:DuPont Central Research
1319:DuPont Heritage website
1276:Wilmington Morning News
1274:p.291, which cites the
1272:Enough for One Lifetime
1259:Enough for One Lifetime
1246:Enough for One Lifetime
1234:Enough for One Lifetime
1221:Enough for One Lifetime
1208:Enough for One Lifetime
1182:The Journal of Business
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1128:Enough for One Lifetime
1113:Enough for One Lifetime
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978:Enough for One Lifetime
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947:Enough for One Lifetime
933:Enough for One Lifetime
920:Enough for One Lifetime
820:Enough for One Lifetime
452:more precise citations.
1617:Jeffery Stanford Agate
1592:Francis Irénée du Pont
1587:Francis Gurney du Pont
643:Hall of Fame in 1982.
575:Johns Hopkins Hospital
480:In the same year, Dr.
330:
301:He was initiated into
256:University of Illinois
211:. After receiving his
143:Wallace Hume Carothers
87:University of Illinois
23:Wallace Hume Carothers
1737:William Dale Phillips
852:www.alphachisigma.org
710:Roberts, R.M. (1989)
670:U.S. patent 2,071,250
662:U.S. patent 2,012,267
654:U.S. patent 1,995,291
498:condensation polymers
377:In January 1930, Dr.
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1802:Edgar S. Woolard Jr.
1007:Wallace H. Carothers
864:Adams, Roger (1940)
806:www.chemicalbook.com
760:, February 23, 2015.
602:hexamethylenediamine
334:Wilmington, Delaware
201:Wilmington, Delaware
1878:Savannah River Site
1732:Charles J. Pedersen
1702:Edward G. Jefferson
1692:Charles O. Holliday
1528:Antec International
1392:Alexander M. Cutler
1032:10.1021/ja01362a042
732:Chemical Storylines
2060:Textile scientists
1823:DuPont (1802–2017)
1807:Nathaniel C. Wyeth
1787:Chadwick A. Tolman
1782:Frederick N. Tebbe
1762:Richard R. Schrock
1682:Richard Goodmanson
1667:Curtis J. Crawford
1662:Thomas M. Connelly
1612:T. Coleman du Pont
1126:Hermes, M (1996).
1111:Hermes, M (1996).
960:Hermes, M (1996).
612:Marriage and death
506:Carothers equation
425:list of references
313:Harvard University
2007:
2006:
1863:Kinetic Chemicals
1848:Eleutherian Mills
1842:Manhattan Project
1757:Irving S. Shapiro
1752:William K. Reilly
1652:Wallace Carothers
1607:Pierre S. du Pont
1577:Alfred I. du Pont
1282:of April 30, 1937
1026:(11): 4203–4225.
1020:J. Am. Chem. Soc.
1015:Arnold M. Collins
689:Hermes, Matthew.
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392:Arnold M. Collins
277:phenyl isocyanate
221:potassium cyanide
199:laboratory, near
182:organic chemistry
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119:Organic chemistry
109:Scientific career
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237:Des Moines, Iowa
233:Burlington, Iowa
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641:Alpha Chi Sigma
614:
587:
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534:
525:molecular still
474:
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429:related reading
419:
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408:
379:Elmer K. Bolton
355:
342:
317:James B. Conant
303:Alpha Chi Sigma
290:
286:
229:
150:
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83:Alma mater
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68:
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55:
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24:
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5:
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1959:
1949:
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1915:Du Pont Motors
1912:
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1880:
1875:
1873:Remington Arms
1870:
1868:Nemours Estate
1865:
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1828:Du Pont family
1825:
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1799:
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1767:Joseph Shivers
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1747:John J. Raskob
1744:
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1639:
1637:Norman Borlaug
1634:
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1602:Lammot du Pont
1599:
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1582:Eugene du Pont
1579:
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1568:
1566:
1565:Notable people
1562:
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1537:Divisions and
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1397:Rajiv L. Gupta
1394:
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1289:External links
1287:
1285:
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1280:New York Times
1263:
1250:
1237:
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1212:
1199:
1194:10.1086/294247
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1115:. p. 178.
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482:Julian W. Hill
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433:external links
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340:Move to DuPont
338:
326:polymerization
288:
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244:Tarkio College
228:
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138:
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94:
93:Known for
90:
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69:
67:(aged 41)
63:April 29, 1937
61:
57:
56:
50:
48:April 27, 1896
39:
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26:
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15:
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2025:1937 suicides
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1597:Henry du Pont
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992:0-8412-3331-4
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964:. p. 90.
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766:
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757:Daily Express
753:
750:Lee, Adrian,
747:
741:
740:0-435-63119-5
737:
733:
727:
721:
720:0-471-60203-5
717:
713:
707:
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699:0-8412-3331-4
696:
692:
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671:
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572:
571:Phipps Clinic
566:
564:
560:
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526:
522:
517:
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492:
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472:
469:
461:
458:February 2012
451:
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203:, where most
202:
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177:
144:
135:
132:
129:
127:
123:
120:
117:
113:
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96:Invention of
95:
91:
88:
85:
81:
76:
72:
62:
58:
53:
40:
36:
32:
27:
20:
1968:
1961:
1907:
1697:Steven Ittel
1677:Linda Fisher
1657:Uma Chowdhry
1651:
1515:Subsidiaries
1322:. Retrieved
1318:
1304:. June 2016.
1299:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1258:
1253:
1245:
1240:
1233:
1228:
1220:
1215:
1207:
1202:
1185:
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1121:
1112:
1106:
1098:
1093:
1085:
1080:
1072:
1067:
1059:
1054:
1040:cite journal
1023:
1018:
1011:Ira Williams
1001:
977:
970:
961:
955:
946:
940:
932:
927:
919:
914:
887:
881:
873:
869:
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851:
832:
827:
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805:
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779:
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746:
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690:
685:
638:
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619:
615:
599:
591:
588:
567:
556:
547:
543:
539:
535:
518:
495:
479:
464:
455:
444:Please help
436:
376:
372:
368:Emil Fischer
356:
347:
343:
331:
322:
310:
307:
300:
293:
281:phenyl azide
270:
264:
241:
230:
217:
194:
142:
141:
108:
75:Pennsylvania
71:Philadelphia
65:(1937-04-29)
2030:1937 deaths
2020:1896 births
1947:Pioneer 250
1942:Tour DuPont
1935:Sponsorship
1792:Earl Tupper
1717:James Lynah
1687:Jeff Gordon
1324:16 February
945:Hermes, M.
866:A Biography
606:adipic acid
450:introducing
396:chloroprene
394:, isolated
296:Roger Adams
260:Carl Marvel
131:Roger Adams
2014:Categories
1539:facilities
678:References
553:Polyamides
500:formed by
406:Polyesters
44:1896-04-27
1838:B Reactor
1379:directors
1376:Selected
1157:p.216-217
822:, p.28-30
780:Chemistry
579:Baltimore
563:polyamide
486:polyester
384:acetylene
1989:Category
1926:Chemours
1462:Neoprene
1415:Products
1278:and the
1270:Hermes,
1257:Hermes,
1244:Hermes,
1232:Hermes,
1219:Hermes,
1206:Hermes,
1166:Hermes,
1153:Hermes,
1140:Hermes,
1097:Hermes,
1084:Hermes,
1071:Hermes,
1058:Hermes,
931:Hermes,
918:Hermes,
906:17738664
818:Hermes,
400:Neoprene
353:Neoprene
248:Missouri
209:neoprene
98:neoprene
1999:Commons
1816:History
1437:Hypalon
889:Science
647:Patents
594:Du Pont
521:glycols
446:improve
362:with a
360:polymer
205:polymer
1893:Conoco
1501:Zodiaq
1492:Vespel
1482:Teflon
1477:Sorona
1452:Kevlar
1447:Kapton
1442:Kalrez
1422:Corian
1369:DuPont
989:
904:
872:Vol.1
738:
718:
697:
559:amines
388:rubber
186:DuPont
115:Fields
77:, U.S.
54:, U.S.
1505:Zytel
1497:Viton
1487:Tyvek
1472:Nylon
1467:Nomex
1457:Mylar
1432:Freon
1427:FE-13
1248:p.277
1223:p.219
1210:p.217
1170:p.197
1144:p.214
1101:p.157
1088:p.144
1075:p.135
1062:p.140
935:p.86.
922:p.83.
868:, in
585:Nylon
514:yield
431:, or
213:Ph.D.
190:nylon
102:nylon
1517:and
1326:2010
1046:link
987:ISBN
902:PMID
736:ISBN
716:ISBN
695:ISBN
604:and
491:silk
100:and
60:Died
38:Born
1190:doi
1028:doi
983:109
894:doi
577:in
246:in
184:at
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