143:, males who display their sexual ornament during courtship are generally paired up faster and attract more females than males who display shorter tails during courtship. Males are often sexually selected based on their physical characteristics and what they have to 'offer', for example, male peacocks with flamboyant colored tails are sexually selected over those with dull and less elaborate tails. Sexual selection of males by females also leads to male-male competition. Unlike females who invest a lot prior to mating, males do not invest as much when generating their sperm, however this increases competition amongst males for female investment. High mating competition also means a greater variance in male success—the best competitors will have better success in mating than those who fail to mate. The best competitors will less likely be inclined to care for their offspring upon mating because they have the ability to produce offspring elsewhere. Males with the greatest size, strength, or best developed weapons achieve the greatest mating success. In other cases, males may have a higher reproductive success if they have better access to resources than other competitors. For instance, female hanging flies mate with a male only if he provides a large insect for her to eat during copulation and North American bullfrogs protect ponds and small lakes where females come to lay their eggs.
104:, a female mates with more than one male because oftentimes, her social partner is of lower genetic quality than other potential sperm donors. The females voluntarily mate with other males besides their mate because she sees the potential to improve her offspring viability and sexual attractiveness. Females may also mate with several males for genetic benefits such as genetic diversity among her offspring due to the variety of sperm available to her. In song birds, extra-pair matings occur because females are able to sneak away from their home territories to solicit to other males. When female song birds seek extra-male partners, they sexually select males with colorful plumage more elaborate than those of their social partner. Studies show that female song birds that have less plumage partners most actively seek extra-pair matings, furthermore males with the most developed traits—such as longer tails or brighter plumage survive better. Thus, when female song birds have multiple mating partners, they are increasing the genetic quality of their offspring.
259:, the offspring produced by extra-pair males were neither better nor worse than the offspring of their male social partners. However, the study of dark-eyed juncos did reveal more sired offspring in promiscuous females than monogamous females. In a study of female water striders, the results showed that multiple matings can become costly to the female—especially since a lot of time and energy is invested in producing an egg. Not only were extra matings costly, but there was no support for any genetic benefits from having multiple mating partners. Instead, the results from the experiment showed that egg production and egg hatching success were the highest when the number of partners were kept at a minimum.
131:, the reproductive success of males increased with the number of matings, but for females there was no direct relationship with number of mates and number of offspring produced. When males have multiple mating partners, they sometimes have to share parentage of the offspring, reducing the genetic value of the offspring to him and thus reduces the relative benefit of staying to help. When paternity is shared between multiple males, males are expected to be less likely to stay in order to help the female care for the offspring because there is little benefit in staying to help raise the other offspring when there are other males present.
170:, multiple paternity occurs as a pervasive reproductive strategy under natural conditions and it is seen that in these species, when males mated with two females, they sired offspring who were inversely related with their genetic similarity to the female. Females in this species practiced polygynandry in order to increase genetic variability among her offspring by choosing mates that were genetically different from themselves. Unlike other studies of polygynandry where the females had multiple mating partners in order to gain resources from the male, in the study of
204:, a sea spider species, fertilization occurs as a female transfers her eggs to a male who holds them with ovigers, a specialized pair of legs and fertilizes the eggs externally. The males glue the eggs into clusters and carries the eggs on his ovigers until they hatch. The personal cost to males for providing a prolonged care for the young is seen to be a significant parental investment because parental assurance is thought to be substantial for post-zygotic investment. A high level of paternity assurance is
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to increase benefits for their offspring, whether it be by gaining physical resources for their offspring or by providing their offspring with healthier genes that are fit for survival. On the other hand, in most cases males generally have multiple mating partners in order to obtain as much offspring as they can during their lifespan and they are able to achieve this easier than females because in most cases, males are not parentally involved in caring and raising their offspring.
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174:, multiple paternity did not provide a genetic indirect benefit to the offspring. This, resulted in a cost/benefit mechanism in which the gained benefit of multiple mating counterbalanced the negative effect of the number of mates on offspring heterozygosity. Females choosing mates that are genetically different from themselves were also seen in
87:. Each sex has potential benefits in being promiscuous; females, especially those with genetically 'inferior' social partners, have the chance to increase the genetic quality of their offspring, while males are able to fertilize the eggs of many other mates. Essentially, the ideal mating behavior for males is to be promiscuous rather than
116:, mating with multiple males increases the amount of care a female can gain for her offspring. Oftentimes multiple mates allow females to have more sired offspring and the paternity of the offspring typically falls outside of the biological parents—meaning a different male may look after another male's offspring.
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To a female, multiple mating means an increase number of young that a female can produce, and oftentimes this also means an increase number of young they have to take care of. In order to ensure the safety and wellbeing of her offspring, females may have multiple mating partners in order to gain more
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Overall, studies have shown that polygynandry benefits males more than it benefits females. When polygynandry is observed in different species, males most often have the upper hand—meaning males benefit more from polygynandry than do females. Females generally seek multiple mating partners in order
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are possible since a recently mated female often retains unused mature eggs in one or more femora, which allows her to mate with additional partners. In species with external fertilization and male parental care, females are able to distribute her clutch amongst different males and by doing so the
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Although males are able to increase their reproductive success faster than females by being able to fertilize eggs faster than females can produce them, males also at a disadvantage when it comes to mating because of sexual selection. Females usually choose males that are 'charming' and those who
91:(when they only have one mating partner), because this leads to multiple offspring, and these males monopolize their female partners by physically preventing them from copulating with other males. On the other hand, females benefit through polyandry, as they have more sired offspring.
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Rovelli, V., Randi, E., Davoli, F., Macale, D., Bologna, M. A., & Vignoli, L. (2015). She gets many and she chooses the best: polygynandry in
Salamandrina perspicillata (Amphibia: Salamandridae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 116(3), 671-683,
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Halley, M.R., Heckscher, C.M., Kalavacharla, V. (2016). Multi-Generational
Kinship, Multiple Mating, and Flexible Modes of Parental Care in a Breeding Population of the Veery (Catharus fuscescens), a Trans-Hemispheric Migratory Songbird. PLosONE 11(6).
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showed that although males mate with multiple females, males do not mix egg batches from different dams. The eggs held in clusters by a male hatched in a close time frame, indicating that males mated with different females within a short time span.
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Reproductive conflicts in animal societies may arise because individuals are not genetically identical and have different optimal strategies for maximizing their fitness; and often it is found that reproductive conflicts generally arise due to
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Barreto, F. S., & Avise, J. C. (2008). Polygynandry and sexual size dimorphism in the sea spider
Ammothea hilgendorfi (Pycnogonida: Ammotheidae), a marine arthropod with brood-carrying males. Molecular Ecology, 17(18), 4164-4175.
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Males can potentially fertilize eggs at a much faster rate than females can produce them, meaning a male can best increase his reproductive success by finding and fertilizing as many different females as possible. In
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Oftentimes, females mate voluntarily with more than one male. Mating with several males reduces the risk of females having unfertilized eggs because one male may not have enough sperm to fertilize all her eggs. In
62:, the dominant queen amongst female wasps is determined by whoever arrives at the nest first rather than the largest foundress, who is expected to be the best at fighting (wasp). In a study of the bird
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Jones, P. H., Van Zant, J. L., Dobson, F. S. (2012). Variation in reproductive success of male and female
Columbian ground squirrels (Urocitellus columbianus), NRC Research Press 90, 736-743.
233:—wasps, bees, and ants—mate with multiple partners. These females are called queens, to distinguish them from the non-reprodutive females that tend the colony and do not mate.
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Although promiscuity is said to benefit both males and females, there has not yet been sufficient data to support the fact that promiscuity benefits females. In a study of
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female increases the likelihood that at least some of her offspring will receive indirect genetic benefits and/or extensive parental care from a quality provider.
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Watson, P.J. (1991). Multiple paternity as genetic bet-hedging in female sierra dome spiders, Linyphia litigiosa (Linyphiidae). Animal
Behaviour, 41, 343–360.
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On the other hand, studies have shown that males have had a higher reproductive success than females when they were polygynandrous. When compared to female
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production is lower for males than it is for females. The different mating tactics employed by males and females are thought to be the outcome of
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ideally mates with about a dozen drones (males) in her nuptial flight. The sperm of matings are stored in a special reservoir, called the
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led to a polygynandrous mating system, where two to four males would mate with a range of two to four females within the same vicinity.
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Davies, N.B., Krebs, J.R., West, S.A. (2012). An introduction to behavioural ecology, Mating
Systems, Chapter 7, 9, 179-222, 254-281.
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958:semelparity and iteroparity
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767:Animal sexual behaviour
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128:Drosophila melanogaster
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177:Ichthyosaura alpestris
141:red-collared widowbird
137:long-tailed widowbirds
43:reproductive conflicts
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659:List of practitioners
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206:Ammothea hilgendorfi
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1526:olive baboon
1474:Hippopotamus
1462:domestic cat
1410:domestic dog
1338:golden eagle
1305:Crocodilians
953:polygynandry
952:
874:cloacal kiss
586:Polygynandry
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576:Polyfidelity
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1265:Salamanders
1145:Echinoderms
1128:sea anemone
1111:Cephalopods
1015:cannibalism
938:promiscuity
857:mating plug
847:mating call
842:mate choice
264:chimpanzees
251:Maintenance
245:spermatheca
231:Hymenoptera
225:Hymenoptera
218:pycnogonids
1240:Amphibians
1220:Salmon run
1150:Gastropods
1072:Arthropods
1037:intralocus
1032:interlocus
1010:bimaturism
869:Copulation
862:lek mating
710:Compersion
282:References
89:monogamous
77:polygamous
40:stochastic
1507:Primates
1496:Pinnipeds
1484:Marsupial
1415:gray wolf
1175:earthworm
1160:love dart
1133:jellyfish
1102:butterfly
995:anisogamy
983:synchrony
973:cuckoldry
943:polyandry
793:evolution
684:Lost boys
571:Polyandry
566:Polyamory
238:honey bee
81:polyandry
1573:Category
1531:mandrill
1489:kangaroo
1432:Elephant
1343:seabirds
1275:Reptiles
1225:Seahorse
1123:Cnidaria
1087:scorpion
1020:coercion
978:seasonal
948:polygyny
933:monogamy
906:external
901:internal
705:Polycule
591:Polygyny
581:Polygamy
152:Amphibia
110:dunnocks
85:polygyny
70:Pyrenees
1548:Raccoon
1521:gorilla
1457:cheetah
1442:Felidae
1427:Dolphin
1420:red fox
1360:Mammals
1310:Tuatara
1288:lizards
1180:epitoky
1116:octopus
775:General
669:Sealing
539:By type
32:diploid
1553:Rodent
1516:bonobo
1501:walrus
1400:coyote
1293:snakes
1230:Sharks
1171:Worms
1167:Sponge
1097:insect
1092:beetle
1082:spider
1000:oogamy
649:Origin
546:Bigamy
112:, and
36:gamete
1511:human
1469:Fossa
1452:tiger
1405:dingo
1390:Canid
1320:Birds
1253:frogs
1138:coral
928:Modes
698:Terms
241:queen
22:is a
1447:lion
1215:Eels
1197:Fish
1077:crab
641:FLDS
180:and
55:wasp
1373:rut
637:LDS
447:doi
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389:doi
358:doi
198:In
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