544:, which can genetically homogenize many nearby subpopulations. Monogamous animals, on the other hand, tend to stay closer to their starting location, not dispersing as much. Because monogamous animals donât migrate as far, monogamous populations which are geographically closer together tend to reproductively isolate from each other more easily, and thus each subpopulation is more likely to diversify or speciate from the other nearby populations as compared to polygamous populations. In polygamous species, however, the male partner in polygynous species and female partner in polyandrous species often tend to spread further to look for mates, potentially to find more or better mates. The increased level of movement among populations leads to increased gene flow between populations, effectively making geographically distinct populations into genetically similar ones via interbreeding. This has been observed in some species of rodents, where generally promiscuous species were quickly differentiated into monogamous and polygamous
458:. This shows that human sexual behavior is unusually flexible since, in most animal species, one mating system dominates. While there are close analogies between animal mating systems and human marriage institutions, these analogies should not be pressed too far, because in human societies, marriages typically have to be recognized by the entire social group in some way, and there is no equivalent process in animal societies. The temptation to draw conclusions about what is "natural" for human sexual behavior from observations of animal mating systems should be resisted: a socio-biologist observing the kinds of behavior shown by humans in any other species would conclude that all known mating systems were natural for that species, depending on the circumstances or on individual differences.
795:) are able to undergo mating. When a cell is mixedly infected by two genetically marked viruses, recombinant virus progeny are often observed indicating that mating interaction had occurred at the DNA level. Another manifestation of mating between viral genomes is multiplicity reactivation (MR). MR is the process by which at least two virus genomes, each containing inactivating genome damage, interact with each other in an infected cell to form viable progeny viruses. The genes required for MR in bacteriophage T4 are largely the same as the genes required for allelic recombination. Examples of MR in animal viruses are described in the articles
274:" often implies this. This is associated with one-male, one-female group compositions. There are two types of monogamy: type 1, which is facultative, and type 2, which is obligate. Facultative monogamy occurs when there are very low densities in a species. This means that mating occurs with only a single member of the opposite sex because males and females are very far apart. When a female needs aid from conspecifics in order to have a litter this is obligate monogamy. However, with this, the habitat carrying capacity is small so it means only one female can breed within the habitat.
227:
25:
238:
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rear the young. In polygynous systems where the number of females paired with each male is low and the male will often stay with one female to help rear the young, while the other females rear their young on their own. In polygynandry, each of the males may assist one female; if all adults help rear all the young, the system is more usually called "
320:(the Western Honey Bee), in which a virgin queen will mate with multiple drones during her nuptial flight whereas each drone will die immediately upon mating once. The queen will then store the sperm collected from these multiple matings in her spermatheca to use to fertilize eggs throughout the course of her entire reproductive life.
326:: Polygynandry is a slight variation of this, where two or more males have an exclusive relationship with two or more females; the numbers of males and females do not have to be equal, and in vertebrate species studied so far, the number of males is usually less. This is associated with multi-male, multi-female group compositions.
358:) occur with fair frequency, and a significant minority of offspring result from them. However, the offspring that are a result of extra-pair copulations usually exhibit more advantageous genes. These genes can be associated with improvements in appearance, mating, and the functioning of internal body systems.
338:
These mating relationships may or may not be associated with social relationships, in which the sexual partners stay together to become parenting partners. As the alternative term "pair bonding" implies, this is usual in monogamy. In many polyandrous systems, the males and the female stay together to
635:
transformation can be as much as a third and up to the whole chromosome. Transformation appears to be common among bacterial species, and at least 60 species are known to have the natural ability to become competent for transformation. The development of competence in nature is usually associated
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brain structures predicting the mating and parental strategies used by them. These homologous structures were brought about by similar mechanisms. Even though there have been many different evolutionary pathways to get to monogamy, all the studied organisms express their genes very similarly in the
552:
Another potential effect of polyandry in particular is increasing the quality of offspring and reducing the probability of reproductive failure. There are many possible reasons for this, one of the possibilities being that there is greater genetic variation in families because most offspring in a
548:
by a prominent introduction of monogamous behaviors in some populations of that species, showing the swift evolutionary effects different mating systems can have. Specifically, monogamous populations speciated up to 4.8 times faster and had lower extinction rates than non monogamous populations.
430:
Polygyny is associated with an increased sharing of subsistence provided by women. This is consistent with the theory that if women raise the children alone, men can concentrate on the mating effort. Polygyny is also associated with greater environmental variability in the form of variability of
414:
which in some cultures involve negotiation and arrangement between elder relatives. Regarding sexual dimorphism (see the section about animals above), humans are in the intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but with relatively small testes, indicating relatively low sperm
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that affect behaviors that are heavily influential on mating system, such as the alleles responsible for the level of parental care, how animals choose their partner(s), and sexual competitiveness, among others, which are all at least partially influenced by genetics. While these genes may not
1478:
Young, Rebecca L.; Ferkin, Michael H.; Ockendon-Powell, Nina F.; Orr, Veronica N.; Phelps, Steven M.; PogĂĄny, Ăkos; Richards-Zawacki, Corinne L.; Summers, Kyle; SzĂ©kely, TamĂĄs; Trainor, Brian C.; Urrutia, Araxi O.; Zachar, Gergely; OâConnell, Lauren A.; Hofmann, Hans A. (22 January 2019).
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are also more variable, and so it is easier to select for positive traits more quickly, as the difference in fitness between members of the same generation would be greater. When many males are actively mating, polyandry can decrease the risk of extinction as well, as it can increase the
461:
As culture increasingly affects human mating choices, ascertaining what is the 'natural' mating system of the human animal from a zoological perspective becomes increasingly difficult. Some clues can be taken from human anatomy, which is essentially unchanged from the prehistoric past:
371:
occurs between individuals of different sexes that have separate or conflicting requirements for optimal mating success. This conflict may lead to competitive adaptations and co-adaptations of one or both of the sexes to maintain mating processes that are beneficial to that sex.
944:
Pickett, K. M., Osborne, D. M., Wahl, D., and Wenzel, J. W. (2001). "An
Enormous Nest of Vespula squamosa from Florida, the Largest Social Was Nest Reported from North America, with Notes on Colony Cycle and Reproduction", "Journal of the New York Entomological Society",
549:
Another way that monogamy has the potential to cause increased speciation is because individuals are more selective with partners and competition, causing different nearby populations of the same species to stop interbreeding as much, leading to speciation down the road.
707:. This response appears to be a primitive form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied bacterial transformation systems that are also associated with species specific DNA transfer between cells leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage.
694:
could not be induced by other physical stressors, such as pH or temperature shift, suggesting that aggregation is induced specifically by DNA damage. Ajon et al. showed that UV-induced cellular aggregation mediates chromosomal marker exchange with high frequency in
553:
family will have either a different mother or father. This reduces the potential harm done by inbreeding, as siblings will be less closely related and more genetically diverse. Additionally, because of the increased genetic diversity among generations, the levels of
1961:
Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (2012). DNA repair as the primary adaptive function of sex in bacteria and eukaryotes. Chapter 1: pp.1-49 in: DNA Repair: New
Research, Sakura Kimura and Sora Shimizu editors. Nova Sci. Publ., Hauppauge, N.Y.
415:
competition in socially monogamous and polygynous human societies. One estimate is that 83% of human societies are polygynous, 0.05% are polyandrous, and the rest are monogamous. Even the last group may at least in part be genetically polygynous.
532:
perfectly correlate with the mating system that animals use, genetics is one factor that may lead to a species or population reproducing using one mating system over another, or even potentially multiple at different locations or points in time.
737:
However, to many biologists it seemed unlikely until recently, that mating and sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that mating and sex appeared to be lacking in certain
1423:
302:) engage in resource defense polygyny, where females choose a territorial male based on the best oviposition site. Although most animals opt for only one of these strategies, some exhibit hybrid strategies, such as the bee species,
519:
fore and midbrain, implying a universal mechanism for the evolution of monogamy in vertebrates. While genetics is not the exclusive cause of mating systems within animals, it is influential in many animals, particularly
1723:
Firman, Renée C.; Simmons, Leigh W. (January 2012). "Male house mice evolving with post-copulatory sexual selection sire embryos with increased viability: Post-copulatory sexual selection and embryo viability in mice".
1591:
D'Urban
Jackson, Josephine; Dos Remedios, Natalie; Maher, Kathryn H.; Zefania, Sama; Haig, Susan; Oyler-McCance, Sara; Blomqvist, Donald; Burke, Terry; Bruford, Michael W.; SzĂ©kely, TamĂĄs; KĂŒpper, Clemens (May 2017).
1262:
The Oxford
Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Edited by Robin Dunbar and Louise Barret, Oxford University Press, 2007, Chapter 30 Ecological and socio-cultural impacts on mating and marriage systems by Bobbi S.
699:. Recombination rates exceeded those of uninduced cultures by up to three orders of magnitude. Frols et al. and Ajon et al. hypothesized that cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA transfer between
2038:
539:
populations, polygamous species tend to speciate more slowly than monogamous species do. This is likely because polygamous animals tend to move larger distances to find mates, contributing to a high level of
527:, where rodents more closely related genetically are more likely to use a similar mating system, suggesting an evolutionary basis. These differences in mating strategy can be traced back to a few significant
314:: One female has an exclusive relationship with two or more males. This is very rare and is associated with multi-male, multi-female group compositions. Genetic polyandry is found some insect species such as
489:
for most mammals, the estrous cycle and its outward signs bring on mating activity; the majority of female-initiated matings in humans coincides with estrus, but humans copulate throughout the reproductive
616:
Transformation, unlike transduction or conjugation, depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this complex process, and thus transformation is clearly a bacterial
422:
because their reproductive success is based on the resources they are able to acquire through reproduction rather than the quantity of offspring they produce. However, males are more likely to practice
1014:
McAuslane, H. J.; Vinson, S. B.; Williams, H. J. (1990-06-01). "Change in mandibular and mesosomal gland contents of maleXylocopa micans (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae) associated with mating system".
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523:, which have been the most heavily researched. Certain rodentsâ mating systemsâmonogamous, polygynous, or socially monogamous with frequent promiscuityâare correlated with suggested evolutionary
214:, which is based on the assumption that every fertilisation is either self-fertilisation or completely random cross-fertilisation. More complex models relax this assumption; for example, the
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protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had, the capability for
486:
in women (i.e. higher body temperature, breast swelling, sugar cravings, etc.), are often perceived to be less obvious in comparison to the outward signs of ovulation in most other mammals;
1886:
Saito Y, Taguchi H, Akamatsu T (2006). "Fate of transforming bacterial genome following incorporation into competent cells of
Bacillus subtilis: a continuous length of incorporated DNA".
760:
is capable of meiosis and thus mating and sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of mating and sexual reproduction, was also found in
361:
some species show different mating systems in different circumstances, for example in different parts of their geographical range, or under different conditions of food availability
955:
Dreisig, H. (1995-02-01). "Thermoregulation and flight activity in territorial male graylings, Hipparchia semele (Satyridae), and large skippers, Ochlodes venata (Hesperiidae)".
505:
humans have a small ejaculate volume and sperm count in comparison to other primates, even though levels of genetic and societal promiscuity are highly varied across cultures,
783:
Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such as starvation or heat shock.
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are widespread among extant eukaryotes. Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.
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for DNA transfer. In order for a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine donor DNA into its own chromosome, it must first enter a special physiological state termed
290:
so far studied): One male has an exclusive relationship with two or more females. This is associated with one-male, multi-female group compositions. Many perennial
296:(southern yellowjacket) colonies are polygynous. Different types of polygyny exist, such as lek polygyny and resource defense polygyny. Grayling butterflies (
444:
334:: A member of one sex within the social group mates with any member of the opposite sex. This is associated with multi-male, multi-female group compositions.
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was recently found to have a core set of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes. These results suggested that
1973:
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load in an area which may make having good genes in a male increasingly important. A high pathogen load also decreases the relative importance of
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because their reproductive success is based on the amount of offspring they produce, rather than any kind of benefit from parental investment.
435:. This may increase the differences in the resources available to men. An important association is that polygyny is associated with a higher
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archaeon, forms cytoplasmic bridges between cells that appear to be used for transfer of DNA from one cell to another in either direction.
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346:
These descriptions are idealized, and the social partnerships are often easier to observe than the mating relationships. In particular:
125:
is a way in which a group is structured in relation to sexual behaviour. The precise meaning depends upon the context. With respect to
764:. Other protists for which evidence of mating and sexual reproduction has recently been described are parasitic protozoa of the genus
343:". In highly polygynous systems, and in promiscuous systems, paternal care of young is rare, or there may be no parental care at all.
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535:
Mating systems can also have large impacts on the genetics of a population, strongly affecting natural selection and speciation. In
2657:
562:. Increased effective population sizes are more stable and less prone to accumulating deleterious mutations due to genetic drift.
218:
recognises that mating may be more common between pairs of closely related plants than between pairs of distantly related plants.
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with stressful environmental conditions, and seems to be an adaptation for facilitating repair of DNA damage in recipient cells.
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describe the genetic influence behind sexual conflict, and are presently recognized as the most basic forms of sexual conflict.
1967:
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730:. Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago. The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Mating and
89:
2605:
2039:"UV-inducible cellular aggregation of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is mediated by pili formation"
61:
3147:
3142:
3137:
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involves transfer of DNA from one cell to another and incorporation of the transferred DNA into the recipient bacteria's
1989:
Rosenshine I, Tchelet R, Mevarech M (1989). "The mechanism of DNA transfer in the mating system of an archaebacterium".
410:, where a species usually has a single mating system, humans display great variety. Humans also differ by having formal
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was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However,
3249:
108:
68:
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Fröls S, Ajon M, Wagner M, Teichmann D, Zolghadr B, Folea M, Boekema EJ, Driessen AJ, Schleper C, Albers SV (2008).
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about 40 genes are required for the development of competence and DNA uptake. The length of DNA transferred during
2647:
2234:"A phylogenomic inventory of meiotic genes; evidence for sex in Giardia and an early eukaryotic origin of meiosis"
1802:
Solomon JM, Grossman AD (1996). "Who's competent and when: regulation of natural genetic competence in bacteria".
2598:
2580:
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Javaux EJ, Knoll AH, Walter MR (2001). "Morphological and ecological complexity in early eukaryotic ecosystems".
2086:
Ajon M, Fröls S, van
Wolferen M, Stoecker K, Teichmann D, Driessen AJ, Grogan DW, Albers SV, Schleper C (2011).
250:
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46:
42:
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Akopyants NS, Kimblin N, Secundino N, Patrick R, Peters N, Lawyer P, Dobson DE, Beverley SM, Sacks DL (2009).
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501:, although others have provided anatomical evidence to suggest that sperm competition risk in humans is low;
258:
210:
A number of models have been used to describe the parameters of plant mating systems. The basic model is the
1970:
1839:"Incorporation of the whole chromosomal DNA in protoplast lysates into competent cells of Bacillus subtilis"
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3333:
277:
138:
57:
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587:. Transfer of DNA between bacterial cells can occur in three main ways. First, a bacterium can take up
443:
which may be because it becomes increasingly important to have genetic variability in the offspring (See
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203:(asexual reproduction without fertilization, but only when arising by modification of sexual function).
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works in the species which practice them. In plants, the term refers to the degree and circumstances of
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377:
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2389:"An expanded inventory of conserved meiotic genes provides evidence for sex in Trichomonas vaginalis"
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592:
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3119:
2332:"Demonstration of genetic exchange during cyclical development of Leishmania in the sand fly vector"
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883:
Brown, A. H. D.; et al. (1989). "Isozyme analysis of plant mating systems". In Soltis, D. E.;
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after ejaculation/orgasm in males and females, humans release a hormone that has a sedative effect;
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603:, which is mediated by an infecting virus (bacteriophage). The third method of DNA transfer is
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Beach, Frank (1976). "Sexual attractivity, proceptivity, and receptivity in female mammals".
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Dacks J, Roger AJ (1999). "The first sexual lineage and the relevance of facultative sex".
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1998:
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298:
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82:
1673:"The consequences of polyandry for population viability, extinction risk and conservation"
8:
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1543:"Social Games and Genic Selection Drive Mammalian Mating System Evolution and Speciation"
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humans have a small relative size of testes to body mass in comparison to most primates;
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humans have a small ejaculate volume and sperm count in comparison to other primates;
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173:, the terms have been extended to encompass the formation of relationships such as
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2088:"UV-inducible DNA exchange in hyperthermophilic archaea mediated by type IV pili"
1977:
1939:
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1100:"Female Sneak Copulation: In: Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science"
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Virtually all the terms used to describe animal mating systems were adopted from
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released into the intervening medium from another bacterium by a process called
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597:. DNA can also be transferred from one bacterium to another by the process of
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The following are some of the mating systems generally recognized in animals:
207:, in which plants use two or even all three mating systems, are not uncommon.
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992:
809:
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270:: One male and one female have an exclusive mating relationship. The term "
170:
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3259:
3084:
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2590:
2530:
2018:
1823:
1644:
Ritchie, Michael G. (1 December 2007). "Sexual
Selection and Speciation".
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1971:
https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=31918
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Some have suggested that these anatomical factors signify some degree of
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the relationships are rarely exclusive for all individuals in a species.
287:
226:
192:
166:
158:
3114:
1899:
1481:"Conserved transcriptomic profiles underpin monogamy across vertebrates"
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studies have shown that even in pair-bonding, matings outside the pair (
3074:
2716:
2202:
1855:
1838:
1772:
1759:
Chen I, Dubnau D (2004). "DNA uptake during bacterial transformation".
1395:
Esch, Tobias; Stefano, George (June 2005). "The
Neurobiology of Love".
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407:
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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and hence mating. To cite one example, the common intestinal parasite
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cells in order to provide increased repair of damaged DNA by means of
3014:
2849:
2550:"The Mating System of Foragers in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample"
2448:"Is there evidence of sexual reproduction (meiosis) in Acanthamoeba?"
2387:
Malik SB, Pightling AW, Stefaniak LM, Schurko AM, Logsdon JM (2008).
2151:
1923:"Natural genetic transformation: prevalence, mechanisms and function"
1541:
Sinervo, Barry; Chaine, Alexis S.; Miles, Donald B. (February 2020).
1424:"The Mating System of Foragers in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample"
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683:
656:
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From an evolutionary standpoint, females are more prone to practice
401:
397:
271:
3187:
3174:
2992:
2283:"Population genetics provides evidence for recombination in Giardia"
690:, species-specific cellular aggregation is induced. Aggregation in
24:
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as compared to most primates, humans spend more time in copulation;
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Animal behavior : how and why animals do the things they do
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536:
528:
520:
130:
2386:
2085:
1477:
1308:"Sperm form and function in the absence of sperm competition"
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mediates transfer through direct cell contact between cells.
545:
237:
1214:"Copulatory and Postcopulatory Sexual Selection in Primates"
1126:"Sexual conflict over mating and fertilization: an overview"
1920:
1280:. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis e-Library. p. 19.
648:, mating is mediated by formation of cellular aggregates.
2280:
1988:
1594:"Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds"
364:
mixtures of the simple systems described above may occur.
2036:
1013:
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Van der Horst, Gerhard; Maree, Liana (November 2013).
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under which circumstances. Recognised systems include
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Monogamy has evolved multiple times in animals, with
454:, where they had been devised to describe systems of
445:
Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection
1885:
1646:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
2281:Cooper MA, Adam RD, Worobey M, Sterling CR (2007).
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2231:
1540:
1305:
1266:
2129:
3425:
1584:
1471:
902:Kleiman, Devra G (1977). "Monogamy in Mammals".
2497:"Deoxyribonucleic acid repair in bacteriophage"
1836:
1801:
1639:
1637:
1536:
1534:
1485:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1301:
1299:
1297:
1077:. Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. 889â891.
882:
1921:Johnsborg O, Eldholm V, HĂ„varstein LS (2007).
1718:
1716:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1176:Yasukawa, Ken; Tang-MartĂnez, Zuleyma (2014).
891:. Portland: Dioscorides Press. pp. 73â86.
2606:
1722:
1258:
1256:
509:
286:(the most common polygamous mating system in
251:Animal sexual behaviour § Mating systems
129:, the term describes which males and females
16:System of sexual reproduction in a population
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2174:
2123:
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1294:
1278:Evolutionary Explanations of Human Behaviour
878:
876:
2620:
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1982:
1795:
1713:
1671:Holman, Luke; Kokko, Hanna (5 March 2013).
1670:
1664:
1394:
1194:
791:Both animal viruses and bacterial viruses (
245:; gorillas have a polygynous mating system.
161:outcomes and thus these systems affect how
2613:
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1229:
1180:. California, USA: Praeger. p. 174.
1149:
873:
191:The primary mating systems in plants are
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2232:Ramesh MA, Malik SB, Logsdon JM (2005).
1658:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095733
236:
225:
2547:
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2079:
2077:
2032:
2030:
2028:
1643:
1421:
954:
901:
678:are exposed to the DNA damaging agents
3426:
1312:Molecular Reproduction and Development
1211:
1123:
1072:
715:Protists are a large group of diverse
2594:
1351:
1097:
1066:
726:animals and plants, that do not form
475:as compared to most primates, humans
2074:
2025:
1171:
1169:
565:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
3138:Sexual selection in scaled reptiles
13:
2541:
1124:Parker, G. A. (28 February 2006).
14:
3475:
1422:Marlowe, Frank W. (August 2003).
1166:
233:have a promiscuous mating system.
157:, all of which lead to different
2108:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07861.x
2059:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06459.x
1738:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01706.x
23:
1955:
1415:
1388:
1345:
1075:Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior
904:The Quarterly Review of Biology
34:needs additional citations for
2464:10.1179/2047773215Y.0000000009
1837:Akamatsu T, Taguchi H (2001).
1117:
1091:
1007:
948:
938:
895:
280:: Three types are recognized:
1:
1098:Howie, James (January 2017).
866:
259:Monogamous pairing in animals
221:
2513:10.1128/MMBR.45.1.72-98.1981
2446:Khan NA, Siddiqui R (2015).
2414:10.1371/journal.pone.0002879
1940:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.09.004
1816:10.1016/0168-9525(96)10014-7
1366:10.1016/0018-506x(76)90008-8
1276:Cartwright, John. H (2002).
383:
180:
7:
2813:semelparity and iteroparity
1843:Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem
1397:Neuro Endocrinology Letters
1016:Journal of Chemical Ecology
834:
710:
570:
10:
3480:
856:Monocotyledon reproduction
786:
639:
510:Genetic causes and effects
387:
378:interlocus sexual conflict
374:Intralocus sexual conflict
248:
184:
3213:
3173:
3128:
3093:
3050:
2917:
2904:Non-reproductive behavior
2628:
2300:10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.020
2251:10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.003
1212:Dixson, Alan (May 2018).
889:Isozymes in Plant Biology
675:Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
560:effective population size
199:(self-fertilisation) and
2569:10.1177/1069397103254008
1443:10.1177/1069397103254008
705:homologous recombination
585:homologous recombination
255:Polygyny threshold model
2622:Animal sexual behaviour
2557:Cross-Cultural Research
2356:10.1126/science.1169464
2011:10.1126/science.2818746
1550:The American Naturalist
1506:10.1073/pnas.1813775116
1431:Cross-Cultural Research
669:Sulfolobus solfataricus
216:effective selfing model
195:(cross-fertilisation),
2771:traumatic insemination
2548:Marlowe, F.W. (2003).
1689:10.1098/rstb.2012.0053
1142:10.1098/rstb.2005.1785
644:In several species of
356:extra-pair copulations
246:
234:
2899:Interspecies breeding
1354:Hormones and Behavior
1073:Bekoff, Marc (2004).
773:Trichomonas vaginalis
482:the outward signs of
479:with lower frequency;
240:
229:
3413:Short-beaked echidna
3153:side-blotched lizard
2670:sexual ornamentation
2495:Bernstein C (1981).
851:r/K selection theory
798:Herpes simplex virus
749:Giardia intestinalis
555:reproductive fitness
205:Mixed mating systems
43:improve this article
3240:Homosexual behavior
3205:Homosexual behavior
3060:Spawning strategies
2860:Bateman's principle
2680:sexy son hypothesis
2658:hormonal motivation
2653:reproductive system
2643:Sexual reproduction
2405:2008PLoSO...3.2879M
2348:2009Sci...324..265A
2195:1999JMolE..48..779D
2144:2001Natur.412...66J
2003:1989Sci...245.1387R
1900:10.1263/jbb.101.257
1761:Nat. Rev. Microbiol
1497:2019PNAS..116.1331Y
1218:Folia Primatologica
1028:1990JCEco..16.1877M
969:1995Oecol.101..169D
861:Sexual reproduction
732:sexual reproduction
452:social anthropology
3188:Breeding behaviour
2909:Fisher's principle
2734:sexual intercourse
2675:handicap principle
2452:Pathog Glob Health
2203:10.1007/pl00013156
1976:2013-10-29 at the
1856:10.1271/bbb.65.823
1773:10.1038/nrmicro844
1036:10.1007/BF01020501
977:10.1007/BF00317280
846:Assortative mating
623:natural competence
406:Compared to other
352:DNA fingerprinting
247:
235:
212:mixed mating model
187:Plant reproduction
3421:
3420:
3235:Lordosis behavior
3115:Frog reproduction
3065:Polyandry in fish
2845:Sexual dimorphism
2766:sperm competition
2685:Fisherian runaway
2665:Courtship display
1968:978-1-62100-808-8
1888:J. Biosci. Bioeng
1610:10.1111/evo.13212
1324:10.1002/mrd.22277
1287:978-0-203-47064-0
1231:10.1159/000488105
1187:978-0-313-39870-4
1136:(1466): 235â259.
1084:978-0-313-32747-6
804:Influenza A virus
697:S. acidocaldarius
664:hyperthermophilic
628:Bacillus subtilis
566:In microorganisms
499:sperm competition
341:communal breeding
299:Hipparchia semele
293:Vespula squamosa
119:
118:
111:
93:
3471:
3454:Sexual selection
3391:ringtailed lemur
3250:African wild dog
3223:Sexual selection
3183:Sexual selection
3103:Sexual selection
2744:pseudocopulation
2638:Sexual selection
2615:
2608:
2601:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2585:
2579:. Archived from
2554:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2492:
2486:
2485:
2475:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2426:
2416:
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2152:10.1038/35083562
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2120:
2110:
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2083:
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2071:
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2043:
2034:
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2022:
1997:(4924): 1387â9.
1986:
1980:
1959:
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1720:
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1632:
1631:
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1604:(5): 1313â1326.
1588:
1582:
1581:
1547:
1538:
1529:
1528:
1518:
1508:
1491:(4): 1331â1336.
1475:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1465:
1459:
1453:. Archived from
1428:
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1413:
1412:
1392:
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1349:
1343:
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1303:
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1273:
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1233:
1224:(3â4): 258â286.
1209:
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1173:
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1163:
1153:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1095:
1089:
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1070:
1064:
1063:
1022:(6): 1877â1885.
1011:
1005:
1004:
952:
946:
942:
936:
935:
899:
893:
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880:
441:sororal polygyny
241:Male and female
163:sexual selection
141:(which includes
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3479:
3478:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3464:Heterosexuality
3424:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3396:sexual swelling
3292:European badger
3209:
3169:
3124:
3089:
3046:
2913:
2882:Sexual conflict
2823:hermaphroditism
2624:
2619:
2583:
2552:
2544:
2542:Further reading
2539:
2538:
2493:
2489:
2444:
2440:
2385:
2381:
2342:(5924): 265â8.
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2279:
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1978:Wayback Machine
1960:
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1726:Ecology Letters
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1008:
953:
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943:
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896:
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869:
841:Heterosexuality
837:
816:Simian virus 40
789:
762:G. intestinalis
758:G. intestinalis
754:G. intestinalis
713:
692:S. solfataricus
642:
573:
568:
512:
404:
386:
369:Sexual conflict
305:Xylocopa micans
261:
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189:
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115:
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58:"Mating system"
52:
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40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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3434:Mating systems
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2692:Mating systems
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2595:
2589:
2588:
2586:on 2006-09-01.
2563:(3): 282â306.
2543:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2501:Microbiol. Rev
2487:
2438:
2379:
2322:
2293:(22): 1984â8.
2273:
2224:
2173:
2138:(6842): 66â9.
2122:
2095:Mol. Microbiol
2073:
2046:Mol. Microbiol
2024:
1981:
1954:
1933:(10): 767â78.
1927:Res. Microbiol
1913:
1878:
1829:
1794:
1751:
1712:
1663:
1633:
1583:
1562:10.1086/706810
1556:(2): 247â274.
1530:
1470:
1437:(3): 282â306.
1414:
1387:
1360:(1): 105â138.
1344:
1318:(3): 204â216.
1293:
1286:
1265:
1252:
1193:
1186:
1165:
1116:
1090:
1083:
1065:
1006:
963:(2): 169â176.
947:
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916:10.1086/409721
894:
871:
870:
868:
865:
864:
863:
858:
853:
848:
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833:
822:Vaccinia virus
788:
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720:microorganisms
712:
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594:transformation
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317:Apis mellifera
309:
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31:
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15:
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3357:
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3335:
3334:Spotted hyena
3332:
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3327:
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3308:
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3073:
3071:
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3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3041:
3040:penis fencing
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3010:apophallation
3008:
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3001:
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2928:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2919:Invertebrates
2916:
2910:
2907:
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2902:
2900:
2897:
2893:
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2776:penile spines
2774:
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2759:
2757:
2754:
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2751:Fertilisation
2749:
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2739:Pelvic thrust
2737:
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2732:
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2727:
2726:
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2707:mate guarding
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1460:on 2014-03-02
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682:irradiation,
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655:, an extreme
654:
652:
651:Halobacterium
647:
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609:, in which a
608:
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589:exogenous DNA
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123:mating system
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60: â
59:
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54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3459:Sociobiology
3381:olive baboon
3329:Hippopotamus
3317:domestic cat
3265:domestic dog
3193:golden eagle
3160:Crocodilians
2808:polygynandry
2729:cloacal kiss
2691:
2581:the original
2560:
2556:
2507:(1): 72â98.
2504:
2500:
2490:
2458:(4): 193â5.
2455:
2451:
2441:
2399:(8): e2879.
2396:
2392:
2382:
2339:
2335:
2325:
2290:
2286:
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2241:
2237:
2227:
2186:
2183:J. Mol. Evol
2182:
2176:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2098:
2094:
2049:
2045:
1994:
1990:
1984:
1957:
1930:
1926:
1916:
1891:
1887:
1881:
1849:(4): 823â9.
1846:
1842:
1832:
1810:(4): 150â5.
1807:
1804:Trends Genet
1803:
1797:
1767:(3): 241â9.
1764:
1760:
1754:
1732:(1): 42â46.
1729:
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1645:
1601:
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1553:
1549:
1488:
1484:
1473:
1462:. Retrieved
1455:the original
1434:
1430:
1417:
1400:
1396:
1390:
1357:
1353:
1347:
1335:. Retrieved
1315:
1311:
1277:
1243:. Retrieved
1221:
1217:
1177:
1133:
1129:
1119:
1107:. Retrieved
1104:Researchgate
1103:
1093:
1074:
1068:
1019:
1015:
1009:
960:
956:
950:
940:
910:(1): 39â69.
907:
903:
897:
888:
826:
820:
814:
810:Adenoviridae
808:
802:
796:
790:
782:
778:acanthamoeba
771:
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600:transduction
599:
593:
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534:
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460:
449:
429:
417:
405:
367:
345:
337:
324:Polygynandry
316:
303:
297:
291:
272:pair bonding
262:
209:
190:
171:sociobiology
151:polygynandry
122:
120:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3120:Salamanders
3000:Echinoderms
2983:sea anemone
2966:Cephalopods
2870:cannibalism
2793:promiscuity
2712:mating plug
2702:mating call
2697:mate choice
1109:October 20,
724:unicellular
688:mitomycin C
633:B. subtilis
606:conjugation
525:phylogenies
408:vertebrates
332:Promiscuity
288:vertebrates
231:Chimpanzees
193:outcrossing
169:. In human
167:outcrossing
159:mate choice
155:promiscuity
3428:Categories
3095:Amphibians
3075:Salmon run
3005:Gastropods
2927:Arthropods
2892:intralocus
2887:interlocus
2865:bimaturism
2724:Copulation
2717:lek mating
2287:Curr. Biol
2238:Curr. Biol
1464:2014-02-26
867:References
828:Reoviridae
767:Leishmania
740:pathogenic
717:eukaryotic
701:Sulfolobus
657:halophilic
619:adaptation
575:Mating in
516:homologous
388:See also:
249:See also:
222:In animals
185:See also:
99:April 2007
69:newspapers
3449:Fertility
3362:Primates
3351:Pinnipeds
3339:Marsupial
3270:gray wolf
3030:earthworm
3015:love dart
2988:jellyfish
2957:butterfly
2850:anisogamy
2838:synchrony
2828:cuckoldry
2798:polyandry
2648:evolution
2577:145482562
2168:205018792
1789:205499369
1598:Evolution
1578:208584558
1451:145482562
1044:0098-0331
985:0029-8549
957:Oecologia
722:, mainly
684:bleomycin
662:When the
542:gene flow
412:marriages
402:Polyamory
398:Polyandry
384:In humans
312:Polyandry
181:In plants
147:polyandry
3444:Ethology
3386:mandrill
3344:kangaroo
3287:Elephant
3198:seabirds
3130:Reptiles
3080:Seahorse
2978:Cnidaria
2942:scorpion
2875:coercion
2833:seasonal
2803:polygyny
2788:monogamy
2761:external
2756:internal
2482:25800982
2433:18663385
2393:PLOS ONE
2374:19359589
2317:15991722
2309:17980591
2268:17013247
2260:15668177
2211:10229582
2160:11452306
2117:21999488
2068:18990182
1974:Archived
1949:17997281
1908:16716928
1873:30118947
1865:11388459
1781:15083159
1746:22011211
1707:23339244
1683:(1613).
1628:28233288
1570:32017620
1525:30617061
1409:15990719
1332:43821455
1240:29804108
1160:16612884
1060:35733229
1052:24263991
1001:22413242
993:28306787
932:25675086
887:(eds.).
835:See also
711:Protists
666:archaea
653:volcanii
577:bacteria
571:Bacteria
477:copulate
456:marriage
437:pathogen
433:rainfall
425:polygamy
420:monogamy
394:Polygyny
390:Monogamy
284:Polygyny
278:Polygamy
268:Monogamy
201:apomixis
197:autogamy
175:marriage
143:polygyny
139:polygamy
135:monogamy
3439:Ecology
3403:Raccoon
3376:gorilla
3312:cheetah
3297:Felidae
3282:Dolphin
3275:red fox
3215:Mammals
3165:Tuatara
3143:lizards
3035:epitoky
2971:octopus
2630:General
2531:6261109
2473:4530557
2424:2488364
2401:Bibcode
2365:2729066
2344:Bibcode
2336:Science
2219:9441768
2191:Bibcode
2140:Bibcode
2019:2818746
1999:Bibcode
1991:Science
1824:8901420
1698:3576587
1619:5484996
1516:6347671
1493:Bibcode
1382:5469783
1337:31 July
1245:31 July
1151:1569603
1024:Bibcode
965:Bibcode
787:Viruses
744:meiosis
728:tissues
646:archaea
640:Archaea
611:plasmid
529:alleles
521:rodents
243:gorilla
153:), and
127:animals
83:scholar
3408:Rodent
3371:bonobo
3356:walrus
3255:coyote
3148:snakes
3085:Sharks
3026:Worms
3022:Sponge
2952:insect
2947:beetle
2937:spider
2855:oogamy
2575:
2529:
2522:281499
2519:
2480:
2470:
2431:
2421:
2372:
2362:
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2158:
2132:Nature
2115:
2066:
2017:
1966:
1947:
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1863:
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1779:
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1374:819345
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1050:
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999:
991:
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930:
924:857268
922:
825:, and
776:, and
625:. In
581:genome
537:plover
490:cycle;
484:estrus
400:, and
257:, and
149:, and
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
3366:human
3324:Fossa
3307:tiger
3260:dingo
3245:Canid
3175:Birds
3108:frogs
2993:coral
2783:Modes
2584:(PDF)
2573:S2CID
2553:(PDF)
2313:S2CID
2264:S2CID
2215:S2CID
2164:S2CID
2091:(PDF)
2042:(PDF)
1869:S2CID
1785:S2CID
1574:S2CID
1546:(PDF)
1458:(PDF)
1447:S2CID
1427:(PDF)
1378:S2CID
1328:S2CID
1056:S2CID
997:S2CID
945:2001.
928:S2CID
90:JSTOR
76:books
3302:lion
3070:Eels
3052:Fish
2932:crab
2527:PMID
2478:PMID
2429:PMID
2370:PMID
2305:PMID
2256:PMID
2207:PMID
2156:PMID
2113:PMID
2064:PMID
2015:PMID
1964:ISBN
1945:PMID
1904:PMID
1861:PMID
1820:PMID
1777:PMID
1742:PMID
1703:PMID
1624:PMID
1566:PMID
1521:PMID
1405:PMID
1370:PMID
1339:2023
1282:ISBN
1247:2023
1236:PMID
1182:ISBN
1156:PMID
1111:2017
1079:ISBN
1048:PMID
1040:ISSN
989:PMID
981:ISSN
920:PMID
672:and
546:taxa
376:and
131:mate
62:news
3228:rut
2565:doi
2517:PMC
2509:doi
2468:PMC
2460:doi
2456:109
2419:PMC
2409:doi
2360:PMC
2352:doi
2340:324
2295:doi
2246:doi
2199:doi
2148:doi
2136:412
2103:doi
2054:doi
2007:doi
1995:245
1935:doi
1931:158
1896:doi
1892:101
1851:doi
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1769:doi
1734:doi
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1606:doi
1558:doi
1554:195
1511:PMC
1501:doi
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1439:doi
1362:doi
1320:doi
1263:Low
1226:doi
1146:PMC
1138:doi
1134:361
1032:doi
973:doi
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912:doi
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