Plantation complexes in the Southern United States

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machinery. The overseer has usually been portrayed as an uncouth, uneducated character of low class whose main purpose was to harass the slaves and get in the way of the planter's progressive goals of production. More than that, the overseer had a position between master and slave in which it was hard to win. Directing slave labor was looked down upon by a large number of people, North and South. He was faced with planter demands that were at times unreasonable. He was forbidden to fraternize with the slaves. He had no chance of advancement unless he left the profession. He was bombarded with incessant complaints from masters, who did not appreciate the task he faced, and slaves, who sought to play off master and overseer against each other to avoid work and gain privileges. The very nature of the job was difficult. The overseer had to care for the slaves and gain the largest crop possible. These were often contradictory goals.

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been cultivated the previous year, in Sea Island cotton, or maize. Beyond them, a flat surface of still lower land, with a silver thread of water curling through it, extended, Holland-like, to the horizon. Usually at as great a distance as a quarter of a mile from the road, and from a half mile to a mile apart, were the residences of the planters – large white houses, with groves of evergreen trees about them; and between these and the road were little villages of slave-cabins ... The cottages were framed buildings, boarded on the outside, with shingle roofs and brick chimneys; they stood fifty feet apart, with gardens and pig-yards ... At the head of the settlement, in a garden looking down the street, was an overseer's house, and here the road divided, running each way at right angles; on one side to barns and a landing on the river, on the other toward the mansion ...

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risk of fire. Indeed, on many plantations the cookhouse was built of brick while when the main house was of wood-frame construction. Another reason for the separation was to prevent the noise and smells of cooking activities from reaching the main house. Sometimes the cookhouse contained two rooms, one for the actual kitchen and the other to serve as the residence for the cook. Still other arrangements had the kitchen in one room, a laundry in the other, and a second story for servant quarters. The pantry could be in its own structure or in a cool part of the cookhouse or a storehouse and would have secured items such as barrels of

247: 1163: 1439: 347: 1393: 405: 1182:(sugar house), where, by the 1830s, the steam-powered mill crushed the sugarcane stalks between rollers. This squeezed the juice from the stalks and the cane juice would run out the bottom of the mill through a strainer to be collected into a tank. From there the juice went through a process that removed impurities from the liquid and thickened it through evaporation. It was steam-heated in vats where additional impurities were removed by adding lime to the syrup and then the mixture was strained. At this point the liquid had been transformed into 19: 536: 153: 588: 854: 1251: 1243: 945:-era was the plantation store or commissary. Although some prewar plantations had a commissary that distributed food and supplies to enslaved people, the plantation store was essentially a postwar addition to the plantation complex. In addition to the share of their crop already owed to the plantation owner for the use of his or her land, tenants and sharecroppers purchased, usually on credit against their next crop, the food staples and equipment that they relied on for their existence. 781: 5859: 1556: 1217:, cotton plantations sprang up all over the South and cotton production soared, along with the expansion of slavery. Cotton also caused plantations to grow in size. During the financial panics of 1819 and 1837, when demand by British mills for cotton dropped, many small planters went bankrupt and their land and slaves were bought by larger plantations. As cotton-producing estates grew in size, so did the number of slaveholders and the average number of enslaved people held. 292: 978: 682: 496: 1081: 255:

they were put to other uses after emancipation. The quarters could be next to the main house, well away from it, or both. On large plantations they were often arranged in a village-like grouping along an avenue away from the main house, but sometimes were scattered around the plantation on the edges of the fields where the enslaved people toiled, like most of the sharecropper cabins that were to come later.

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landscape, offering a separate room for eating and sleeping. Sometimes dormitories and two-story dwellings were also used to house enslaved people. Earlier examples rested on the ground with a dirt floor, but later examples were usually raised on piers for ventilation. Most of these represent the dwellings constructed for enslaved people who worked in the fields. Rarely though, such as at the former

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know their place. In village-type slave quarters on plantations with overseers, his house was usually at the head of the slave village rather than near the main house, at least partially due to his social position. It was also part of an effort to keep the enslaved people compliant and prevent the beginnings of a slave rebellion, a very real fear in the minds of most plantation owners.

1112:, and then transplant the plants to the fields once the soil had warmed. Then the enslaved people had to weed the fields all summer and remove the flowers from the tobacco plants in order to force more energy into the leaves. Harvesting was done by plucking individual leaves over several weeks as they ripened, or cutting entire tobacco plants and hanging them in vented 576:. Once firm enough to separate out, but soft enough to stick together, the butter was taken out of the churn, washed in very cold water, and salted. The churning process also produced buttermilk as a by-product. It was the remaining liquid after the butter was removed from the churn. All of the products of this process would have been stored in the 2534:"St. Mary Chapel, located on Laurel Hill Plantation in Adams County, approximately eight (8) miles south of Natchez. This property was an English land grant to the Richard Ellis family and continues to be owned by his descendants. {Note that there is also a Laurel Hill Plantation in Jefferson County that was owned by the Rush Nutt family}" 1174:

Sugar plantations were most commonly found in Louisiana. In fact, Louisiana produced almost all of the sugar grown in the United States during the prewar period. From one-quarter to one-half of all sugar consumed in the United States came from Louisiana sugar plantations. Plantations grew sugarcane

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in the late 19th century that began to bring blacks and whites together for a common cause. This early populist movement is largely credited with helping to cause state governments in the South, mostly controlled by the planter elite, to enact various laws that disenfranchised poor whites and blacks,

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More fortunate in their accommodations were those who served in the enslavers' houses or were skilled laborers. They usually resided either in a part of the main house or in their own houses, which were normally more comfortable dwellings than those of their counterparts who worked in the fields. A

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water on many plantations came from cisterns that were supplied with rainwater by a pipe from a rooftop catchment. These could be huge aboveground wooden barrels capped by metal domes, such as was often seen in Louisiana and coastal areas of Mississippi, or underground brick masonry domes or vaults,

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The cookhouse or kitchen was almost always in a separate building in the South until modern times, sometimes connected to the main house by a covered walkway. This separation was partially due to the cooking fire generating heat all day long in an already hot and humid climate. It also reduced the

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Many plantations were operated by absentee-landowners and never had a main house on site. Just as vital and arguably more important to the complex were the many structures built for the processing and storage of crops, food preparation and storage, sheltering equipment and animals, and various other

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of the past and to satisfy what staff call a hunger for real history, as plantations add slavery-focused tours, rebuild cabins and reconstruct the lives of the enslaved with help from their descendants." However, some white visitors to the plantations have pushed back against hearing about slavery.

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defines planters by ownership of real property, rather than of slaves. A planter, for Weiner, owned at least $ 10,000 worth of real estate in 1850 and $ 32,000 worth in 1860, equivalent to about the top eight percent of landowners. In his study of southwest Georgia, Lee Formwalt defines planters in

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to accomplish the task. The wash boiler was a cast iron or copper cauldron in which clothes or other fabrics and soapy water were heated over an open fire. The wash-stick was a wooden stick with a handle at its uppermost part and four to five prongs at its base. It was simultaneously pounded up and

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The overseer's house was usually a modest dwelling, not far from the cabins of the enslaved workers. The overseer and his family, even when white and southern, did not freely mingle with the planter and his family. They were in a different social stratum than that of the owner and were expected to

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Housing for enslaved people, although once one of the most common and distinctive features of the plantation landscape, has largely disappeared in much of the South. Many of the structures were insubstantial to begin with. Only the better-built examples tended to survive, and then usually only if

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crops produced to feed the population of the estate and the livestock. A common definition of what constituted a plantation is that it typically had 500 to 1,000 acres (2.0 to 4.0 km) or more of land and produced one or two cash crops for sale. Other scholars have attempted to define it by the

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or church. These were built for a variety of reasons. In many cases the planter built a church or chapel for the use of the plantation slaves, although they usually recruited a white minister to conduct the services. Some were built to exclusively serve the plantation family, but many more were

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In the afternoon, I left the main road, and, towards night, reached a much more cultivated district. The forest of pines extended uninterruptedly on one side of the way, but on the other was a continued succession of very large fields, or rich dark soil – evidently reclaimed swamp-land – which had

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church built, St. Michael's Church. She latter remarried to Rev. William A. Stickney, who served as the Episcopal minister of St. Michael's and was later appointed by Bishop Richard Wilmer as a "Missionary to the Negroes," after which Louisa joined him as an unofficial fellow minister among the

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Houses for enslaved people were often of the most basic construction. Meant for little more than sleeping, they were usually rough log or frame one-room cabins; early examples often had chimneys made of clay and sticks. Hall and parlor houses (two rooms) were also represented on the plantation

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Tobacco plantations were most common in certain parts of Georgia, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, Tennessee, South Carolina, and Virginia. The first agricultural plantations in Virginia were founded on the growing of tobacco. Tobacco production on plantations was very labor-intensive. It

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to educate the planter's children, and sometimes even those of other planters in the area. On most plantations, however, a room in the main house was sufficient for schooling, rather than a separate dedicated building. Paper was precious, so the children often recited their lessons until they

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and cream. It was done by pouring the whole milk into a container and allowing the cream to naturally rise to the top. This was collected into another container daily until several gallons had accumulated. During this time the cream would sour slightly through naturally occurring bacteria. This

219:. As is true of buildings in general, the more substantially built and architecturally interesting buildings have tended to be the ones that survived into the modern age and are better documented than many of the smaller and simpler ones. Several plantation homes of important persons, including 3257:

On larger plantations, the planter's direct representative in day-to-day management of the crops, care of the land, livestock, farm implements, and slaves was the white overseer. It was his job to work the labor force to produce a profitable crop. He was an indispensable cog in the plantation

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Most plantation owners maintained an office for keeping records, transacting business, writing correspondence, and the like. Although it, like the schoolroom, was most often within the main house or another structure, it was not at all rare for a complex to have a separate plantation office.

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A crucial residential structure on larger plantations was an overseer's house. The overseer was largely responsible for the success or failure of an estate, making sure that quotas were met and sometimes meting out punishment for infractions by the enslaved. The overseer was responsible for

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in 1862, few enslaved more than five. These farmers tended to work the fields alongside the people they enslaved. Of the estimated 46,200 plantations existing in 1860, 20,700 had 20 to 30 enslaved people and 2,300 had a workforce of a hundred or more, with the rest somewhere in between.

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that was usually powered by two mules walking in a circle with each attached to an overhead arm that turned a huge wooden screw. The downward action of this screw compressed the processed cotton into a uniform bale-shaped wooden enclosure, where the bale was secured with twine.

1104:, although they were sometimes covered with vertical wood siding. Storage barns often housed unprocessed crops or those awaiting consumption or transport to market. Processing barns were specialized structures that were necessary for helping to actually process the crop. 1304:

terms of size of land holdings rather than in terms of numbers of people enslaved. Formwalt's planters are in the top 4.5% of landowners, translating into real estate worth $ 6,000 or more in 1850, $ 24,000 or more in 1860, and $ 11,000 or more in 1870. In his study of

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The vast majority of plantations did not have grand mansions centered on a huge acreage. These large estates did exist, but represented only a small percentage of the plantations that once existed in the South. Although many Southern farmers did enslave people before

873:. Early examples tended towards the vernacular or neoclassicism, but later examples were almost always in the Gothic Revival style. A few rivaled those built by southern town congregations. Two of the most elaborate extant examples in the Deep South are the 1205:

Cotton plantations, the most common type of plantation in the South prior to the Civil War, were the last type of plantation to fully develop. Cotton production was a very labor-intensive crop to harvest, with the fibers having to be hand-picked from the

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domestic and agricultural purposes. The value of the plantation came from its land and the enslaved people who toiled on it to produce crops for sale. These same people produced the built environment: the main house for the plantation owner, the

1299:, suggests that the minimum requirement for planter status was twenty people enslaved, especially since a Southern planter could exempt Confederate duty for one white male per twenty people owned. In his study of Black Belt counties in Alabama, 287:

in Alabama was remodeled in the Gothic Revival style in the 1852, the enslaved people serving the household were provided with larger accommodations that matched the architecture of the main house. This model, however, was exceedingly rare.

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have been destroyed, but the quality and design of the churches can give some insight into how elaborate some plantation complexes and their buildings could be. St. Mary Chapel, in Natchez, dates to 1839, built in stuccoed brick with large

392:, they were structures that housed the adolescent or unmarried sons of plantation owners. At some plantations it was a free-standing structure and at others it was attached to the main house by side-wings. It developed from the 1190:, where it was boiled until the sugar in the syrup was crystallized. The crystallized sugar was then cooled and separated from any remaining molasses in a process known as purging. The final step was packing the sugar into 637:

process, and then the meat was slowly dried and smoked in the smokehouse by a fire that did not add any heat to the smokehouse itself. If it was cool enough, the meat could also be stored there until it was consumed.

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The materials for a plantation's buildings, for the most part, came from the lands of the estate. Lumber was obtained from the forested areas of the property. Depending on its intended use, it was either split,

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have also been preserved. Less common are intact examples of slave housing. The rarest survivors of all are the agricultural and lesser domestic structures, especially those dating from the pre-Civil War era.

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are museums that can be visited. There are examples in every Southern state. Centers of plantation life such as Natchez run plantation tours. Traditionally the museum houses presented an idyllic, dignified

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The agricultural structures on plantations had some basic structures in common and others that varied widely. They depended on what crops and animals were raised on the plantation. Common crops included

1057:. Unlike the upper regions, most plantations in the lower South did not have to provide substantial shelter to their animals during the winter. Animals were often kept in fattening pens with a simple 5231: 5226: 1175:

from Louisiana's colonial era onward, but large scale production did not begin until the 1810s and 1820s. A successful sugar plantation required a skilled retinue of hired labor and enslaved people.

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Economic studies indicate that fewer than 30 percent of planters employed white supervisors for their slave labor. Some planters appointed a trusted slave as the overseer, and in Louisiana

1069:. These were usually separate, one for each type of animal. The mule stable was the most important on the vast majority of estates, since the mules did most of the work, pulling the 5243: 1220:

A cotton plantation normally had a cotton gin house, where the cotton gin was used to remove the seeds from raw cotton. After ginning, the cotton had to be baled before it could be

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the wash solution and loosen any dirt. The items would then be vigorously rubbed on a corrugated wash board until clean. By the 1850s, they would have been passed through a

1544:' and shunning the big white house for the fields." "'I was depressed by the time I left and questioned why anyone would want to live in South Carolina", read one review . 1061:

for shelter, with the main barn or barns being utilized for crop storage or processing only. Stables were an essential type of barn on the plantation, used to house both

668:. These were usually roofed and often partially enclosed by latticework to exclude animals. Since the well water in many areas was distasteful due to mineral content, the 6634: 343:

healthcare, with enslaved people and slave houses inspected routinely. He was also the record keeper of most crop inventories and held the keys to various storehouses.

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Plantation and Frontier Documents, 1649–1863; Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. and Other Rare Sources.

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allowed the flourishing of large plantations, where large numbers of enslaved Africans were held captive and forced to produce crops to create wealth for a white

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represented the planter in matters of daily management. Usually perceived as uncouth, ill-educated, and low-class, he had the often despised task of meting out

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define large planters as those who enslaved over 50 people, and medium planters as those who enslaved between 16 and 50 people. Historian David Williams, in

1155:. A separate chimney, required for the fires powering the steam engine, was adjacent to the pounding mill and often connected by an underground system. The 416:

A variety of domestic and lesser agricultural structures surrounded the main house on all plantations. Most plantations possessed some, if not all, of these

215:, plantations and their building complexes became obsolete. Although the majority have been destroyed, the most common structures to have survived are the 6791: 6239: 2309: 1426:

Southern plantations depended upon slaves to do the agricultural work. "Honestly, 'plantation' and 'slavery' is one and the same," said an employee of the

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crowning the whole. Although construction records are very sketchy, the Chapel of the Cross, built from 1850 to 1852 near Madison, may be attributable to

1496:, "five major websites often used for wedding planning have pledged to cut back on promoting and romanticizing weddings at former slave plantations". The 6224: 1339:

in 1901. Such memoirs often included descriptions of Christmas as the epitome of anti-modern order exemplified by the "great house" and extended family.

1268:. Historians of the prewar South have generally defined "planter" most precisely as a person owning property (real estate) and keeping 20 or more people 524:. Prior to that time, wringing out the items was done by hand. The items would then be ready to be hung out to dry or, in inclement weather, placed on a 2710:

Hart, John Fraser; Mather, Eugene Cotton (September 1961). "The Character of Tobacco Barns and Their Role in the Tobacco Economy of the United States".

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the mistress of the estate, Louisa Harrison, gave regular instruction to her slaves by reading the services of the church and teaching the Episcopal

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were kept. Its design could vary, depending on whether the chickens were kept for egg production, meat, or both. If for eggs, there were often

1139:. Until the 19th century, rice was threshed from the stalks and the husk was pounded from the grain by hand, a very labor-intensive endeavor. 6694: 6274: 5823: 5818: 4750: 4198: 2249: 6284: 6259: 5539: 5375: 5084: 5074: 4732: 4722: 3367: 934: 874: 858: 664:

Few functions could take place on a plantation without a reliable water supply. Every plantation had at least one, and sometimes several,

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Many manor houses survive, and in some cases former slave dwellings have been rebuilt or renovated. To pay for the upkeep, some, like the

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built to serve the family and others in the area who shared the same faith. This seems to be especially true with planters within the

2880: 2418: 1308:, Randolph B. Campbell classifies large planters as owners of 20 people, and small planters as owners of between 10 and 19 people. In 6776: 5460: 4964: 4073: 3105:

Campbell, Randolph B (May 1982). "Population Persistence and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Texas: Harrison County, 1850–1880".

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Counties, Arkansas, Carl H. Moneyhon defines large planters as owners of 20 or more people, and of 600 acres (240 ha) or more.

6416: 5808: 5438: 4959: 4181: 4013: 3769: 2009: 1670: 1606: 1421: 1042:. Many plantations utilized a number of specialized structures that were crop-specific and only found on that type of plantation. 926:, both of whom designed almost identical churches in the North during the same time period that the Chapel of the Cross was built. 507:

The washhouse is where clothes, tablecloths, and bed-covers were cleaned and ironed. It also sometimes had living quarters for the

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in Convent, Louisiana. One of the most ornate and complete plantation complexes left at that time, it was bulldozed in 1940 for

5833: 5828: 5796: 5566: 5470: 5433: 5380: 5214: 2497: 1159:, a building raised roughly a story off of the ground on posts, was used to separate the lighter chaff and dust from the rice. 3394:

American Negro Slavery; a Survey of the Supply, Employment, and Control of Negro Labor, as Determined by the Plantation Regime

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Anderson, David (February 2005). "Down Memory Lane: Nostalgia for the Old South in Post-Civil War Plantation Reminiscences".

2661: 2631: 2402: 2369: 2232: 2199: 2159: 2051: 1989: 1892: 1867: 1801: 1746: 1712: 1594: 1489:. Recently, and to different degrees, some have begun to acknowledge the "horrors of slavery" which made that life possible. 72: 2589: 6644: 6487: 6114: 6079: 5739: 5724: 5588: 5497: 5492: 5426: 3887: 3829: 3035: 2098: 228: 6689: 6639: 6629: 6334: 6199: 6154: 6059: 6019: 5714: 5551: 5521: 5303: 4882: 4094: 3787: 3696: 2816: 798: 757:. As the children grew older their schooling began to prepare them for their adult roles on the plantation. Boys studied 540: 330: 241: 3318: 6567: 6119: 6109: 6104: 6084: 5704: 5598: 5514: 5358: 5139: 4939: 4090: 4068: 3809: 3721: 1828: 785: 258: 929: 6679: 6396: 6359: 6034: 5949: 5851: 4241: 3892: 3686: 3243: 2996: 2915: 1273: 511:. Cleaning laundry in this period was labor-intensive for the domestic slaves that performed it. It required various 94:

Today, as was also true in the past, there is a wide range of opinion as to what differentiated a plantation from a

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were raised for their derived products and/or meat. All estates would have possessed various types of animal pens,

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Moneyhon, Carl H. (1992). "The Impact of the Civil War in Arkansas: The Mississippi River Plantation Counties".

1049:, depending on what type of crop and livestock were raised. In the upper South, like their counterparts in the 6344: 6144: 6094: 6074: 6049: 6039: 6024: 6014: 5999: 5979: 5954: 5944: 5934: 5556: 5450: 5365: 4969: 3777: 3493: 1660: 1167: 982: 847: 649:

for egg laying and perches on which the birds to sleep. Eggs were collected daily. Some plantations also had

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edited by Sidney Mintz and George Baca (University of South Carolina Press; 2011) 176 pages; 1933 dissertation

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focuses primarily on slavery, with Knowles writing, "McLeod focuses on bondage, talking bluntly about 'slave

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Found on some plantations in every Southern state, plantation schoolhouses served as a place for the hired

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from the 17th into the 20th century. The complex included everything from the main residence down to the

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is a classic example of Southern plantation architecture, built on an H-plan and completed in 1738 near

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1870s photo of the brick slave quarters at Hermitage Plantation (now destroyed) near Savannah, Georgia

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Few plantation structures have survived into the modern era, with the vast majority destroyed through

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Formwalt, Lee W. (October 1981). "Antebellum Planter Persistence: Southwest Georgia—A Case Study".

1584: 1569: 1521:, are working to present a more accurate image of what life was like for slaves and slave owners", 966: 869:

Most plantation churches were of wood-frame construction, although some were built in brick, often

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at Smiths Plantation in Port Royal, South Carolina. The slave house shown is of the saddlebag type.

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Anderson, David J. (Fall 2014). "Nostalgia for Christmas in Postbellum Plantation Reminiscences".

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Wiener, Jonathan M. (Autumn 1976). "Planter Persistence and Social Change: Alabama, 1850–1870".

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plantation in Clemson, South Carolina as a private sanctuary of sorts, with it utilized as both

657:) that, in Louisiana, sometimes took the form of monumental towers set near the main house. The 346: 6572: 6536: 6194: 5546: 5276: 4514: 4308: 4298: 4236: 4046: 3985: 2737: 2191: 2185: 1465: 1319:

Many nostalgic memoirs about plantation life were published in the postwar South. For example,

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in St. Francisville, Louisiana. Built from 1848 to 1856, the masonry structure burned in 1963.

49: 6477: 6467: 6381: 6234: 5621: 5134: 4999: 4954: 4770: 4489: 4454: 4273: 4256: 4063: 3980: 3383:* Evans, Chris, "The Plantation Hoe: The Rise and Fall of an Atlantic Commodity, 1650–1850," 2763: 2286: 2224: 1356: 304: 152: 3516: 3413: 3401: 2394: 2017: 1438: 6729: 6364: 6229: 5863: 5271: 5034: 4845: 4797: 4669: 4559: 4464: 4231: 4221: 4193: 4058: 3912: 3759: 3738: 3716: 2884: 2426: 1634: 1624: 1579: 1561: 1457: 1320: 1258: 1128: 999: 953: 878: 862: 834: 598: 581: 449: 296: 2794: 2334: 1392: 915: 404: 8: 6724: 5646: 5004: 4919: 4399: 4188: 4078: 4008: 3733: 359: 38: 5651: 2475: 2362:

Slavery in the United States: A social, political, and historical encyclopedia, Volume 2

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and transported to market. This was accomplished with a cotton press, an early type of

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in South Carolina, even those who worked in the fields were provided with brick cabins.

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shop; but most varied widely among plantations and were largely a function of what the

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outside of Marion, Alabama. The main house is wood-frame with brick columns and piers.

5166: 4887: 4549: 4519: 4114: 3871: 3239: 3087: 3079: 3002: 2992: 2911: 2657: 2627: 2398: 2387: 2365: 2228: 2217: 2195: 2155: 2047: 1985: 1888: 1863: 1824: 1797: 1742: 1708: 1537: 1477: 1469: 1381: 1117: 899: 890: 750: 718: 709:

wanted, needed, or could afford to add to the complex. These buildings might include

569: 216: 170: 80: 18: 3422:

Phillips, Ulrich B. (1905). "The Economic Cost of Slaveholding in the Cotton Belt".

2624:

A New Plantation South: Land, Labor, and Federal Favor in Twentieth-century Arkansas

2508: 6349: 6174: 5322: 5293: 5288: 5186: 5154: 5127: 4852: 4469: 4439: 4429: 4424: 3991: 3610: 3444: 3439: 3431: 3345:"Some white people don't want to hear about slavery at plantations built by slaves" 3153: 3116: 3044: 2719: 2688: 1629: 1486: 1446: 1361: 1292: 1210:. This was coupled with the equally laborious removal of seeds from fiber by hand. 1201:

Cotton press from the Norfleet Plantation, now relocated to Tarboro, North Carolina

1089: 842: 661:

were raised to be eaten as a delicacy and their droppings were used as fertilizer.

622: 535: 529: 521: 469: 200: 2985: 2149: 1882: 587: 283:

few enslavers went further in providing housing for the household servants. When

6508: 6436: 6374: 5317: 5144: 5054: 5049: 4980:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

4830: 4785: 4639: 4629: 4609: 4594: 4494: 4369: 4359: 3998: 3754: 3593: 3349: 3281: 3277:"As plantations talk more honestly about slavery, some visitors are pushing back" 3235: 3229: 2597: 1700: 1675: 1574: 1493: 1445:, located outside Charlottesville, Virginia, was the primary plantation house of 1351: 1300: 1179: 853: 794: 774: 710: 618: 307:

had this recollection of a visit to plantations along the Georgia coast in 1855:

64:, such plantations were generally self-sufficient settlements that relied on the 53: 26: 2931: 1954: 1250: 1242: 5874: 5754: 5159: 5122: 5112: 4872: 4867: 4809: 4644: 4574: 4504: 4499: 4003: 3927: 3323: 1498: 1461: 1156: 923: 698: 669: 178: 169:, or sawn. Bricks were most often produced onsite from sand and clay that was 3522: 2824: 841:

to their children. Following the death of her first husband, she had a large

693:

Some structures on plantations provided subsidiary functions; again, the term

6770: 6661: 6411: 6354: 4712: 4694: 4684: 4654: 4599: 4554: 4539: 4484: 4474: 4459: 4409: 4404: 4374: 4171: 4099: 3922: 3588: 3091: 3083: 3006: 2448: 2124: 1655: 1651: 1646: 1396:

An overseer on horseback observes the enslaved people picking cotton, c. 1850

1265: 962: 942: 903: 780: 376:

Another residential structure largely unique to plantation complexes was the

3575: 3462:

Scars on the Land: An Environmental History of Slavery in the American South

1820:

Old South Frontier: Cotton Plantations and the Formation of Arkansas Society

5024: 4792: 4717: 4689: 4674: 4659: 4614: 4589: 4569: 4479: 4449: 4444: 4414: 4364: 4216: 3902: 3302: 2150:

Edwards, Jay Dearborn; Nicolas Kariouk Pecquet du Bellay de Verton (2004).

1883:

Edwards, Jay Dearborn; Nicolas Kariouk Pecquet du Bellay de Verton (2004).

1529:

wrote, "The changes have begun to draw people long alienated by the sites'

1510: 1473: 1366: 1288: 1140: 1113: 1027: 949: 889:, both Episcopalian structures in Mississippi. In both cases the original 802: 577: 573: 525: 508: 445: 441: 417: 351: 220: 146: 65: 2425:. Robert E. Lee Memorial Association, Inc., Stratford Hall. Archived from 1100:), storage barns, or processing barns. Crib barns were typically built of 291: 6513: 6406: 6401: 5044: 5029: 4877: 4840: 4679: 4634: 4619: 4384: 4379: 4226: 3691: 3633: 3397: 3373: 3021:

A People's History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom

1984:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 10, 12, 192. 1347: 1297:

A People's History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom

1281: 977: 941:

Another secondary structure on many plantations during the height of the

424:

to the rear of the main house known as the kitchen yard. They included a

208: 182: 128: 107: 3195: 3165: 1337:

The Old Plantation: How We Lived in Great House and Cabin before the War

1255:

The Old Plantation: How We Lived in Great House and Cabin before the War

681: 37:

The Seward Plantation is a historic Southern plantation-turned-ranch in

6714: 4579: 4564: 4534: 4529: 4278: 4246: 4085: 4053: 3645: 3453: 3128: 1541: 1518: 1442: 1401: 1214: 1143:

rice pounding mills had become common by the 1830s. They were used to

1109: 911: 702: 665: 560: 457: 437: 389: 385: 370: 355: 276: 224: 102:. In contrast, the primary focus of a plantation was the production of 45: 6650: 4915:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

3056: 2851:

Beyond The Great House: Archaeology at Ashland-Belle Helene Plantation

2654:

Louisiana Buildings, 1720-1940: The Historic American Buildings Survey

1408:

in order to keep up discipline and secure the profit of his employer.

5193: 5039: 4544: 4328: 4266: 4161: 3655: 3319:"Pinterest and The Knot Pledge to Stop Promoting Plantation Weddings" 3157: 2046:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 155–159. 1221: 1144: 1101: 1093: 1007: 838: 762: 741: 726: 564: 495: 425: 421: 396:

tradition of using the loft of the house as a bedroom for young men.

103: 57: 3840: 3435: 3120: 1705:

Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction

1207: 1053:, barns had to provide basic shelter for the animals and storage of 5666: 5661: 5171: 3298:"Do idyllic southern plantations really tell the story of slavery?" 3048: 1887:. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. pp. 153–157. 1191: 1183: 1127:

Winnowing barn (foreground) and rice pounding mill (background) at

907: 758: 754: 697:

can be applied to these buildings. A few were common, such as the

654: 646: 593: 489: 465: 393: 4930:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

3476:

Mistresses and Slaves: Plantation Women in South Carolina, 1830-80

1080: 777:, and the domestic skills suited to the mistress of a plantation. 4283: 3660: 2626:. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. pp. 55–57. 1277: 1097: 1011: 806: 730: 642: 461: 433: 284: 203:, neglect, or fire over the centuries. With the collapse of the 1108:

required the entire year to gather seeds, start them growing in

5117: 3628: 1588: 1054: 1035: 1015: 870: 825: 714: 658: 556: 517: 512: 429: 166: 3495:

Slavery and plantation growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821-1860

2154:. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. p. 107. 1796:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 8. 621:. It was commonly built of hewn logs or brick. Following the 547:

The milkhouse would have been used by enslaved people to make

119: 6270:

Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863

4929: 3202: 2044:

Back of the Big House, The Architecture of Plantation Slavery

1982:

Back of the Big House, The Architecture of Plantation Slavery

1794:

Back of the Big House, The Architecture of Plantation Slavery

1681:

Commons:Category:Old maps of plantations in the United States

1350:, sanitized view of plantation life and ignored or glorified 1225: 1178:

The most specialized structure on a sugar plantation was the

1152: 1148: 1062: 1031: 991: 895: 770: 746: 737: 630: 602: 552: 485: 481: 453: 88: 3378:

The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South

2393:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 1862:. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. pp. xi–xv. 1601:

Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839

532:, often heated in the fireplace, and various other devices. 4974: 3650: 3640: 3523:"The Plantation System in Southern Life. Short documentary" 3234:. The A to Z Guide Series. Vol. 51. Lanham, Maryland: 2910:. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. pp. 19–43. 2651: 2285:. University of Cincinnati Clermont College. Archived from 1823:. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press. p. 129. 1433: 1343: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1058: 1039: 1023: 1019: 1003: 745:

memorized them. The usual texts in the beginning were the

626: 614: 610: 548: 477: 174: 95: 2987:

Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery

2540:. Episcopal Diocese of Jackson: St. Mary Basilica Archives 1955:"The Evolution of the Slave Quarter in Tidewater Virginia" 1284:, the terms "planter" and "farmer" were often synonymous. 1246:

Three planters, after 1845, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

824:

Another structure found on some estates was a plantation

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Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States

3483:

Aren't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South

420:, often called dependencies, commonly arranged around a 2384: 572:

to come. Churning was an arduous task performed with a

2016:. Montgomery County Historical Society. Archived from 1186:. It was then placed into a closed vessel known as a 609:

The smokehouse was utilized to preserve meat, usually

6812:

Things in the United States that were built by slaves

2071:. New York: Negro University Press. pp. 416–417. 1707:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 33–36. 262:

Slave house with a sugar kettle in the foreground at

6240:

Slavery in the colonial history of the United States

3228:

Richter, William L. (August 20, 2009). "Overseers".

3104: 2983:

Fogel, Robert William; Engerman, Stanley L. (1974).

2883:. Encyclopedia of Slavery in America. Archived from 1551: 1264:

An individual who owned a plantation was known as a

563:. The process started with separating the milk into 468:

would have been located some distance away from the

3421: 2853:. Louisiana Division of Archaeology. Archived from 2839: 1761: 6255:Slave markets and slave jails in the United States 3606:Plantation complexes in the Southern United States 2984: 2976: 2386: 2216: 408:The detached brick kitchen building at the former 207:and subsequent Southern transition from a largely 177:. If a suitable stone was available, it was used. 3177: 3175: 2764:"Georgetown County Rice Culture, c. 1750-c. 1910" 2712:Annals of the Association of American Geographers 2652:Poesch, Jessie J.; Barbara SoRelle Bacot (1997). 2647: 2645: 2643: 2255:. East Bay Regional Park District. Archived from 2152:A Creole lexicon: Architecture, Landscape, People 1885:A Creole lexicon: Architecture, Landscape, People 765:, and plantation management, while girls learned 633:were applied to the meat at the beginning of the 44:Plantation complexes were common on agricultural 6768: 6519:Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade 5904: 4965:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 3702:Slave health on plantations in the United States 1959:Jamestown Settlement and Yorktown Victory Center 1232: 6308:Slavery as a positive good in the United States 5010:Black players in professional American football 4960:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 2874: 2872: 2821:The Cabildo: Two Centuries of Louisiana History 2617: 2615: 2411: 2364:. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. p. 671. 2280: 384:, but occasionally found in other parts of the 325: 83:, plentiful rainfall, and fertile soils of the 6802:Slave cabins and quarters in the United States 3707:Treatment of the enslaved in the United States 3172: 2809: 2793:. Isle of Wight History Centre. Archived from 2640: 2594:Mississippi Department of Archives and History 2441: 2378: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2143: 1952: 1948: 1946: 1737:. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. p. 1621:(1949 book by historian Frank Lawrence Owsley) 499:1940 photograph of the washhouse (laundry) at 149:, barns, and other structures of the complex. 6275:Slavery at American colleges and universities 5890: 3856: 3561: 2982: 2122: 1922: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1904: 1876: 1331:, and served as an Episcopal chaplain in the 833:denomination. Early records indicate that at 6260:Kidnapping into slavery in the United States 4723:Historically black colleges and universities 3368:Bibliography of slavery in the United States 2869: 2847:"Sugarhouse and Sugar Production at Ashland" 2656:. Baton Rouge: LSU Press. pp. 157–165. 2612: 2526: 2473: 2353: 2097:. Louisiana State University. Archived from 1257:, 1901, by Confederate chaplain and planter 981:Carriage house (left) and stable (right) at 528:. Ironing would have been done with a metal 6792:History of agriculture in the United States 6740:Family reunification ads after emancipation 2924: 2756: 2730: 2675: 2673: 2507:. Birmingham Public Library. Archived from 2339:Louisiana Division of Historic Preservation 2327: 2190:. Mankato, Minn: Blue Earth Books. p. 2168: 2088:"Overseer's House at the Rural Life Museum" 2037: 2035: 2003: 2001: 1943: 1726: 1724: 71:Plantations are an important aspect of the 6453:Slavery and the United States Constitution 5897: 5883: 3863: 3849: 3568: 3554: 3464:. New York: Oxford University Press, 2022. 3338: 3336: 3334: 3270: 3268: 3266: 2709: 2116: 1901: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 972: 6807:Pre-emancipation African-American history 4940:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 3443: 2490: 2385:Roberts, Bruce; Elizabeth Kedash (1990). 2359: 2310:"Mechanics and Functions of a Smokehouse" 1787: 1785: 1492:In late 2019, after contact initiated by 380:or bachelors' quarters. Mostly built by 114: 6543:Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution 3342: 3208: 3181: 3141: 3135: 3098: 3069: 3063: 2899: 2878: 2823:. Louisiana State Museum. Archived from 2782: 2670: 2498:"Faunsdale Plantation Papers, 1805-1975" 2307: 2032: 1998: 1973: 1816: 1762:Robert J. Vejnar II (November 6, 2008). 1755: 1730: 1721: 1671:Treatment of slaves in the United States 1607:List of plantations in the United States 1437: 1434:Plantation complexes in the 21st century 1422:Treatment of slaves in the United States 1391: 1249: 1241: 1196: 1161: 1122: 1079: 976: 928: 852: 811: 779: 685:Schoolhouse for the owner's children at 680: 591:1937 photograph of one of two identical 586: 534: 494: 403: 345: 329: 290: 257: 245: 187: 151: 118: 32: 17: 6245:Indentured servitude in British America 3331: 3295: 3274: 3263: 3227: 2905: 2467: 2241: 2219:The Pantry: Its History and Modern Uses 2082: 2080: 2078: 2066: 2007: 1857: 1844: 1810: 952:, for blacks and poor whites, led to a 809:during his twenty-five year residency. 676: 641:The chicken house was a building where 516:down and rotated in the washing tub to 6782:Plantation houses in the United States 6769: 5839:Topics related to the African diaspora 4945:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 3316: 3032: 3026: 2788: 2621: 2505:Department of Archives and Manuscripts 2274: 2247: 2208: 2129:Macmillan Information Now Encyclopedia 2069:A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States 1782: 1699: 319:A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States 6787:History of the Southern United States 6685:Slavery during the American Civil War 6498:Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves 5878: 5819:Landmark African-American legislation 3870: 3844: 3549: 3533:from the original on November 7, 2021 3491: 3275:Knowles, Hannah (September 8, 2019). 2963: 2960:, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, xiii 2817:"Antebellum Louisiana: Agrarian Life" 2301: 2223:. Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith. p. 2041: 1979: 1791: 1595:History of the Southern United States 1468:, have become small luxury hotels or 1084:Tobacco barn near Lexington, Kentucky 98:. Typically, the focus of a farm was 73:history of the Southern United States 4950:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 3343:Brockell, Gillian (August 8, 2019). 3317:Murphy, Heather (December 5, 2019). 3036:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2791:"The Farming and Processing of Rice" 2768:National Register of Historic Places 2681:"The Preservation of Historic Barns" 2582: 2560:"History of The Chapel of the Cross" 2552: 2478:. Texas State Historical Association 2214: 2183: 2075: 1925:"Plantation Architecture in Alabama" 1135:Rice plantations were common in the 1014:. Besides those mentioned earlier, 266:in West Pointe a la Hache, Louisiana 6690:End of slavery in the United States 5304:African-American Vernacular English 3296:Holpuch, Amanda (August 15, 2019). 2881:"King Cotton: The Fiber of Slavery" 2703: 2389:Plantation homes of the James River 2215:Pond, Catherine Seiberling (2007). 1923:Robert Gamble (September 2, 2008). 1237: 242:Slave quarters in the United States 13: 6568:John Quincy Adams and abolitionism 5222:U.S. cities with large populations 4925:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 3361: 3072:Plantation Society in the Americas 2724:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1961.tb00379.x 2014:Slave Housing in Montgomery County 1411: 1376:(1939), based on the best-selling 1092:were most commonly the crib barn ( 797:used his plantation office at his 14: 6823: 6735:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 6680:Origins of the American Civil War 6387:African American founding fathers 6330:Education during the slave period 4095:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 4091:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 3898:African American founding fathers 2453:South Carolina Historical Society 1731:Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell (1929). 1525:wrote in 2019. Hannah Knowles in 1354:. The most popular of these were 1194:barrels for transport to market. 295:Remnants of the slave quarter at 235: 6777:Plantations in the United States 6483:History of slavery by U.S. state 6250:Slave trade in the United States 5857: 4975:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 4120:Nadir of American race relations 3023:, New York: The New Press, 2005. 2738:"Tobacco and Staple Agriculture" 2455:. The Historical Marker Database 2315:. University of Delaware Library 1554: 568:increased the efficiency of the 3981:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 3971:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 3410:Life and Labor in the Old South 3310: 3289: 3238:(published 2009). p. 258. 3221: 3184:The Journal of Southern History 3013: 2950: 2067:Olmsted, Frederick Law (1968). 2060: 1961:. Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation 1734:Life and Labor in the Old South 1213:Following the invention of the 1131:near Georgetown, South Carolina 820:near Georgetown, South Carolina 399: 388:formerly under the dominion of 181:was often used on the southern 6345:List of American slave traders 6225:Slavery among Native Americans 4970:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 3976:Civil right movement 1896–1954 2906:Sellers, James Benson (1950). 1693: 1661:Slavery at Tuckahoe plantation 816:The "Negro Baptist Church" at 1: 6553:George Washington and slavery 6432:American Colonization Society 6427:African-American slave owners 5150:Cherokee freedmen controversy 4126:The Negro Motorist Green Book 3145:Arkansas Historical Quarterly 2938:. Public Broadcasting Service 2449:"Fort Hill Plantation Office" 2360:Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). 2250:"Laundry in the 19th Century" 1860:Lost Plantations of the South 1686: 1612:Lost Cause of the Confederacy 1505:"Many plantations, including 1329:Onslow County, North Carolina 1233:Social and labor organization 625:in the fall or early winter, 428:(separate kitchen building), 173:, dried, and then fired in a 6558:Thomas Jefferson and slavery 6303:American proslavery movement 6265:Slave states and free states 5906:Slavery in the United States 3677:Slavery in the United States 2335:"French Creole Architecture" 2042:Vlach, John Michael (1993). 1980:Vlach, John Michael (1993). 1817:McNeilly, Donald P. (2000). 1792:Vlach, John Michael (1993). 1666:Slavery in the United States 1418:Slavery in the United States 937:near Natchitoches, Louisiana 906:over the doors and windows, 788:near West Point, Mississippi 338:near Natchitoches, Louisiana 326:Other residential structures 111:number of enslaved persons. 7: 6583:Abraham Lincoln and slavery 5020:Black players in ice hockey 4955:National Urban League (NUL) 4781:American Society of Muslims 4019:Selma to Montgomery marches 3939:Brown v. Board of Education 3503:University of Florida Press 3492:Smith, Julia Floyd (2017). 3424:Political Science Quarterly 3398:online at Project Gutenberg 3231:The A to Z of the Old South 3108:Journal of Southern History 2622:Whayne, Jeannie M. (1990). 2187:Southern Plantation Cooking 1929:The Encyclopedia of Alabama 1768:The Encyclopedia of Alabama 1618:Plain Folk of the Old South 1547: 1387: 1342:Novels, often adapted into 1325:Avirett-Stephens Plantation 543:near Sevierville, Tennessee 10: 6828: 6657:Children of the plantation 6588:Andrew Johnson and slavery 6578:Zachary Taylor and slavery 6524:Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 6493:Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 6458:American slave court cases 6422:Amerindian slave ownership 5177:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 4935:Nashville Student Movement 3946:Children of the plantation 3682:Children of the plantation 3467:Thompson, Edgar Tristram. 3385:William and Mary Quarterly 3365: 2958:American Slavery 1619–1877 2538:St. Mary Basilica Archives 1641:Plantations of Leon County 1472:. Not only Monticello and 1415: 969:, and various other laws. 373:overseers were also used. 303:Famous landscape designer 239: 85:Southeastern United States 75:, particularly before the 6710:Emancipation Proclamation 6670: 6635:Sexual relations and rape 6613: 6563:James Madison and slavery 6445: 6293: 6215: 6208: 6187: 6173: 5912: 5847: 5814:Index of related articles 5692: 5607: 5331: 5264: 5202: 5102: 5063: 4995: 4988: 4903: 4823: 4815:Doctrine of Father Divine 4761: 4703: 4352: 4207: 4199:Women's suffrage movement 4152:Reconstruction Amendments 3959:Voting Rights Act of 1965 3878: 3768: 3747: 3669: 3621: 3581: 2991:. Boston: Little, Brown. 2423:Stratford Hall Plantation 2125:"The Southern Plantation" 1858:Matrana, Marc R. (2009). 1585:Casa-Grande & Senzala 1400:On larger plantations an 1166:Ruins of a sugar mill at 1137:South Carolina Lowcountry 865:near Madison, Mississippi 846:African Americans of the 354:(bachelor's quarters) at 195:House in Jefferson, Texas 60:. Until the abolition of 6695:Compensated emancipation 5864:United States portal 5299:African-American English 4728:Inventors and scientists 4420:George Washington Carver 4024:Chicago Freedom Movement 3510:Phillips, Ulrich B., ed. 3414:excerpts and text search 3387:, (2012) 69#1 pp 71–100. 2184:Mary, Gunderson (2000). 1764:"Plantation Agriculture" 1570:African-American history 1168:Laurel Valley Plantation 1045:Plantation barns can be 6797:Antebellum architecture 6530:Partus sequitur ventrem 6473:Three-fifths Compromise 5787:African-American firsts 4836:Back-to-Africa movement 4805:Black Hebrew Israelites 4585:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 4133:Partus sequitur ventrem 3487:excerpt and text search 3474:Weiner, Marli Frances. 3445:2027/hvd.32044082042185 2770:. National Park Service 2341:. National Park Service 1364:,'s best-selling novel 1333:Confederate States Army 1170:in Thibodaux, Louisiana 985:in Natchez, Mississippi 973:Agricultural structures 914:roof-line, and a small 673:common in other areas. 382:Louisiana Creole people 317:Frederick Law Olmsted, 299:near Faunsdale, Alabama 156:1862 photograph of the 100:subsistence agriculture 6605:Supreme Court Justices 6573:John Tyler and slavery 6548:Presidents and slavery 6537:Dred Scott v. Sandford 5755:Spingarn Medal winners 5244:States and territories 5015:Black NFL quarterbacks 4515:Martin Luther King Jr. 4047:Dred Scott v. Sandford 3986:Montgomery bus boycott 3396:. (1918; reprint 1966) 1466:Durham, North Carolina 1449: 1397: 1378:novel of the same name 1306:Harrison County, Texas 1261: 1247: 1202: 1171: 1132: 1088:Barns not involved in 1085: 1047:classified by function 986: 938: 887:Laurel Hill Plantation 866: 821: 818:Friendfield Plantation 789: 690: 689:near Forkland, Alabama 606: 544: 504: 413: 362: 339: 323: 300: 267: 251: 196: 161: 132: 115:The plantation complex 50:Southern United States 41: 30: 6478:Slave and free states 6468:Fugitive Slave Clause 6382:List of abolitionists 6235:Slavery in New France 5065:Athletic associations 5000:Negro league baseball 4771:African-American Jews 4490:Ketanji Brown Jackson 4455:Henry Highland Garnet 4314:Negro National Anthem 4064:George Floyd protests 4029:Post–civil rights era 2685:National Park Service 2590:"Chapel Of The Cross" 2429:on September 26, 2011 2281:David B. Fankhauser. 2131:. Civil War Potpourri 1637:(genre of literature) 1441: 1395: 1357:The Birth of a Nation 1323:, who grew up on the 1253: 1245: 1200: 1165: 1126: 1083: 980: 932: 856: 815: 784:Plantation office at 783: 684: 590: 538: 503:in Melrose, Louisiana 498: 407: 349: 333: 309: 305:Frederick Law Olmsted 294: 261: 249: 191: 155: 122: 36: 21: 6504:Gag rule (1836–1840) 6365:Underground Railroad 6340:Domestic slave trade 6325:Mandatory illiteracy 6230:Slavery in New Spain 6181:District of Columbia 5272:Afro-Seminole Creole 4798:Azusa Street Revival 4670:Booker T. Washington 4194:Underground Railroad 4059:Free people of color 3913:Atlantic slave trade 3770:Lists of plantations 3739:Underground Railroad 2887:on September 3, 2011 2857:on November 20, 2011 2691:on February 19, 2011 2600:on February 25, 2012 2476:"Waldeck Plantation" 2419:"Colonial Education" 2020:on November 25, 2010 1953:Thomas E. Davidson. 1635:Plantation tradition 1625:Plantation-era songs 1587:(similar concept in 1580:Atlantic slave trade 1562:United States portal 1476:but some 375 former 1458:Natchez, Mississippi 1321:James Battle Avirett 1259:James Battle Avirett 1129:Mansfield Plantation 933:Plantation store at 879:Annandale Plantation 863:Annandale Plantation 835:Faunsdale Plantation 677:Ancillary structures 599:Uncle Sam Plantation 334:Overseer's house at 297:Faunsdale Plantation 273:Hermitage Plantation 68:of enslaved people. 6725:Radical Republicans 6672:Civil War and after 6600:Members of Congress 6417:List of plantations 6200:U.S. Virgin Islands 5667:Trinidad and Tobago 5282:Black American Sign 5109:By African descent 5103:Ethnic subdivisions 5090:Southwestern (SWAC) 5005:Baseball color line 4920:Black Panther Party 4824:Political movements 4741:in computer science 4400:Carol Moseley Braun 4189:Tulsa race massacre 4182:Treatment of slaves 4014:March on Washington 4009:Birmingham movement 3734:Fugitive slave laws 3515:2 Volumes. (1909). 3419:Phillips, Ulrich B. 3407:Phillips, Ulrich B. 3391:Phillips, Ulrich B. 2936:Africans in America 2742:Tobacco in Virginia 2564:Chapel of the Cross 2283:"Making Buttermilk" 2123:Catherine Clinton. 1931:. Auburn University 1770:. Auburn University 1527:The Washington Post 1523:The Washington Post 1462:Lipscomb Plantation 1454:Monmouth Plantation 1038:, and a variety of 959:grandfather clauses 875:Chapel of the Cross 859:Chapel of the Cross 360:Burnside, Louisiana 264:Woodland Plantation 39:Independence, Texas 6720:Reconstruction era 5765:US representatives 5760:US cabinet members 5652:Dominican Republic 5239:Metropolitan areas 5080:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 4905:Civic and economic 4883:Self-determination 4704:Education, science 4625:Fred Shuttlesworth 4605:A. Philip Randolph 4510:Coretta Scott King 4435:Frederick Douglass 4262:Harlem Renaissance 4167:Separate but equal 4157:Reconstruction era 4145:Plessy v. Ferguson 4036:Cornerstone Speech 3950:Civil Rights Acts 3933:Black Lives Matter 3908:American Civil War 3601:Plantation economy 3481:White, Deborah G. 2932:"The Cotton Press" 2908:Slavery in Alabama 2474:Diana J. Kleiner. 2289:on August 28, 2007 1470:bed and breakfasts 1450: 1428:Whitney Plantation 1398: 1373:Gone with the Wind 1262: 1248: 1203: 1172: 1151:from the inedible 1133: 1096:or other types of 1086: 987: 939: 935:Oakland Plantation 867: 822: 790: 691: 607: 545: 505: 501:Melrose Plantation 472:and kitchen yard. 414: 363: 340: 336:Oakland Plantation 301: 268: 252: 213:industrial society 205:plantation economy 197: 193:Freeman Plantation 162: 133: 77:American Civil War 42: 31: 6764: 6763: 6760: 6759: 6730:Freedmen's Bureau 5872: 5871: 5700:African Americans 5572:Dallas–Fort Worth 5167:Black Southerners 5098: 5097: 4550:Thurgood Marshall 4520:Bernard Lafayette 4115:Million Man March 3872:African Americans 3838: 3837: 3460:Silkenat, David. 2744:. Virginia Places 2663:978-0-8071-2054-5 2633:978-0-8139-1655-2 2514:on August 7, 2011 2404:978-0-8078-4278-2 2371:978-1-85109-544-5 2262:on April 11, 2011 2234:978-1-4236-0004-6 2201:978-0-7368-0357-1 2161:978-0-8071-2764-3 2095:Rural Life Museum 2053:978-0-8078-4412-0 1991:978-0-8078-4412-0 1894:978-0-8071-2764-3 1869:978-1-57806-942-2 1803:978-0-8078-4412-0 1748:978-0-316-70607-0 1714:978-0-19-984328-2 1538:McLeod Plantation 1507:George Washington 1478:plantation houses 1382:Margaret Mitchell 1360:(1916), based on 1000:sea island cotton 954:populist movement 891:plantation houses 883:St. Mary's Chapel 761:subjects, proper 723:commissary stores 217:plantation houses 81:temperate climate 6819: 6446:Law and politics 6370:Freedmen's towns 6350:Runaway slave ad 6213: 6212: 6175:Federal district 5899: 5892: 5885: 5876: 5875: 5862: 5861: 5860: 5824:Lynching victims 5323:Louisiana Creole 5294:American English 5182:Louisiana Creole 5155:Choctaw freedmen 4993: 4992: 4530:Huddie Ledbetter 4470:Fannie Lou Hamer 4440:W. E. B. Du Bois 4430:Claudette Colvin 4425:Shirley Chisholm 4242:Family structure 4110:Military history 3992:Browder v. Gayle 3865: 3858: 3851: 3842: 3841: 3611:Plantation house 3570: 3563: 3556: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3506: 3500: 3457: 3447: 3355: 3354: 3340: 3329: 3328: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3293: 3287: 3286: 3272: 3261: 3260: 3254: 3252: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3211:Southern Studies 3206: 3200: 3199: 3179: 3170: 3169: 3158:10.2307/40025847 3139: 3133: 3132: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3030: 3024: 3019:David Williams, 3017: 3011: 3010: 2990: 2980: 2974: 2967: 2961: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2928: 2922: 2921: 2903: 2897: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2876: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2843: 2837: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2797:on June 25, 2011 2786: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2707: 2701: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2687:. Archived from 2677: 2668: 2667: 2649: 2638: 2637: 2619: 2610: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2596:. Archived from 2586: 2580: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2570:on June 13, 2010 2566:. Archived from 2556: 2550: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2513: 2502: 2494: 2488: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2471: 2465: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2445: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2415: 2409: 2408: 2392: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2331: 2325: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2314: 2305: 2299: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2278: 2272: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2261: 2254: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2222: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2181: 2166: 2165: 2147: 2141: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2104:on July 27, 2011 2103: 2092: 2084: 2073: 2072: 2064: 2058: 2057: 2039: 2030: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2005: 1996: 1995: 1977: 1971: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1950: 1941: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1920: 1899: 1898: 1880: 1874: 1873: 1855: 1842: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1814: 1808: 1807: 1789: 1780: 1779: 1777: 1775: 1759: 1753: 1752: 1728: 1719: 1718: 1701:Guelzo, Allen C. 1697: 1630:Plantation house 1564: 1559: 1558: 1557: 1515:Thomas Jefferson 1487:antebellum South 1485:" vision of the 1447:Thomas Jefferson 1362:Thomas Dixon Jr. 1293:Stanley Engerman 1238:Plantation owner 1090:animal husbandry 843:Carpenter Gothic 763:social etiquette 470:plantation house 410:Lowry Plantation 321: 201:natural disaster 6827: 6826: 6822: 6821: 6820: 6818: 6817: 6816: 6767: 6766: 6765: 6756: 6745:Freedmen's town 6666: 6645:Slave marriages 6618:and procreation 6617: 6615: 6609: 6595:Vice presidents 6509:Nullifier Party 6488:Fugitive slaves 6441: 6437:Slave narrative 6375:Black Canadians 6295: 6289: 6204: 6183: 6169: 5908: 5903: 5873: 5868: 5858: 5856: 5843: 5809:Historic places 5802:US state firsts 5688: 5603: 5327: 5260: 5232:2010 majorities 5227:2000 majorities 5198: 5145:Black Seminoles 5094: 5085:Southern (SIAC) 5068: 5067:and conferences 5066: 5059: 5055:Serena Williams 5050:Jackie Robinson 4984: 4908: 4906: 4899: 4819: 4786:Nation of Islam 4757: 4705: 4699: 4640:Sojourner Truth 4630:Clarence Thomas 4595:Gabriel Prosser 4495:Michael Jackson 4370:Crispus Attucks 4360:Ralph Abernathy 4348: 4304:Musical theater 4203: 4069:Great Migration 4041:COVID-19 impact 3999:Sit-in movement 3874: 3869: 3839: 3834: 3764: 3755:Convict leasing 3743: 3665: 3617: 3594:Ancient planter 3577: 3574: 3536: 3534: 3521: 3498: 3485:(2nd ed. 1999) 3436:10.2307/2140400 3370: 3364: 3362:Further reading 3359: 3358: 3350:Washington Post 3341: 3332: 3315: 3311: 3294: 3290: 3282:Washington Post 3273: 3264: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3236:Scarecrow Press 3226: 3222: 3207: 3203: 3180: 3173: 3140: 3136: 3121:10.2307/2207106 3103: 3099: 3068: 3064: 3031: 3027: 3018: 3014: 2999: 2981: 2977: 2968: 2964: 2956:Peter Kolchin, 2955: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2930: 2929: 2925: 2918: 2904: 2900: 2890: 2888: 2877: 2870: 2860: 2858: 2845: 2844: 2840: 2830: 2828: 2827:on May 26, 2011 2815: 2814: 2810: 2800: 2798: 2787: 2783: 2773: 2771: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2747: 2745: 2736: 2735: 2731: 2708: 2704: 2694: 2692: 2679: 2678: 2671: 2664: 2650: 2641: 2634: 2620: 2613: 2603: 2601: 2588: 2587: 2583: 2573: 2571: 2558: 2557: 2553: 2543: 2541: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2517: 2515: 2511: 2500: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2481: 2479: 2472: 2468: 2458: 2456: 2447: 2446: 2442: 2432: 2430: 2417: 2416: 2412: 2405: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2358: 2354: 2344: 2342: 2333: 2332: 2328: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2306: 2302: 2292: 2290: 2279: 2275: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2252: 2246: 2242: 2235: 2213: 2209: 2202: 2182: 2169: 2162: 2148: 2144: 2134: 2132: 2121: 2117: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2090: 2086: 2085: 2076: 2065: 2061: 2054: 2040: 2033: 2023: 2021: 2010:"Slave Housing" 2006: 1999: 1992: 1978: 1974: 1964: 1962: 1951: 1944: 1934: 1932: 1921: 1902: 1895: 1881: 1877: 1870: 1856: 1845: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1815: 1811: 1804: 1790: 1783: 1773: 1771: 1760: 1756: 1749: 1729: 1722: 1715: 1698: 1694: 1689: 1676:White supremacy 1575:American gentry 1560: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1494:Color of Change 1436: 1424: 1414: 1412:Enslaved people 1390: 1352:white supremacy 1301:Jonathan Weiner 1287:The historians 1240: 1235: 1116:to dry, called 975: 795:John C. Calhoun 679: 402: 328: 322: 316: 275:in Georgia and 244: 238: 117: 27:Lerty, Virginia 12: 11: 5: 6825: 6815: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6762: 6761: 6758: 6757: 6755: 6754: 6753: 6752: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6705:Colored Troops 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6676: 6674: 6668: 6667: 6665: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6647: 6642: 6640:Slave breeding 6637: 6632: 6630:Female slavery 6627: 6625:Sexual slavery 6621: 6619: 6616:sexual slavery 6611: 6610: 6608: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6545: 6540: 6533: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6449: 6447: 6443: 6442: 6440: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6372: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6335:Slave quarters 6332: 6327: 6322: 6321: 6320: 6310: 6305: 6299: 6297: 6296:social history 6291: 6290: 6288: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6221: 6219: 6210: 6206: 6205: 6203: 6202: 6197: 6191: 6189: 6185: 6184: 6179: 6177: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6115:South Carolina 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6080:North Carolina 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5916: 5914: 5910: 5909: 5902: 5901: 5894: 5887: 5879: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5854: 5848: 5845: 5844: 5842: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5805: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5784: 5783: 5782: 5777: 5775:Visual artists 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5735:Mathematicians 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5696: 5694: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5686: 5685: 5684: 5676: 5671: 5670: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5613: 5611: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5585: 5584: 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4390:Amelia Boynton 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4356: 4354: 4353:Notable people 4350: 4349: 4347: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4289:LGBT community 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4270: 4269: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4213: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4202: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4185: 4184: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4141: 4136: 4129: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4088: 4083: 4082: 4081: 4076: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4032: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4004:Freedom Riders 4001: 3996: 3988: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3967: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3948: 3943: 3935: 3930: 3928:Black genocide 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3884: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3868: 3867: 3860: 3853: 3845: 3836: 3835: 3833: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3820:South Carolina 3817: 3815:North Carolina 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3791: 3790: 3780: 3774: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3763: 3762: 3757: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3730: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3711: 3710: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3697:Slave breeding 3694: 3689: 3684: 3673: 3671: 3667: 3666: 3664: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3637: 3636: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3615: 3614: 3613: 3603: 3598: 3597: 3596: 3585: 3583: 3582:The plantation 3579: 3578: 3573: 3572: 3565: 3558: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3519: 3517:online edition 3507: 3489: 3479: 3472: 3469:The Plantation 3465: 3458: 3430:(2): 257–275. 3416: 3404: 3402:google edition 3388: 3381: 3366:Main article: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3330: 3324:New York Times 3309: 3288: 3262: 3244: 3220: 3201: 3190:(1): 105–136. 3171: 3134: 3115:(2): 185–204. 3097: 3062: 3049:10.2307/202735 3025: 3012: 2997: 2975: 2962: 2949: 2923: 2916: 2898: 2879:Jean M. West. 2868: 2838: 2808: 2781: 2755: 2729: 2718:(3): 274–293. 2702: 2669: 2662: 2639: 2632: 2611: 2581: 2551: 2525: 2489: 2466: 2440: 2410: 2403: 2377: 2370: 2352: 2326: 2308:Judith Quinn. 2300: 2273: 2240: 2233: 2207: 2200: 2167: 2160: 2142: 2115: 2074: 2059: 2052: 2031: 1997: 1990: 1972: 1942: 1900: 1893: 1875: 1868: 1843: 1830:978-1557286192 1829: 1809: 1802: 1781: 1754: 1747: 1720: 1713: 1691: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1684: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1663: 1658: 1649: 1644: 1638: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1597: 1592: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1549: 1546: 1499:New York Times 1435: 1432: 1413: 1410: 1389: 1386: 1346:, presented a 1276:" counties of 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1157:winnowing barn 1102:unchinked logs 974: 971: 963:literacy tests 924:Richard Upjohn 904:hood mouldings 902:arch windows, 699:carriage house 678: 675: 539:Smokehouse at 492:and the like. 401: 398: 327: 324: 314: 240:Main article: 237: 236:Slave quarters 234: 125:Gothic Revival 123:The whimsical 116: 113: 106:, with enough 23:Stratford Hall 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6824: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6772: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6677: 6675: 6673: 6669: 6663: 6662:Shadow family 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6652: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6612: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6534: 6532: 6531: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6463:Freedom suits 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6444: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6412:Planter class 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6355:Slave catcher 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6319: 6316: 6315: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6300: 6298: 6292: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6218: 6214: 6211: 6207: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6176: 6172: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6155:West Virginia 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6060:New Hampshire 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6020:Massachusetts 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5900: 5895: 5893: 5888: 5886: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5865: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5846: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5834:Neighborhoods 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5797:Sports firsts 5795: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5788: 5785: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5695: 5691: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5615: 5614: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5600: 5599:West Virginia 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5536:Pennsylvania 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5516: 5515:New York City 5513: 5512: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5462: 5459: 5458: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5394: 5391: 5390: 5389: 5386: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5373: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5360: 5359:San Francisco 5357: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5332:By state/city 5330: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5301: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5290: 5287: 5283: 5280: 5279: 5278: 5277:American Sign 5275: 5273: 5270: 5269: 5267: 5263: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5224: 5223: 5220: 5216: 5213: 5212: 5211: 5210:Neighborhoods 5208: 5207: 5205: 5201: 5195: 5192: 5188: 5185: 5184: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5141: 5140:Black Indians 5138: 5136: 5133: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5110: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5101: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5062: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4997: 4994: 4991: 4987: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4912: 4910: 4902: 4896: 4893: 4889: 4886: 4885: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4847: 4844: 4843: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4794: 4791: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4768: 4766: 4764: 4760: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4718:Black schools 4716: 4714: 4713:Black studies 4711: 4710: 4708: 4702: 4696: 4695:Whitney Young 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4685:Oprah Winfrey 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4655:Denmark Vesey 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4600:Joseph Rainey 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4555:Toni Morrison 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4540:Joseph Lowery 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4485:Jesse Jackson 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4475:Kamala Harris 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4460:Marcus Garvey 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4410:Blanche Bruce 4408: 4406: 4405:Edward Brooke 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4395:James Bradley 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4375:James Baldwin 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4351: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4319:Neighborhoods 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4268: 4265: 4264: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4206: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4183: 4180: 4179: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4172:Silent Parade 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4147: 4146: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4130: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4100:Jim Crow laws 4098: 4096: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4071: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4049: 4048: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3994: 3993: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3983: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3951: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3941: 3940: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3923:Black cowboys 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3866: 3861: 3859: 3854: 3852: 3847: 3846: 3843: 3831: 3830:West Virginia 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3789: 3786: 3785: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3760:Sharecropping 3758: 3756: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3728: 3727:Interregional 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3675: 3674: 3672: 3668: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3635: 3632: 3631: 3630: 3627: 3626: 3624: 3620: 3612: 3609: 3608: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3595: 3592: 3591: 3590: 3589:Planter class 3587: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3571: 3566: 3564: 3559: 3557: 3552: 3551: 3548: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3511: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3496: 3490: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3477: 3473: 3470: 3466: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3372: 3371: 3369: 3352: 3351: 3346: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3326: 3325: 3320: 3313: 3305: 3304: 3299: 3292: 3284: 3283: 3278: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3259: 3247: 3245:9780810870000 3241: 3237: 3233: 3232: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3178: 3176: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3152:(2): 105–18. 3151: 3147: 3146: 3138: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3109: 3101: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3078:(3): 410–29. 3077: 3073: 3066: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3043:(2): 235–60. 3042: 3038: 3037: 3029: 3022: 3016: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2998:9780316287005 2994: 2989: 2988: 2979: 2972: 2966: 2959: 2953: 2937: 2933: 2927: 2919: 2917:0-8173-0594-7 2913: 2909: 2902: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2873: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2842: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2812: 2796: 2792: 2785: 2769: 2765: 2759: 2743: 2739: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2676: 2674: 2665: 2659: 2655: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2635: 2629: 2625: 2618: 2616: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2585: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2555: 2539: 2535: 2529: 2510: 2506: 2499: 2493: 2477: 2470: 2454: 2450: 2444: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2406: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2390: 2381: 2373: 2367: 2363: 2356: 2340: 2336: 2330: 2311: 2304: 2288: 2284: 2277: 2258: 2251: 2244: 2236: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2220: 2211: 2203: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2188: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2163: 2157: 2153: 2146: 2130: 2126: 2119: 2100: 2096: 2089: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2070: 2063: 2055: 2049: 2045: 2038: 2036: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2008:Mark Watson. 2004: 2002: 1993: 1987: 1983: 1976: 1960: 1956: 1949: 1947: 1930: 1926: 1919: 1917: 1915: 1913: 1911: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1896: 1890: 1886: 1879: 1871: 1865: 1861: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1848: 1832: 1826: 1822: 1821: 1813: 1805: 1799: 1795: 1788: 1786: 1769: 1765: 1758: 1750: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1735: 1727: 1725: 1716: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1696: 1692: 1682: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1656:United States 1653: 1652:Sharecropping 1650: 1648: 1647:Planter class 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1602: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1567: 1563: 1552: 1545: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1501: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1431: 1429: 1423: 1419: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1394: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1374: 1369: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1358: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1244: 1230: 1227: 1223: 1218: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1199: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1176: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1141:Steam-powered 1138: 1130: 1125: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1114:tobacco barns 1111: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1082: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 996:upland cotton 993: 984: 979: 970: 968: 964: 960: 955: 951: 948:This type of 946: 944: 943:sharecropping 936: 931: 927: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 864: 860: 855: 851: 849: 844: 840: 836: 832: 827: 819: 814: 810: 808: 804: 800: 796: 787: 782: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 743: 739: 734: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 688: 683: 674: 671: 667: 662: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 639: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 605:construction. 604: 600: 596: 595: 589: 585: 583: 579: 575: 571: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 542: 537: 533: 531: 527: 523: 519: 514: 510: 502: 497: 493: 491: 487: 483: 479: 473: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 452:, milkhouse ( 451: 447: 443: 442:chicken house 439: 435: 432:, washhouse ( 431: 427: 423: 419: 411: 406: 397: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 374: 372: 367: 361: 357: 353: 348: 344: 337: 332: 320: 313: 308: 306: 298: 293: 289: 286: 280: 278: 274: 265: 260: 256: 248: 243: 233: 230: 229:The Hermitage 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 194: 190: 186: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 159: 158:slave quarter 154: 150: 148: 142: 139: 130: 126: 121: 112: 109: 105: 101: 97: 92: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 69: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 40: 35: 28: 24: 20: 16: 6649: 6535: 6528: 6397:Field slaves 6391: 6360:Abolitionism 6294:Cultural and 6285:Bibliography 6120:South Dakota 6110:Rhode Island 6105:Pennsylvania 6085:North Dakota 5750:Sportspeople 5720:Billionaires 5637:Sierra Leone 5540:Philadelphia 5376:Jacksonville 5203:Demographics 5035:Jack Johnson 5025:Muhammad Ali 4858:Conservatism 4793:Black church 4690:Andrew Young 4675:Ida B. Wells 4665:David Walker 4660:C. T. Vivian 4615:Paul Robeson 4610:Hiram Revels 4590:Colin Powell 4570:Barack Obama 4525:James Lawson 4480:Jimi Hendrix 4450:James Farmer 4445:Medgar Evers 4415:Ralph Bunche 4365:Maya Angelou 4339:Middle class 4217:Afrofuturism 4143: 4138: 4131: 4124: 4045: 3990: 3937: 3903:Afrocentrism 3893:Abolitionism 3713:Slave trade 3687:Field slaves 3605: 3535:. Retrieved 3526: 3512: 3494: 3482: 3475: 3468: 3461: 3427: 3423: 3409: 3393: 3384: 3377: 3348: 3322: 3312: 3303:The Guardian 3301: 3291: 3280: 3256: 3251:November 29, 3249:. Retrieved 3230: 3223: 3214: 3210: 3204: 3187: 3183: 3149: 3143: 3137: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3075: 3071: 3065: 3040: 3034: 3028: 3020: 3015: 2986: 2978: 2970: 2965: 2957: 2952: 2940:. Retrieved 2935: 2926: 2907: 2901: 2889:. Retrieved 2885:the original 2859:. Retrieved 2855:the original 2850: 2841: 2829:. Retrieved 2825:the original 2820: 2811: 2799:. Retrieved 2795:the original 2789:Rob Martin. 2784: 2772:. Retrieved 2767: 2758: 2746:. 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Retrieved 1767: 1757: 1733: 1704: 1695: 1616: 1599: 1591:plantations) 1536: 1531:whitewashing 1526: 1522: 1511:Mount Vernon 1504: 1497: 1491: 1474:Mount Vernon 1451: 1425: 1399: 1371: 1370:(1905), and 1367:The Clansman 1365: 1355: 1341: 1336: 1335:, published 1318: 1296: 1289:Robert Fogel 1286: 1263: 1254: 1219: 1212: 1204: 1177: 1173: 1134: 1106: 1087: 1044: 988: 950:debt bondage 947: 940: 916:Gothic spire 868: 823: 791: 735: 711:schoolhouses 692: 663: 650: 640: 608: 592: 578:spring house 574:butter churn 546: 509:laundrywoman 506: 474: 446:spring house 418:outbuildings 415: 400:Kitchen yard 377: 375: 368: 364: 341: 318: 310: 302: 281: 269: 253: 221:Mount Vernon 198: 163: 147:slave cabins 143: 138:emancipation 134: 93: 70: 66:forced labor 43: 15: 6514:Fire-Eaters 6407:Task system 6402:Gang system 6392:Plantations 6195:Puerto Rico 6188:Territories 6035:Mississippi 5950:Connecticut 5770:US senators 5740:Republicans 5725:Journalists 5582:San Antonio 5547:Puerto Rico 5488:Mississippi 5381:Tallahassee 5354:Los Angeles 5045:Jesse Owens 5030:Arthur Ashe 4888:Nationalism 4878:Raised fist 4841:Black power 4746:in medicine 4680:Roy Wilkins 4635:Emmett Till 4620:Al Sharpton 4385:Julian Bond 4380:James Bevel 4344:Upper class 4334:Stereotypes 4227:Black mecca 4139:Plantations 3918:Black Codes 3810:Mississippi 3748:Other labor 3692:House negro 3634:King Cotton 3537:February 1, 3412:. (1929). 3374:Blassingame 3217:(2): 39–73. 2971:Ruling Race 1542:labor camps 1406:punishments 1282:Mississippi 1110:cold frames 920:Frank Wills 651:pigeonniers 594:pigeonniers 526:drying rack 456:), covered 378:garconnière 352:garçonnière 183:Sea Islands 129:Afton Villa 108:staple food 79:. The mild 46:plantations 6771:Categories 6715:Juneteenth 6700:Contraband 6150:Washington 6070:New Mexico 6065:New Jersey 5940:California 5715:Astronauts 5505:New Jersey 5349:California 4853:Capitalism 4650:Nat Turner 4580:Rosa Parks 4565:Diane Nash 4535:John Lewis 4324:Newspapers 4294:Literature 4279:Juneteenth 4232:Businesses 4086:Exodusters 4054:Free Negro 3622:Cash crops 3376:, John W. 1836:August 17, 1687:References 1519:Monticello 1483:lost cause 1443:Monticello 1416:See also: 1380:(1936) by 1274:Black Belt 1272:. 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